View source for Australian funnel-web spider

{{short description|Family of mygalomorph spiders}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = 
| image = Hadronyche infensa 270070581.jpg
| image_caption = ''Hadronyche infensa''
| image2 = AustralianMuseum spider specimen 05.JPG
| image2_caption = ''Atrax sutherlandi''
| taxon = Atracidae
| authority = [[Henry Roughton Hogg|Hogg]], 1901
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = {{linked genus list
  |''[[Atrax]]''|O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1877
  |''[[Hadronyche]]''|L. Koch, 1873
  |''[[Illawarra wisharti|Illawarra]]''|Gray, 2010}}
| range_map = Atracidae distribution map.png
| diversity = [[#Genera|3 genera]], [[List of Atracidae species|36 species]]
}}

'''Atracidae''' is a [[Family (biology)|family]] of [[Mygalomorphae|mygalomorph]] [[spider]]s, commonly known as '''Australian funnel-web spiders''' or '''atracids'''. It has been included as a subfamily of the [[Hexathelidae]], but is now recognised as a separate family.<ref name=WSC_f124 /> All members of the family are native to [[Australia]].<ref name=WSC_f124 /><ref name=ausmus /> Atracidae consists of three genera: ''[[Atrax]]'', ''[[Hadronyche]]'', and ''[[Illawarra wisharti|Illawarra]]'', comprising 35 species.<ref name=WSC_f124 /> Some members of the family produce [[venom]] that is dangerous to humans, and bites by spiders of six of the species have caused severe injuries to victims. The bites of the [[Sydney funnel-web spider]] (''Atrax robustus'') and northern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider (''[[Hadronyche formidabilis]]'') are potentially deadly, but no fatalities have occurred since the introduction of modern first-aid techniques and [[antivenom]].<ref name="fix1" />

==Description==
Spiders in the family Atracidae are medium to large in size, with body lengths ranging from {{convert|1|to|5|cm|in|abbr=on}}, with one exceptional specimen reaching {{convert|8|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="fix2" /> They have a hairless carapace covering the front part of their bodies. Some atracids have relatively long [[Spinneret (spider)|spinnerets]]; this is especially true of the Sydney funnel-web spider (''A. robustus''). Males have a large mating spur projecting from the middle of their second pair of legs.<ref name=ausmus />
Like other [[Mygalomorphae]] – an [[infraorder]] of [[spider]]s that includes the tropical [[tarantula]]s<ref name="fix3" /> – these spiders have [[fang]]s that point straight down the body and do not point towards each other (cf. [[Araneomorphae]]). They have ample venom glands that lie entirely within their [[chelicerae]]. Their fangs are large and powerful, capable of penetrating fingernails and soft shoes.<ref name="fix4" />

Australian funnel-web spiders make their burrows in moist, cool, sheltered habitats – under rocks, in and under rotting logs, and some in rough-barked trees (occasionally meters above ground). They are commonly found in suburban rockeries and shrubberies, rarely in lawns or other open terrain. A burrow characteristically has irregular silk trip-lines radiating from the entrance.<ref name=ausmus /> Unlike some related [[trapdoor spider]]s, they do not build lids to their burrows.

==Distribution==
The primary range of the Australian funnel-web spiders is the eastern coast of Australia, with specimens found in [[New South Wales]], [[South Australia]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Tasmania]] and [[Queensland]].<ref name=ausmus /><ref name=csiro1 /> The only Australian states or territories without members of this family are Western Australia<ref name="fix5" /> and the Northern Territory.

