View source for Austro-Prussian War

{{Short description|1866 war in Europe}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| image             = [[File:Schlacht-bei-koeniggraetz-von-georg-bleibtreu.jpg|300px|alt=An oil painting of a battlefield, with several mounted cavalry in black; an indistinct city burning on the horizon.]]
| caption           = ''[[Battle of Königgrätz]]'' by [[Georg Bleibtreu]]. Oil on canvas, 1869.
| partof            = the wars of [[Unification of Germany|German unification]] and the [[Austro-Prussian rivalry|Austria–Prussia rivalry]]
| conflict          = Austro-Prussian War
| date              = 14 June – 22 July 1866<br/>({{Age in years, months and days|1866|6|14|1866|7|22}})
| place             = [[German Confederation]] (South and Central Germany, [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]), [[Kingdom of Hungary]], [[Northern Italy]], [[Adriatic Sea]]
| result            = [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]]-led German states and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian]] victory
* [[Peace of Prague (1866)|Dissolution]] of the [[German Confederation]]
* [[North German Confederation Treaty|Formation]] of the [[North German Confederation]]
* [[German question|Exclusion]] of Austria from German national politics
* [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867|Formation]] of [[Austria-Hungary]]
| territory         = * Prussia annexes [[Kingdom of Hanover|Hanover]], [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]], [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]], [[Electorate of Hesse|Hesse-Kassel]], [[Duchy of Nassau|Nassau]], [[Free City of Frankfurt|Frankfurt]] and fringe possessions of [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and [[Grand Duchy of Hesse|Hesse-Darmstadt]] 
* Italy completely annexes [[Veneto|Venetia]] and a part of [[Friuli]]
| combatant1        = '''{{flagicon|Prussia|1803}} [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]'''
*[[File:Flag_of_Lauenburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Saxe-Lauenburg]]
[[File:Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Mecklenburg-Schwerin]]<br/>{{flagicon|Brunswick}} [[Duchy of Brunswick|Brunswick]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha (1911-1920).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Saxe-Coburg & Gotha]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha (1826-1911).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg|Saxe-Altenburg]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]<br/>[[File:Flag_of_Oldenburg_(Scandinavian_Cross).svg|22px|border|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Oldenburg|Oldenburg]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Herzogtum Anhalt.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Anhalt|Anhalt]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Schwarzburg Sondershausen.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Schwarzburg-Sondershausen|Schwarzburg]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Germany.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Waldeck (state)|Waldeck]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Fürstentum Lippe.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Lippe|Lippe]]<br/>[[File:Flag of the Free City of Lübeck.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Free City of Lübeck|Lübeck]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Bremen (middle arms).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Hamburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Hamburg]]<hr/>'''{{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]]''' ([[Third Italian War of Independence|co-belligerent]])
