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{{short description|Mythical beings in Indian religions}}
{{About|Asura in Indian religions|3=Asura (disambiguation)}}
{{Citation style|date=August 2024}}
[[File:Angkor Wat Dritte Galerie 22 corrected.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Asuras depicted in the [[Samudra Manthana]] bas-relief from [[Angkor Wat]]]]

{{Hinduism}}
{{Buddhism}}

'''Asuras''' ({{Langx|sa|असुर}}) are a class of beings in [[Indian religions]].<ref>A. Sanducci Ancient Scholars about the Turks and the Turkic Nations.  World Scholarly Press 01.05.2022  p. 440</ref> They are described as power-seeking beings related to the more benevolent [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]] (also known as Suras) in [[Hinduism]]. In its [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] context, the word is translated as "[[Titan (mythology)|titan]]," "demigod," or "[[wiktionary:antigod|antigod]]".<ref>Robert Beer. The ''Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols'' Serindia Publications 2003 {{ISBN|978-1-932-47603-3}} page 246</ref>

According to [[Hindu texts]], the asuras are in constant fear of the devas.<ref name="Hale-1998" />{{rp|pages=2–6}} Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman [[Demigod#Hinduism|demigods]] with good or bad qualities. In early Vedic literature, the good Asuras are called ''[[Adityas]]'' and are led by [[Varuna]], while the malevolent ones are called ''[[Danava (Hinduism)|Danavas]]'' and are led by [[Vritra]].<ref name="Hale-1999" />{{rp|page=4}}                                     
In the earliest layer of Vedic texts, [[Agni]], [[Indra]] and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of their being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called ''Devas'', while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods".<ref name="Hale-1999" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Singoji |first=Umamaheshwar |year=2017 |title=Who were Asuras? India and Iran's ancient links |url=https://www.academia.edu/30989587 |website=www.academia.edu }}</ref>

Asuras are part of Hinduism along with [[Yaksha]]s (nature spirits), [[Rakshasa]]s (fierce man-eating beings or demons), [[Bhoot (ghost)|Bhutas]] (ghosts) and [[List of legendary creatures in Hindu mythology|many more]]. Asuras have been featured in many cosmological theories and legends in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].<ref>Don Handelman (2013), ''One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-04-25615-6}}, pages 23–29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7190-1866-4}}, p. 67</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA411|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|page=411 |author=Robert E. Buswell Jr |author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>

==Etymology==

=== Traditional etymologies ===
Asura is a given name by Devas to other races collectively where ''Asura'' means'' not-sura'' (with ''sura'' being another name for Devas).

The 5th century Buddhist philosopher, [[Buddhaghosa]] explains that their name derives from the myth of their defeat at the hands of the god [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]]. According to the story, the asura were dispossessed of their state in [[Trāyastriṃśa]] because they became drunk and were thrown down [[Mount Sumeru]]. After this incident, they vowed never to drink [[Sura (alcoholic drink)|sura]] again. In some Buddhist literature, they are sometimes referred to as ''pūrvadeva'' (Pāli: ''pubbadeva''), meaning "ancient gods."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malalasekera |first1=G.P. |url=http://www.aimwell.org/DPPN/asura.html |title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names |date=2007 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-3020-2 |chapter=Asurā}}</ref>