==Taxonomy==
The first atracid spider to be described was ''[[Hadronyche cerberea]]'', by [[Carl Ludwig Koch]] in 1873. [[Octavius Pickard-Cambridge]] described another atracid species, ''A. robustus'', four years later. For a considerable time, confusion existed as to the limits of the genera ''Hadronyche'' and ''Atrax'', not helped by the destruction of the type specimens of ''Hadronyche cerberea'' during World War II. In 1980, [[Robert J. Raven]] merged the two genera under ''Atrax''. In 1988, [[Michael R. Gray]] separated them again, and in 2010, added a third genus, ''[[Illawarra wisharti|Illawarra]]''.<ref name=ausmus />

The family placement of the group has varied. In 1892, [[Eugène Simon]] placed ''Atrax'' and ''Hadronyche'' in the family [[Dipluridae]]. In 1901, [[Henry Roughton Hogg|Henry R. Hogg]] considered them to be sufficiently distinctive to form a separate group, which he called "Atraceae"<ref name=Hogg01 /> – the basis of the modern family name Atracidae. When in the 1980s, [[Robert Raven|Raven]] elevated part of [[Eugène Simon|Simon]]'s Dipluridae to the family [[Hexathelidae]], he included the atracine group. [[Molecular phylogenetics|Molecular phylogenetic studies]] consistently threw doubt on the [[monophyly]] of the Hexathelidae.<ref name=ausmus /><ref name=WheeCoddCrowDimi16 /> In 2018, the group was restored to a full family as Atracidae. The following [[cladogram]] shows the relationship found between Atracidae and related taxa. Its sister taxon is [[Actinopodidae]].<ref name=HediDerkRamiVink18 />

{{clade|style=line-height:100%
|1={{clade
   |1=Dipluridae|state1=double
   |2={{clade
      |1=[[Hexathelidae]]
      |2={{clade
         |1=[[Porrhothelidae]]
         |2={{clade
            |1=[[Macrothelidae]]
            |2={{clade
               |1={{clade
                  |1=''[[Calisoga]]'' (Nemesiidae)
                  |2=''[[Hebestatis]]'' (Halonoproctidae)
                  }}
               |2={{clade
                  |1='''Atracidae'''
                  |2=[[Actinopodidae]]
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

==Genera==
{{as of|2025|10}}, this family includes three genera:<ref name="wsc" />
{{Div col}}
* ''[[Atrax]]'' <small>[[Octavius Pickard-Cambridge|O. Pickard-Cambridge]], 1877</small> – [[Australia]]
* ''[[Hadronyche]]'' <small>[[Ludwig Carl Christian Koch|L. Koch]], 1873</small> – Australia
* ''[[Illawarra]]'' <small>Gray, 2010</small> – Australia
{{Div col end}}

{{anchor|Venom}}<!--for the following section-->

==Medical significance==
<!--An anchor is placed above this heading; please keep with it if you move the section-->
Australian funnel-web spiders are one of the most medically significant groups of spiders in the world and are regarded by some to be the most deadly, both in terms of clinical cases and venom toxicity.<ref name="MJA2005-Isbister" /><ref name="Vetter" /> Six species have caused severe injuries to human victims: the Sydney funnel-web spider (''[[Sydney funnel-web spider|Atrax robustus]]''), the northern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider (''[[Hadronyche formidabilis]]''), the southern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider (''[[Hadronyche cerberea|H. cerberea]]''),<ref name="lancet" /> the Blue Mountains funnel-web spider (''[[Hadronyche versuta|H. versuta]]''), the Darling Downs funnel-web spider (''[[Hadronyche infensa|H. infensa]]''), and the Port Macquarie funnel-web spider (''[[Hadronyche macquariensis|H. macquariensis]]'').

Examination of [[Spider bite|bite]] records has implicated wandering males in most, if not all, fatal Australian funnel-web spider bites to humans. Adult males, recognised by the modified terminal segment of the [[Pedipalp|palp]], tend to wander during the warmer months of the year, looking for receptive females for mating.<ref name="fix6" /> They are attracted to water, hence are often found in swimming pools, into which they often fall while wandering. The spiders can survive immersion in water for several hours and can deliver a bite when removed from the water.<ref name=gray /> They also show up in garages and yards in suburban Sydney. Contrary to a commonly held belief, Australian funnel-web spiders are not able to jump, although they can run quickly.<ref name=gray />

While some very venomous spiders do not always inject venom when they bite, these spiders most often do.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009|reason=Give dry bites more frequently, or less frequently?}} The volume of venom delivered to large animals is often small, possibly due to the angle of the fangs, which are not horizontally opposed, and because contact is often brief before the spider is brushed off. About 10 to 25% of bites are claimed to produce significant toxicity,<ref name="MJA2005-Isbister" /> but the likelihood cannot be predicted and all bites should be treated as potentially life-threatening.