| combatant2        = '''{{flag|Austrian Empire|name=Austria}}'''<br/>{{flag|Kingdom of Bavaria|name=Bavaria}}<br/>{{flag|Kingdom of Saxony|name=Saxony}}<br/>{{flag|Kingdom of Hanover|name=Hanover}}<br/>{{flag|Württemberg|name=Württemberg}}<br/>{{flagicon|Hesse}} [[Electorate of Hesse|Hesse-Kassel]]<br/>{{flag|Baden|1871}}<br/>[[File:Flagge Großherzogtum Hessen ohne Wappen.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Hesse|Hesse-Darmstadt]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Herzogtum Nassau (1806-1866).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Nassau|Nassau]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Saxe-Meiningen (1826).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen|Saxe-Meiningen]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Fürstentum Reuß ältere Linie.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Reuss-Greiz|Reuss-Greiz]]<br/>[[File:Flagge Fürstentum Schaumburg-Lippe.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe|Schaumburg-Lippe]]<br/>[[File:Flagge der Freien Stadt Frankfurt.png|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Free City of Frankfurt|Frankfurt]]<br/>{{country|Liechtenstein|1852}}
| commander1        = {{plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|Prussia|1803}} [[William I, German Emperor|Wilhelm I]]
* {{flagicon|Prussia|1803}} [[Otto von Bismarck]]
* {{flagicon|Prussia|1803}} [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder|Helmuth von Moltke]]
* {{flagicon|Prussia|1803}} [[Albrecht von Roon]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora|Alfonso La Marmora]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]
{{endplainlist}}
| commander2        = {{plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]]
* {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} [[Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen|Albrecht von Teschen]]
* {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} [[Ludwig von Benedek]]
* {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} [[Wilhelm von Tegetthoff]]}}
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Bavaria}} [[Ludwig II of Bavaria|Ludwig II]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Bavaria}} [[Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria|Prince Karl Theodor]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Saxony}} [[Albert, King of Saxony|Crown Prince Albert]]
{{endplainlist}}
| strength1         = 637,262{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=182}}
* {{flag|Prussia|1803}} 437,262
* {{flag|Kingdom of Italy|name=Italy}} 200,000
| strength2         = 522,203{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=183}}
* {{flag|Austrian Empire|name=Austria}} 407,223
* {{flag|Kingdom of Bavaria|name=Bavaria}} 38,000
* {{flag|Kingdom of Saxony|name=Saxony}} 26,500
* {{flag|Grand Duchy of Hesse|name=Hesse-Darmstadt}} 20,000
* {{flag|Kingdom of Hanover|name=Hanover}} 18,400
* {{flag|Kingdom of Württemberg|name=Württemberg}} 7,000
* {{flag|Baden|1871}} 5,000
* {{flag|Liechtenstein|1852}} 80
| casualties1       = {{Collapsible list
|{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=183–184}}
|{{flag|Prussia|1803}}: 40,000
* 11,765 battle deaths
* {{circa}} 7,000 disease deaths
* {{circa}} 25,000 wounded
* {{circa}} 1,100 missing
* 910 captured
|{{flag|Kingdom of Italy|name=Italy}}: 11,197
* 2,314 battle deaths
* {{circa}} 4,500 wounded
* 553 missing
* {{circa}} 5,000 captured
}}
| casualties2       = {{Collapsible list
|{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=183}}
|{{flag|Austrian Empire|name=Austria}}: 106,796
* 24,431 battle deaths
* 19,134 disease deaths
* {{circa}} 40,000 wounded
* 12,365 missing
* {{circa}} 40,000 captured
|{{flag|Kingdom of Hanover|name=Hanover}}: {{circa}} 25,000
* 3,456 battle deaths
* {{circa}} 5,500 wounded
* 16,263 captured or missing
|{{flag|Kingdom of Bavaria|name=Bavaria}}: {{circa}} 20,000
* 5,500 battle deaths
* {{circa}} 1,200 wounded
* 1,397 captured or missing
|{{flag|Kingdom of Saxony|name=Saxony}}: 7,000
* 1,341 battle deaths
* 4,678 wounded
* 580 captured or missing
|{{flag|Grand Duchy of Hesse|name=Hesse}}: 3,500
* 767 battle deaths
* 2,321 wounded
* 546 captured or missing
|{{flag|Kingdom of Württemberg|name=Württemberg}}: 2,300
* 452 battle deaths
* 1,679 wounded
* 198 captured or missing
|{{flag|Baden|1871|Baden}}: 500
* 112 battle deaths
* {{circa}} 300 wounded
* 57 captured or missing
}}
| notes             = 
}}
{{Campaignbox Austro-Prussian War}}