=== Modern scholarship===
There is a wide consensus in modern scholarship that the Old Indic term Asura is cognate with [[Avestan|Old Iranian]] [[Ahura]], a term desginating a group of supernatural beings which are in conflict with the [[Daeva|Deavas]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hale |first1=Wash Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wN6dz2UZkw4C&q=asura+ahura&pg=PA6 |title=Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion |date=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-0061-8 |page=6 |language=en |access-date=24 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Masih |first1=Y. |title=A Comparative Study of Religions |date=2000 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0815-7 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8E-DSnG_8KYC&q=asura+ahura&pg=PA23 |access-date=24 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyce |first1=Mary |title=A History of Zoroastrianism: The Early Period |date=1989 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-08847-4 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3gfAAAAIAAJ&q=asura+ahura&pg=PA23 |access-date=24 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Both [[Sanskrit]] [[wiktionary:असुर#Sanskrit|असुर]] (asura) and [[Avestan]] [[wiktionary:𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬀#Avestan|𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬀]] (ahura) derive from the common [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-Iranian/Hásuras|hásuras]], with the meaning ''lord''.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=UESUGI, Heindio |editor2=CATT, Adam Alvah |title=Old Avestan Dictionary |series=Asian and African Lexicon |volume=67 |publisher=Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa; Tokyo Language of Foreign Studies |date=2024 |pages=14-15 |isbn=9784863375420 |url=https://tufs.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/2000891?fbclid=IwY2xjawIjxtpleHRuA2FlbQIxMQABHU_wEN8RlNX-wtTxQwPC1vz6TMALFWt3X7LyHH1mKEafRc1LPERE55jYDA_aem_sq4WyS6sHMu9Q84BIgwaug}}</ref> According to Finnish Indologist [[Asko Parpola]], the word ''*hásuras'' was also borrowed from the Proto-Indo-Iranian language into [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]] during an early period of contact, in the form *asera-, likewise with the meaning ''lord'' or ''prince''.<ref name=asko>{{cite book |first=Asko |last=Parpola |year=2015 |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The early Aryans and the Indus civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |ISBN=978-0-19-022692-3 |pages=114-116 }}</ref> The term is also etymologically related to [[Old Norse]] ''[[Æsir]]'', indicating that the Indo-Iranian ''*hásuras'' has an even earlier [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kroonen |first=Guus |url=https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-proto-germanic/page/30/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. |publisher=Brill |year=2013 |isbn=978-90-04-18340-7 |location=Leiden, Boston |pages=30}}</ref> 

[[Monier-Williams]] traces the etymological roots of ''asura'' ({{Langx|sa|असुर|label=none}}) to ''asu'' ({{Langx|sa|असु|label=none}}), which means 'life of the spiritual world' or 'departed spirits'.<ref name=monier>{{cite book |first=Monier |last=Monier-Williams |year=1899 |title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary |quote=Etymologically and philologically arranged to cognate Indo-European languages |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=121 }}</ref>

{{harvp|Monier-Williams|1899}} finds that the oldest verses of Vedic texts (the earliest [[Samhita]] layer), the word ''Asuras'' is used to refer to ''any'' spiritual, divine being, including both those with good or with bad intentions, and with constructive or with destructive inclinations or dispositions.<ref name=monier/> Whereas the late verses of the [[Samhita]] texts instead describe the ''Asuras'' as "evil spirits, demons, and opponents of the {{grey|[sky]}} gods" {{grey|[the [[devas]]<nowiki/>]}}. In this use of ''asura'' it connotes chaos-creating, malevolent, evil faction, in the parts of [[Indo-Aryans#Religion|Indo-Iranian]] mythology centered on the battle between good and evil.<ref name=monier/>

== In Hindu literature ==

=== ''Rig Veda'' ===
Bhargava states the word, ''asura'', including its variants, ''asurya'' and ''asura'', occurs "88&nbsp;times in the ''Rig Veda'', 71&nbsp;times in the singular number, 4&nbsp;times in the dual, 10&nbsp;times in the plural, and 3&nbsp;times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form, ''asuryaa'', is included twice. The word, ''asurya'', has been used 19&nbsp;times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form ''asuratva'' occurs 24&nbsp;times, 22&nbsp;times in one hymn and twice each in two other hymns".<ref name=Bhargava>P.L. Bhargava, ''Vedic Religion and Culture'', South Asia Books, {{ISBN|978-81-246-0006-1}}</ref>

Bhargava<ref name=Bhargava/> gives a count of the word use for every Vedic deity: ''Asura'' is used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In the ''[[Rig Veda]]'', two generous kings – as well as some priests – have been described as ''asuras''. One hymn requests a son who is an ''asura''. In nine hymns, [[Indra]] is described as ''asura''. He is said to possess ''asurya'' 5&nbsp;times, and once he is said to possess ''asuratva''. [[Agni]] has total of 12&nbsp;''asura'' descriptions, [[Varuna]] has 10, [[Mitra]] has 8, and [[Rudra]] has 6.<ref name=Bhargava/> Book&nbsp;1 of the ''Rig Veda'' describes [[Savitr]] (Vedic solar deity) as an ''asura'' who is a "kind leader".<ref name= griffith135/>