Bites from Sydney funnel-web spiders have caused 13 documented deaths (seven in children).<ref name="MJA2005-Isbister" /> In all cases where the sex of the biting spider could be determined, it was found to be the male of the species.<ref name="ClinExp2002-Nicholson" /> One member of the genus ''Hadronyche'', the northern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider, has also been claimed to cause fatal envenomation,<ref name=csiro1 /> but to date, this lacks the support of a specific medical report. Assays of venom from several ''Hadronyche'' species have shown it to be similar to ''Atrax'' venom.

In 2021 researchers from the [[University of Queensland]] announced that the venom from funnel-web spiders found on [[Fraser Island]] contains the molecule [[Hi1a]] that could block the cell death message after a heart attack, protecting the heart after major injury and potentially preventing or minimising muscle damage.<ref name="fix7" />

===Toxins===
Many different [[toxin]]s are found in the venom of ''Atrax'' and ''Hadronyche'' spiders. Collectively, these [[spider toxin]]s are given the name atracotoxins (ACTX), as all these spiders belong to the family Atracidae. The first toxins isolated were the [[Delta atracotoxin|δ-ACTX toxins]] present in the venom of both ''A. robustus'' (δ-ACTX-Ar1, formerly known as [[robustoxin]] or atracotoxin) and ''H. versuta'' (δ-ACTX-Hv1a, formerly known as [[versutoxin]]). Both of these toxins produce the same effects in monkeys as those seen in humans, suggesting that they are responsible for the physiological effects seen with crude venom.<ref name="ClinExp2002-Nicholson" />

[[File:Atrax robustus.jpg|thumb|Female Sydney funnel-web spider (''A. robustus'') in a warning posture]]
These toxins are thought to induce spontaneous, repetitive firing and prolongation of action potentials, resulting in continuous acetylcholine neurotransmitter release from somatic and autonomic [[presynaptic]] nerve endings. This leads to slower [[voltage-gated sodium channel]] inactivation and a hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage-dependence of activation. This in turn inhibits neurally mediated transmitter release, resulting in a surge of endogenous [[acetylcholine]], [[noradrenaline]], and [[adrenaline]].<ref name="fix8" />

Although extremely toxic to primates, the venom appears to be fairly harmless to many other animals. These animals may be resistant to the venom's effects due to the presence of [[Immunoglobulin G|IgG]], and possibly cross-linked IgG and [[IgM]] inactivating factors in their [[blood plasma]] that bind to the toxins responsible and neutralise them.<ref name="fix9" />

The female's venom was thought to be only about a sixth as potent to humans as that of the male's.<ref name="fix10" /><ref name="fix11" /> The bite of a female or juvenile may still be serious, but considerable variability occurs in venom toxicity between species, together with assumed degrees of inefficiency in the method of venom delivery.

===Symptoms===
Envenomation symptoms observed following bites by these spiders are very similar. The bite is initially very painful, due to the size of the fangs penetrating the skin.<ref name="lancet" /> Puncture marks and local bleeding are also usually visible. If substantial envenomation occurs, symptoms generally occur within minutes and progress rapidly.

Early symptoms of systemic envenomation include [[goose bumps]], [[Perspiration|sweating]], [[Paresthesia|tingling around the mouth and tongue]], [[Fasciculation|twitching]] (initially facial and [[Intercostal muscle|intercostal]]), salivation, [[Lacrimation|watery eyes]], [[Tachycardia|elevated heart rate]], and [[Hypertension|elevated blood pressure]]. As systemic envenomation progresses, symptoms include [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], [[dyspnoea|shortness of breath]] (caused by airway obstruction), [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]], [[confusion]], writhing, grimacing, [[muscle spasm]]s, [[pulmonary oedema]] (of [[neurogenic]] or hypertensive origin), [[metabolic acidosis]], and extreme hypertension. The final stages of severe envenomation include [[Mydriasis|dilation of the pupils]] (often [[Blown pupil|fixed]]), uncontrolled generalised muscle twitching, [[unconsciousness]], elevated [[intracranial pressure]], and death. Death generally is a result of progressive [[hypotension]] or possibly elevated intracranial pressure consequent on [[cerebral oedema]].<ref name="MJA2005-Isbister" /><ref name="UoS" /><ref name="fix12" />