The '''Austro-Prussian War'''{{efn|Also known as the '''Seven Weeks' War''', the '''German Civil War''', the '''Brothers War''', and the '''Fraternal War'''; known in [[Germany]] as {{lang|de|'''Deutscher Krieg'''}} ("German War"), '''''Deutsch-Deutscher Krieg''''' ("German-German War") or {{lang|de|'''Deutscher Bruderkrieg'''}} ({{IPA|de|ˌdɔʏtʃɐ ˈbʁuːdɐkʁiːk|pron|De-Deutscher Bruderkrieg.ogg}}; "German Brothers War")}} (German: ''Preußisch-Österreichischer Krieg'') was fought in 1866 between the [[Austrian Empire]] and the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], with each also being aided by various allies within the [[German Confederation]]. Prussia had also [[Italo-Prussian alliance|allied]] with the [[Kingdom of Italy]], linking this conflict to the [[Third Italian War of Independence|Third Independence War]] of [[Italian unification]]. The Austro-Prussian War was part of the wider [[Austria-Prussia rivalry|rivalry between Austria and Prussia]], and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states, having confirmed Prussia's superior military organization and technology compared to Austria at the time.

The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian [[hegemony]]. It resulted in the abolition of the [[German Confederation]] and its partial replacement by the [[unification of Germany|unification of all of the northern German states]] in the [[North German Confederation]] that excluded Austria and the other southern German states, a {{lang|de|[[German Question|Kleindeutsches Reich]]}}. The war also resulted in the [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian]] annexations of the Austrian realm of [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia|Venetia]].

==Outbreak of war==
The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of [[Schleswig-Holstein]], which the two of them had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the [[Second Schleswig War]] in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies.{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=4}} In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia.{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=4}} The Kingdom responded with a partial mobilization of five divisions on 28 March.{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=5}}

The Prussian Minister President [[Otto von Bismarck]] made [[Italo-Prussian Alliance|an alliance with Italy]] on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months, which was an obvious incentive for him to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Vienna responded with a mobilization of the Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilization on 26 April and Austria ordered its own one the next day.{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=7}} Prussia's general mobilization orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May.{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=12}}

When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the [[Federal Convention (German Confederation)|German Diet]] on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the [[Gastein Convention]] of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet circumvened the creation of a national parliament proposed by the Kingdom and responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The [[Prussian Army]] invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

==Causes==
{{see also|Austro-Prussian rivalry|Concert of Europe}}
For several centuries, [[Central Europe]] was split into a few large- or medium-sized states and [[Kleinstaaterei|hundreds of tiny entities]], which while ostensibly being within the [[Holy Roman Empire]] ruled by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], operated in a largely independent fashion. When an existing Emperor died, seven secular and ecclesiastical [[prince-elector]]s, each of whom ruled at least one of the states, would elect a new Emperor. Over time the Empire became smaller and by 1789 came to consist of primarily German peoples (aside from Bohemia, Moravia, the southern Netherlands and Slovenia). Aside from five years (1740–1745), the [[house of Habsburg|Habsburg family]], whose domain was [[Austria]], controlled the Emperorship from 1440 to 1806, although it became increasingly ceremonial only as Austria found itself at war at certain times with other states within the Empire, such as [[Prussia]], which in fact defeated Austria during the [[War of Austrian Succession]] to seize the province of [[Silesia]] in 1742.

While Austria was traditionally considered the leader of the German states, [[Prussia]] became increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the [[great power]]s of Europe. [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]]'s abolition of the office of Holy Roman Emperor in 1806 also deprived him of his imperial authority over most of German-speaking Europe, though little true authority remained by that time; he did, however, retain firm control of an extensive multi-ethnic empire (most of it outside the previous boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire). After 1815, the [[States of the German Confederation|German states]] were once again reorganized into a loose confederation: the [[German Confederation]], under Austrian leadership.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=16}} Prussia had been contesting Austria's supremacy in Germany since at least 1850, when a war between the two powers had nearly erupted over Berlin's leadership of the [[Erfurt Union]], though at that time Prussia had [[Punctation of Olmütz|backed down]].