{{Quote|
<poem>
हिरण्यहस्तो '''असुरः''' सुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् <nowiki>।
अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ ''Rig Veda''] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>

May he, gold-handed '''Asura''', kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour.
Driving off ''Raksasas'' and ''Yatudhanas'', [he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref name=griffith135>[[Wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 35|Mandala 1, Hymn 35]] Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource</ref>

The golden-handed lord of good guidance, of good grace, of good help—let him drive in our direction.
Repelling demons and sorcerers, the god has taken his place facing evening, while being hymned.
– Translated by Stephanie W. Jamison, Joel P. Brereton<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephanie Jamison |title=The Rigveda – Earliest religious poetry of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-063339-4 |page=142}}</ref>
</poem>
|''Rig Veda'' 1.35.10}}

=== Samaveda ===
In the Jaiminya (3.35.3) – one of three [[recension]]s of the [[Samaveda|SamaVeda]] – the term 'Asura' is stated to be derived from 'rests' (√ram) in the vital airs (asu), i.e. 'Asu' + 'ram' = 'Asuram' (Asura); this is in reference to the mind being 'asura[-like]'.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-592488 |title=The Jāiminīya or Talavakāra Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa |last=Oertel |first=Hanns |year=1896 |publisher=Journal of the American Oriental Society; JSTOR |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jstor-592488/page/n115 193]}}</ref>

=== Mahabharata ===
According to the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (''daivi sampad'') and the demonic qualities (''asuri sampad'') within each.<ref name="fowlergita" /><ref name="chrischapple" /> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name="fowlergita" /> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name="fowlergita">Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-84519-346-1}}, pages 253-262</ref><ref name="chrischapple">Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1-4384-2842-0}}, pages 610-629</ref>

=== Brahmanda Purana ===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Devi defeats Mahasura Folio from a Dispersed Devi Mahatmya Series.jpg|thumb|The [[Mahadevi]] combatting the asura army (right), folio from the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'']]
In the [[Brahmanda Purana]], it is stated the term 'Asura' was used for the [[Daitya]]s due to their rejection of [[Varuni]] (Goddess of Wine) after she emerged from the [[Kshir Sagar|Ocean of Milk]] (i.e. 'a-sura', meaning 'those who do not have ''Sura''', that is, 'wine' or more generally 'liquor').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/BrahmandaPuranaG.V.TagarePart4|title=Brahmanda Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 5|last=G.V.Tagare|pages=[https://archive.org/details/BrahmandaPuranaG.V.TagarePart4/page/n117 1063] (9.66-69)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=sura&direct=au&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Sura'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> However, in other legends, the Asuras accept Varuni (see [[Kurma]]).
===Vishnu Purana===
According to the Vishnu Purana, during the [[Samudra manthan|Samudra Manthana]] or the "churning of the ocean", the [[daitya]]s came to be known as ''asuras'' because they rejected [[Varuni]], the goddess of ''sura'' "wine", while the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s accepted her and came to be known as suras.<ref name="dalal">Roshen Dalal (2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, p.46. Penguin Books India. {{ISBN|0-14-341421-6}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&dq=kashyapa+asura+deva+purana&pg=PA46]</ref>

===Shiva Purana===
[[Alain Daniélou]] states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.<ref name="dalal"/><ref name="Alain">Alain Daniélou (1991). ''The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series'', [https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/141 pp. 141–142]. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. {{ISBN|0-89281-354-7}}.</ref>

The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.<ref name="dalal"/><ref name="Alain"/>

Alain Daniélou states that the concept of ''asuras'' evolved with changing socio-political dynamics in ancient India. Asuras gradually assimilated the demons, spirits, and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people, and this created the myths of the malevolent ''asuras'' and the ''[[rakshasa]]''. The allusions to the disastrous wars between the ''asuras'' and the ''suras'', found in the Puranas and the epics, may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India.<ref name="Alain"/>