The onset of severe envenomation can be rapid. In one prospective study, the median time to onset of envenomation was 28 minutes, with only two cases having onset after two hours (both had pressure immobilisation bandages applied).<ref name="MJA2005-Isbister" /> Death may occur within a period ranging from 15 minutes<ref name="ClinExp2002-Nicholson" /> (this occurred when a small child was bitten) to three days.

===Treatment===
Owing to the severity of symptoms, and the speed with which they progress, in areas where these spiders are known to live, all bites from large, black spiders should be treated as though they were caused by Australian funnel-web spiders. First-aid<ref name="fix13" /> treatment for a suspected Australian funnel-web spider bite consists of immediately applying a [[Pressure immobilisation technique|pressure immobilization]]<ref name="fix14" /> bandage; a technique which consists of wrapping the bitten limb with a crepe bandage, as well as applying a [[Splint (medicine)|splint]] to limit movement of the limb. This technique was originally developed for [[snakebite]]s, but has also been shown to be effective at slowing venom movement and preventing systemic envenomation in case of an Australian funnel-web spider bite. Some evidence suggests that periods of prolonged localisation may slowly inactivate the venom.<ref name="UoS" /><ref name="fix15" />

Further supportive care may be necessary, but the mainstay of treatment is antivenom. Venom from the male Sydney funnel-web spider (''A. robustus'') is used in producing the antivenom, but it appears to be effective against the venom of all species of atracids.<ref name="fix16" /> Australian funnel-web spider antivenom has also been shown, ''in vitro'', to reverse the effects of eastern [[mouse spider]] (''Missulena bradleyi'') venom.<ref name="fix17" />

Before the introduction of antivenom, envenomation resulted in significant morbidity and mortality.<ref name="fix18" /> The purified rabbit [[Immunoglobulin G|IgG]] antivenom was developed in 1981 through a team effort led by Dr. [[Struan Sutherland]], head of immunology at the [[CSL Limited|Australian Commonwealth Serum Laboratories]] in [[Melbourne]].<ref name="fix19" /> The antivenom is fast-acting and highly and globally effective.<ref name="fix20" /> Antivenom therapy has shortened the course of envenomation effects; prior to its availability, the average length of hospital treatment for severe bites was about 14 days. Today, antivenom-treated patients are commonly discharged from hospital within one to three days.<ref name="ClinExp2002-Nicholson" /> No deaths are known since it became available.<ref name="MJA2005-Isbister" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
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}}

==External links==
* {{inaturalist taxon}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031208183121/http://www.arachnology.org/Arachnology/Pages/Araneae.html Arachnology Home Pages: Araneae]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060415075002/http://www.arachnology.org/Arachnology/Pages/Atrax.html Arachnology Home Pages: Atrax]
* [[Norman I. Platnick|Platnick]], [http://research.amnh.org/entomology/spiders/catalog81-87/index.html N.I. 2003. World Spider Catalog]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050515232341/http://www.amonline.net.au/factsheets/funnelweb.htm Funnel-web spider info]
* [http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/species-bank/sbank-treatment.pl?id=75618 Information, distribution and pictures of ''A. robustus'']
* [http://ednieuw.home.xs4all.nl/australian/Mygalomorphae/Mygalomorphae.htm Australian Mygalomorphae or primitive spiders]

{{Taxonbar|from1=Q52687525|from2=Q98807}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Australian Funnel-Web Spider}}
[[Category:Spiders of Australia]]
[[Category:Mygalomorphae families]]
[[Category:Atracidae| ]]
[[Category:Spiders described in 1901]]