=== Nationalism ===
[[File:Austro-prussian-war-1866.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Map depicting deployment and advance of Austrian (red) and Prussian (green) troops and their allies {{In lang|ru}}]]
[[File:Battle of Koniggratz.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Depiction of [[Prussia]]n and [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] troop movements and maneuvers during the Battle of Königgrätz {{In lang|de}}]]
[[File:Main-Karte-160710 - Mainarmee.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Movements of the Prussian Army near the Main river {{In lang|de}}]]
At the time of the war, there was no strong national consciousness in Germany.<ref name="marcel">Stoetzler, Marcel (2003) ''Liberalism, nationalism and anti-semitism in the 'Berlin anti-semitism dispute' of 1879/1880''. PhD thesis, Middlesex University. p. 47</ref> Michael Hughes notes that in regards to Germany, "nationalism was a minority movement, deeply divided and with only a marginal impact on German political life".<ref name="hughes_106">{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Michael |title=Nationalism and society, Germany 1800–1945 |date=1988 |publisher=Hodder Arnold |isbn=0713165227 |location=London |page=106}}</ref> German newspapers were almost exclusively concerned with local affairs or their respective state governments, and the individual German states cultivated loyalty towards themselves. While rivalry with France was an important element of German nationalist myth-making, many Germans cooperated with France during the Napoleonic Era, and those who resisted France did not do so out of nationalist sentiment.{{Sfn|Breuilly|1996|pages=24–25}} According to [[John Breuilly]], any sense of a common German identity "was weakly developed and confined to particular groups" and "there was very little demand, certainly at popular level, for unification".{{Sfn|Breuilly|1996|pages=10, 24}} The liberal-nationalist concept of a united Germany had also become unpopular following the fall of the [[Frankfurt Parliament]] in 1849.<ref name="ashton_183">{{Cite book |last=Ashton |first=Bodie A. |title=The Kingdom of Württemberg and the Making of Germany, 1815–1871 |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury 3PL |isbn=978-1350000070 |page=183}}</ref> One of the strongest social forces in Germany at the time was religion, which provided Germans with common confessional values and identities that transcended national boundaries. This led to a strong confessional rivalry between the southern Catholic and northern Protestant states. Breuilly remarks that the confessional rivalry was so strong that "a Hamburg Lutheran had more in common with a Swedish Lutheran than with an Austrian Catholic".{{Sfn|Breuilly|1996|pages=24–25}} The minor nations of Germany valued their independence and believed that their ability to remain sovereign depended on Austro-Prussian dualism, with neither side allowed to become too powerful. Confessional division also played an important role in German dualism, and there was a strong pressure in Catholic states to support Austria.{{Sfn|Breuilly|1996|page=72}} In the absence of nationalist sentiment, a united German state could only be created through external force.<ref name="marcel"/> Bismarck recognised this, remarking in 1862 that a united German state could not be forged through "speeches and majority decisions" but only through "blood and iron".<ref name="hoyer_47">{{Cite book |last=Hoyer |first=Katja |author-link=Katja Hoyer |title=Blood and Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German Empire 1871–1918 |date=2021 |publisher=[[The History Press]] |isbn=978-0750996228 |location=Cheltenham |page=47}}</ref>

=== Bismarck's plot ===
There are many interpretations of [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s behaviour before the Austrian-Prussian war. Bismarck himself maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the [[Franco-Prussian War]] and the eventual unification of Germany.{{Sfn|Taylor|1955|page=3}}

On 22 February 1866, [[Alajos Károlyi|Count Károlyi]], Austrian ambassador in [[Berlin]], sent a dispatch to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, [[Alexander von Mensdorff-Pouilly, Prince Dietrichstein von Nicolsburg|Count Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly]]. He explained to him that Prussian public opinion had become extremely sensitive about the Duchies issue and that he had no doubt that "this artificial exaggeration of the danger by public opinion formed an essential part of the calculations and actions of Count Bismarck [who considered] the annexation of the Duchies ... a matter of life and death for his political existence [and wished] to make it appear such for Prussia too."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brooks |first=Stephen |title=Nineteenth Century Europe |date=1992 |publisher=Macmillan Press |pages=39–40}}</ref>

Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the [[Second Schleswig War]] against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic "masterstroke". Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap" and that the goal was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as his main reason for establishing the alliance. It was in the Prussian interest to gain an alliance with Austria to defeat Denmark and settle the [[history of Schleswig-Holstein|issue]] of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The alliance can be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck was simply a Prussian [[expansionism|expansionist]], rather than a German nationalist, who sought the unification of Germany. It was at the [[Gastein Convention]] that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war.<ref name="Pflanze1963">{{Cite book |last=Pflanze |first=Otto |author-link=Otto Pflanze |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ollxA6i_aK8C |title=Bismarck and the Development of Germany: The Period of Unification, 1815–1871 |date=1963 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=0-691-00765-9}}{{page needed|date=August 2020}}</ref>

Florence gave a good chance to Bismarck as it wanted to annex the remainder of [[Francis Joseph I|Emperor Francis Joseph]]'s [[Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia]]. The timing of the [[Italo-Prussian alliance|Italo-Prussian Alliance]] of 8 April 1866 was perfect, because all other European powers were either bound by relations that forbade them from entering the conflict opposed to Berlin, or had domestic problems that had priority. Obvious reasons why none of the great powers of Europe was about to intervene are listed below:

'''Russia''': Saint Petersburg was unlikely to enter on the side of Vienna, due to ill will over Francis Joseph's support for the Anglo-French alliance during the [[Crimean War]] despite the [[house of Romanov]]'s aid to him against the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848|Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848–1849]]. Moreover, Prussia had stood by Russia during the [[January Uprising]] in Poland, signing the [[Alvensleben Convention]] of February 1863 with the Empire, whereas Austria had not.<ref name="kitchen">{{Cite web |last=Kitchen |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Kitchen |title=A History of Modern Germany 1800–2000 |url=https://ens9004-mza.infd.edu.ar/sitio/upload/14-%20KITCHEN,%20M.%20-%20LIBRO%20-%20A%20History%20of%20Modern%20Germany_1.pdf |access-date=24 April 2019 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing|Blackwell]]}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

'''France''': Paris was also unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, because Bismarck had visited Emperor [[Napoleon III]] in [[Biarritz]] and they allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a potential Austro-Prussian war. The details of the negotiation are unknown but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in the event of a war.

'''Britain''': London focused on its own affairs in [[splendid isolation]] and had no stake economically or politically in a war between the Central European powers, thus, was not going to intervene.
 
This meant that Austria would be fighting both Italy and Prussia, without any non-German allies of its own. Bismarck was aware of an available numerical superiority but still "he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation".<ref name="feuchtwanger">{{Cite book |last=Feuchtwanger |first=Edgar |author-link=Edgar Feuchtwanger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B7NEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 |title=Bismarck: A Political History |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317684329 |page=125}}</ref>

=== Military factors ===
[[File:Chlum, Všestary 2022-04 14.jpg|thumb|The memorial to the ''Battery of the dead'' in Chlum (modern [[Czech Republic]]) commemorates some of the heaviest fighting during the Battle of Königgrätz.]]
Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by the advantages of the Prussian army against the Austrian Empire. Taylor wrote that Bismarck was reluctant to pursue war as it "deprived him of control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". (The two most important personalities within the Prussian army were the War Minister [[Albrecht von Roon|Albrecht Graf von Roon]] and Chief of the General Staff [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder|Helmuth Graf von Moltke]].) Taylor suggested that Bismarck was hoping to force Austrian leaders into concessions in Germany, rather than provoke war. The truth may be more complicated than simply that Bismarck, who famously said that "politics is the art of the possible", initially sought war with Austria or was initially against the idea of going to war with Austria.

==== Rival military systems ====
In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms that ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date, the size of the army had been fixed by earlier laws that had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequitable and unpopular for this reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about one man in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) was assigned minimal service in the {{lang|de|[[Landwehr]]}}, the home guard.{{Sfn|McElwee|1974|page=60}}

Introducing universal conscription for three years increased the size of the active duty army and provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke deployed against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene against the Prussians, they could have faced him with equal or superior numbers of troops.{{Sfn|McElwee|1974|pages=63–64}}

Prussian conscript service was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining only a cadre of long-term soldiers for formal parades and routine duties.{{Sfn|McElwee|1974|page=52}} Austrian conscripts had to be trained almost from scratch when they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Prussian army was thus better trained and disciplined than their enemy's one, particularly in the infantry. While the Habsburg Empire's cavalry and artillery were as well trained as their Prussian counterparts, with Austria possessing two elite divisions of heavy cavalry, weapons and tactics had advanced since the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and cavalry charges had been rendered obsolete.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}

==== Speed of mobilization ====
[[File:1866 prinz-friedrich-karl-bei-koeniggraetz 1b-640x428.jpg|thumb|250px|Prussian [[Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia (1828–1885)|Prince Friedrich Karl]] is cheered on by his troops.]]
The Prussian army was locally based, organized in {{lang|de|Kreise}} (military districts, lit.: circles), each containing a Korps headquarters and its component units. Most reservists lived close to their regimental depots and could be swiftly mobilized. Austrian policy was to ensure that units were stationed far from home to prevent them from taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units during mobilization faced a journey that might take weeks before they could report to their units, making the Austrian mobilization much slower than that of the Prussian Army.