==Context==
Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''asura'' concept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on ''Asura'' concept are those of [[F. B. J. Kuiper|F.B.J. Kuiper]], W. Norman Brown, Haug, von&nbsp;Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar, and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, S.C. Roy, Kumaraswamy, [[R. Shamasastry|Shamasastry]], Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, [[Hermann Oldenberg]], Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and [[Jan Gonda]].<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=1–37}}

Kuiper calls ''Asuras'' a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.<ref name=kuiper>{{cite book |first=F.B.J. |last=Kuiper |author-link=F. B. J. Kuiper |year=1975 |title=The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion |series=History of Religion |volume=15 |pages=108–112 }}</ref> Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky, and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of ''Devas'', the underworld becomes that of ''Asuras''. The god  [[Indra]] is the embodiment of good and represents the Devas, while the dragon Vrtra is the embodiment of evil and an Asura.<ref name=kuiper/> During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter continue to be called Asuras. This is the first major [[Dualistic cosmology|dualism]] to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.<ref name=kuiper/><ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=1–2}} {{harvp|Hale|1999}}, in his review,<ref name=Hale-1999/> states that Kuiper's theory on Asura is plausible, but weak, because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an ''Asura'', as the text ''does'' describe many other powerful beings.<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|page=3}} Secondly, ''Rig Veda'' never explicitly classifies ''Asura'' as a "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|page=3}}

Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense of ''Devas'', the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pp=2–4, 10}} Asuras are non-believers of God and believe in their own powers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bahadur |first=Om Lata |year=1996 |title=The Book of Hindu Festivals and Ceremonies |edition=3rd |isbn=81-86112-23-5 |publisher=UBS Publishers Distributors |location=New Delhi, IN |page=[https://archive.org/details/bookofhindufesti0000baha/page/168 168] |url=https://archive.org/details/bookofhindufesti0000baha/page/168 }}</ref>

Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as being similar in concept to the [[Twelve Olympians]] and the [[titan (mythology)|titans]] of Greek mythology: Both are powerful, but have different orientations and inclinations – in Hindu mythology the Devas represent the powers of light and the Asuras represent the powers of darkness.<ref name=Coomarswmy-1935>{{cite journal |first=Ananda |last=Coomaraswamy |year=1935 |title=Angel and titan: An essay in Vedic ontology |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=373–374 |doi=10.2307/594758 |jstor=594758 }}</ref><ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|page=20}} According to {{harvp|Coomaraswamy|1935|p=374}} "the titan [Asura] is potentially an angel [Deva], the angel still by nature a titan" in Hinduism.<ref name=Gier>{{cite journal |first=Nicholas |last=Gier |year=1995 |title=Hindu titanism |journal=[[Philosophy East and West]] |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=73–96, esp.&nbsp;76 |doi=10.2307/1399510 |jstor=1399510 }}</ref>

===Indo-Aryan context===
In the 19th century, Haug pioneered the idea that the term ''Asura'' is linguistically related to the [[Ahura]]s of Indo-Aryan people and pre-[[Zoroastrianism]] era. In both religions, ''Ahura'' of pre-Zoroastrianism (''Asura'' of Indian religions), Vouruna (Varuna) and ''Daeva'' (''Deva'') are found, but their roles are on opposite sides.<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pp=3–8}} That is, ''Ahura'' evolves to represent the good in pre-[[Zoroastrianism]], while ''Asura'' evolves to represent the bad in Vedic religion; where ''Daeva'' evolves to represent the bad in pre-[[Zoroastrianism]], while ''Deva'' evolves to represent the good in Vedic religion. These contrary roles have led some scholars to infer that there may have been wars between proto-Indo-European communities, and that adapted their gods and demons to reflect their social differences.<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=23–31}} This idea was thoroughly researched and reviewed by Peter von&nbsp;Bradke in 1885.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=von&nbsp;Bradke |orig-year=1885 |year=2010 |title=Dyaus Asuras, Ahura Mazda, und die Asuras |lang=de |publisher=Max Niemeyer (1885) / Nabu Press (2010) |edition=reprint |isbn=978-1-141-63225-1 }}</ref><ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=5–8}}

The relationship between ''ahura''s / ''asura''s and ''daeva''s / ''deva''s in Indo-Aryan times, was discussed at length by F.B.J. Kuiper.<ref>{{cite book |first=F.B.J. |last=Kuiper |author-link=F. B. J. Kuiper |year=1983 |title=Ancient Indian Cosmogony |place=Bombay, IN |isbn=0-7069-1370-1 }}</ref> This theory and other Avesta-related hypotheses developed over the 20th&nbsp;century, are all now in question, particularly for lack of archaeological evidence.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Herrenschmidt |first1=Clarisse |author-link1=Clarisse Herrenschmidt |last2=Kellens |first2=Jean |year=1993 |title=*Daiva |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=6 |pages=599–602 |publisher=Mazda |place=Costa Mesa, CA}}</ref><ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=5–8, 12, 15, 18–19, 37}} Asko Parpola has re-opened this debate by presenting archaeological and linguistic evidence, but notes that the links may go earlier to [[Uralic languages]] roots.<ref name=askoahuraasera>{{cite book |first=Asko |last=Parpola |year=2015 |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The early Aryans and the Indus civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-022692-3 |pages=66–67, 82–109 }}</ref>

===Relation to Germanic deities===
{{main|Æsir}}
Some scholars such as Asko Parpola suggest that the word ''Asura'' may be related to proto-Uralic and proto-Germanic history. The Aesir-Asura correspondence is the relation between Vedic Sanskrit ''Asura'' and Old Norse ''[[Æsir]]'' and Proto-Uralic *''asera'', all of which mean 'lord, powerful spirit, god'.<ref name=askoahuraasera/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Douglas |last=Adams |year=1997 |title=King |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-884964-98-5 |page=330 }}</ref> Parpola states that the correspondence extends beyond Asera / Asura, and extends to a host of parallels such as Inmar-Indra, Sampas-Stambha and many other elements of respective mythologies.<ref name=askoahuraasera/>

==Characteristics==
In the earliest Vedic literature, all [[supernatural being]]s are called [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]s<ref name="monier"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/deva-religious-being |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |title=Deva |via=britannica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |via=Google Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&q=deva+in+vedic+india&pg=PA147 |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |first1=Charles Russell |last1=Coulter |first2=Patricia |last2=Turner |date = 4 July 2013|page=147| publisher=Routledge |isbn = 978-1-135-96390-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=George |last=Williams |year=2008 |title=A Handbook of Hindu Mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533261-2 |pages=90, 112}}</ref> and Asuras.<ref name=Hale-1999>{{cite book |first=Wash Edward |last=Hale |year=1999 |title=Ásura in Early Vedic Religion |publisher=Motilal Barnarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0061-8}}</ref>{{rp|pages=5–11, 22, 99–102}} A much-studied hymn of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' states ''Devav asura'' (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with ''Asura adevah'' (Asuras who are not Devas).<ref name=kuiper/>{{refn|''see'' Hale (1999).<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=1–2}} Note that Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book (see page&nbsp;3 for example).<br/>The original Sanskrit text of hymns 8.25.4, 8.96.9 from the ''[[Rigveda]]'' is available on Wikisource.<ref>{{cite book |title=ऋग्वेदः मण्डल ८ |trans-title=Rig Veda |at=hymns 8.25.4, 8.96.9 |series=[[Rigveda]] |via=Wikisource |url=https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेदः_मण्डल_८}}</ref>}} Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (''Prajapati''), share the same residence (''Loka''), eat together the same food and drinks (''Soma''), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.<ref name=Gier/><ref name=yves>{{cite book |first1=Yves |last1=Bonnefoy |first2=Wendy |last2=Doniger |year=1993 |title=Asian Mythologies |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-06456-7 |pages=52–53}}</ref>

"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill-gotten ''Soma'', and for wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force, and violence.<ref name=gierasurach/><ref name=stellaray/> Further, in Hindu mythology, when they lose, miss, or don't get what they want (because they were distracted by their cravings) the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge, and attack the "Asuras who became Devas" to loot or extract a portion of what the Devas have and the Asuras do not.<ref name=gierasurach>{{cite journal |first=Nicholas |last=Gier |year=1995 |title=Hindu titanism |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=76–80 |doi=10.2307/1399510 |jstor=1399510 }}</ref><ref name=stellaray>{{cite book |first1=Stella |last1=Kramrisch |first2=Raymond |last2=Burnier |year=1986 |title=The Hindu Temple |volume=1 |pages=75–78 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0223-0}}</ref>

The hostility between the two groups is the source of extensive legends, tales, and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms – without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.<ref name=yves/> Some of these tales constitute the background of major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the [[Ramayana]], and the legend of Asura [[Hiranyakashipu]] and Deva Vishnu as [[Narasimha]],<ref name=yves/> the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of [[Holika]] and [[Holi]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Wendy |editor-last=Doniger |year=2000 |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=455}}</ref>

In Buddhist mythology, while all the gods of the Kāmadhātu are subject to passions to some degree, the asuras above all are addicted to them, especially wrath, pride, envy, insincerity, falseness, boasting, and bellicosity. The asuras are said to experience a much more pleasurable life than humans, but they are plagued by envy for the devas, whom they can see just as animals perceive humans.{{cn|date=March 2021}}

==Symbolism==

Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.<ref>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466</ref><ref>Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10758-8}}, pages 130-131</ref> In the [[Upanishad]]s, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.<ref name=edelmann14/> Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.<ref name=edelmann14/> Similar dichotomies are present in the [[Purana]]s literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.<ref name=edelmann14/> Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".<ref name=edelmann14>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441</ref>

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.<ref name=edelmann13/> In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as [[Mahabali]] and [[Prahlada]], conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.<ref name=edelmann13>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442</ref>

==Asuri==

Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means 'belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits'.<ref>American Oriental Society (1852). Proceedings (American Oriental Society) 1874-1893, p.xv</ref> Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.<ref>Coburn, Thomas B. (1988). Devī-Māhātmya, p.200. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. {{ISBN|81-208-0557-7}}</ref> The term Asuri also means a [[Rakshasa|Rakshasi]] in Indian texts.<ref>[[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] (1990). The Jyotiṣṭoma Ritual: Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa I, 66-364, p.265. Volume 34 of Orientalia Rheno-traiectina. {{ISBN|90-04-09120-3}}</ref><ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=&nbsp;120–133}}

The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against [[leprosy]].<ref>Shende, N.J. (1967). Kavi and kāvya in the Atharvaveda, p. 22. Issue 1 of Publications of the Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, University of Poona</ref><ref name="garg">Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: Ar-Az, p.751. Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept Publishing Company. {{ISBN|81-7022-373-3}}</ref>

{{Quote|
<poem>
First, before all, the strong-winged Bird was born, thou wast the gall thereof.
Conquered in fight, the '''Asuri''' took then the shape and form of plants.
The Asuri made, first of all, this medicine for leprosy, this banisher of leprosy.
She banished leprosy, and gave one general colour to the skin.
</poem>
|A charm against leprosy, Atharva Veda, Hymn 1.24|<ref name=griffith124>[https://archive.org/stream/hymnsatharvaved00unkngoog#page/n52/mode/2up Hymns of the Atharva Veda], [[Ralph T. H. Griffith]] (Translator), Luzac and Co., London, pages 28-29</ref>}}

In Book 7, ''Asuri'' is a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs, who uses that knowledge to seduce Deva [[Indra]] in Atharva Veda. A hymn invokes this special power in ''Asuri'', and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants.<ref name=griffith738/>

{{Quote|
<poem>
I dig this Healing Herb that makes my lover look on me and weep,
That bids the parting friend return and kindly greets him as he comes.
This Herb wherewith the '''Asuri''' drew Indra downward from the Gods,
With this same Herb I draw thee close that I may be most dear to thee.

Thou art the peer of Soma, yea, thou art the equal of the Sun,
The peer of all the Gods art thou: therefore we call thee hitherward.
I am the speaker here, not thou: speak thou where the assembly meets.
Thou shalt be mine and only mine, and never mention other dames.

If thou art far away beyond the rivers, far away from men,
This Herb shall seem to bind thee fast and bring thee back my prisoner.
</poem>
|A maiden's love-charm, [[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]], Hymn 7.38|<ref name=griffith738>[https://archive.org/stream/hymnsatharvaved00unkngoog#page/n368/mode/2up Hymns of the Atharva Veda], Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator), Luzac and Co., London, page 344</ref>}}

Similarly, in the Atharva Veda, all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals.<ref name=Hale-1999/>{{rp|pages=&nbsp;120–133}} Asuri Kalpa is an ''abhichara'' (craft) which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri.<ref>Magoun, Herbert William (1889). The Āsurī-Kalpa: a witchcraft practice of the Atharva-Veda</ref><ref>Goudriaan, Teun & Gupta, Sanjukta (1981). Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, p.114. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. {{ISBN|3-447-02091-1}}</ref>

==Buddhism==
[[File:ASURA detail Kohfukuji.JPG|thumb|Asura at Kofukuji, a Buddhist temple in Nara, Japan|258x258px]]
{{Main|Asura (Buddhism)}}
Asuras ({{langx|xct|ལྷ་མིན|translit=lha min}}; {{lang-zh|t=阿修羅|s=阿修罗|p=āxiūluó}}; {{langx|ja|阿修羅|translit=ashura, asura}}) are a type of supernatural beings (antigods, demigods, or titans) in traditional [[Buddhist cosmology]] and a [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|realm of rebirth]] based on one's [[karma]] in current or past lives.<ref>{{cite book|author=Norman C. McClelland|title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC |year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5675-8|pages=32–34, 136 }}</ref> They are described in Buddhist texts as creatures who live in lower levels of mount Sumeru, obsessed with sensuous aspects of existence, living with jealousy, and endlessly engaged in wars against the creatures who are ''Devas'' (gods).<ref name=buswell76/> As Buddhism spread into East Asia and Southeast Asia, the Asura concept of Indian Buddhism expanded and integrated local pre-existing deities as a part of regional Buddhist pantheon.<ref name=buswell76>{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |year=2013| publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|page=76}}</ref>

=== Asura realm ===
The asura realm is one of the realms in which one can be reborn as a result of experiencing the [[Phala|fruits]] of wholesome karma, while engaging in unwholesome karma. Generally, the [[desire realm]] is recognized as consisting of five realms and the realm of the asuras tends to be included among the deva realms, but the addition of the asuras in the six-world [[bhavacakra]] was created in Tibet at the authority of [[Je Tsongkhapa]].

=== Deva-Asura War ===
The asuras were dispossessed of their state in [[Trāyastriṃśa]] because they became drunk and were thrown down [[Mount Sumeru]] by the bodhisatta, as mentioned in [[Jataka tales|Jatakas]]. This led to ever lasting war between the [[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] of Tavatimsa and Asuras.

=== Asurendra ===
In Buddhism, the leaders of the asuras are called ''asurendra'' (Pāli: Asurinda, 阿修羅王; lit. "Asura-lord"). There are several of these, as the asuras are broken into different tribes or factions. In Pali texts, names that are found include ''[[Vemacitrin|Vepacitti]]'', ''[[Rahu|Rāhu]]'' (''Verocana''), ''Pahārāda'', ''[[Shambara|Sambara]]'', ''[[Mahabali|Bali]]'', ''Sucitti'', and ''[[Mara (demon)|Namucī]]''. According to the [[Lotus Sutra]], the four leaders of the asuras took refuge in the Buddha after hearing his sermon.

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Ahura]]
*[[Ashur (god)|Ashur]]
*[[Aswang]]
*[[Sooranporu]]
*[[List of Asuras]]
**[[Daitya]]s
**[[Danava (Hinduism)|Danava]]s
**[[Kalakeyas]]
**[[Nivatakavacha|Nivātakavaca]]s
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Asuras}}
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061926 The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion], FBJ Kuiper, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov., 1975), pages 107-120
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/594460 The Creation Myth of the Rig Veda], W Norman Brown, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 2 (June, 1942), pages 85–98
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41688830 Asura Varuna], RN Dandekar, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 21, No. 3/4 (1939–40), pages 157-191
*[http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/VedicJapan.pdf The Vedic Gods of Japan], S Kak (2004), (a discussion of ''Asuras'' in Japanese mythology)

{{HinduMythology}}

[[Category:Asura| ]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Types of deities]]