==== Speed of concentration ====
The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than hitherto and allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly territory. The more efficient Prussian rail network allowed the Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than their enemy. Moltke, reviewing his plans to Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days. ... Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men."<ref name="Wolmar">{{Cite book |last=Wolmar |first=Christian |title=Blood, Iron and Gold: How the Railways Transformed the World |date=2010 |page=96}}</ref> Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now the war that we must have."

The Austrian army under [[Ludwig von Benedek]] in [[Bohemia]] (the present-day [[Czech Republic]]) might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", by being able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier, but the quicker Prussian concentration nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against one Prussian army without having the other two instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication.

==== Armaments and tactics ====
[[File:Zündnadelgewehr m-1841 - Preussen - Armémuseum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Prussian [[Dreyse needle gun]]]]
Prussian infantry were equipped with the [[Dreyse needle gun]], a bolt-action rifle which could be fired faster than the [[muzzleloader|muzzle-loading]] [[Lorenz rifle]]s of the Austrian army. In the [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] of 1859, French troops took advantage of poorly trained enemies who did not readjust their gunsights as they got closer{{snd}}thus firing too high at close range. By rapidly closing the range, French troops came to close quarters with an advantage over the enemy's infantry. After the war, the Austrians adopted the same methods, which they termed the {{lang|de|Stoßtaktik}} ("shock tactics"). Although they had some warnings of the Prussian weapon, they ignored these and retained {{lang|de|Stoßtaktik}}.

The Austrians were equipped with breech-loading rifled cannon, which was superior to the Prussian muzzle loading smooth bore cannon. Their artillery used a unique rifling system invented by [[Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg]] called the Lenk system. The Prussians, however, by this point had replaced up to 60% of their smooth bore artillery with the technologically superior [[C64 (field gun)]], which had been in production since 1859. However, due to tactical reluctance on the part of Prussian high command to utilise relatively unfamiliar technology, and doctrinal stagnation in the Artillery Corps, the modern [[Krupp]] guns were either sent to reserve units or used in tandem and to the same effect as their smooth bore counterparts, something that massively throttled their effectiveness in the war, and many of the guns that saw combat were the old smooth bore muzzle loaders. The Austrians too, while having standardised the Lenk system of rifling in their cannon, did not use their artillery to full effect. They specifically targeted the Prussian artillery with their own batteries, limiting their impact on the battlefield in regards to Prussian infantry. One notable exception is the use of Austrian artillery to good effect against infantry at [[Battle of Königgrätz]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loch |first=Thorsten |last2=Kesselring |first2=Agilolf |date=31 August 2023 |title=Through Artillery from Thrust to Fire: How Prussian Military Thinking Anticipated Emergent Warfare in 1870 |journal=[[War in History]] |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=128–147 |doi=10.1177/09683445231193878 |issn=0968-3445 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The Generals of the Prussian army realized that, in order to stay ahead of their Austrian enemies, they needed to explore new military tactics. They sent officers to travel across the Atlantic Ocean to go and observe the American Civil War. These officers met with high ranking commanders and recorded both Union and Confederate tactics. They wrote about troop movements, artillery positioning, and new methods of attack that worked well for the Americans. These officers then travelled back to Prussia and briefed their generals about these observations. Some officers, such as [[Justus Scheibert]], published their adventures in America for the public to enjoy.

=== Economic factors ===
[[File:Batalha sadowa 1866.jpg|thumb|250px|The Battle of Königgrätz]]
In 1866, the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the German customs union, the {{lang|de|[[Zollverein]]}}, which gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia could equip its armies with [[breech-loading rifles]] and later with new [[Krupp]] breech-loading [[artillery]] but the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]] and the [[Second Italian War of Independence]], so the state was heavily in debt. Historian [[Christopher Clark]] wrote that there is little to suggest that Prussia had an overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria and wrote that a larger portion of the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population and that Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery). The Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions, which reduced the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Clark |title=Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia |date=2008 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]}}{{page needed|date=August 2020}}</ref>

== Alliances ==
[[File:Langensalza.jpg|thumb|250px|Prussian artillery at the [[Battle of Langensalza (1866)|Battle of Langensalza]]. Oil painting by Georg von Boddien.]]

Before the war started, both the Austrian and Prussian governments sought to rally allies in Germany. On 15 June [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] offered territorial compensation in the [[Grand Duchy of Hesse]] to the [[Electorate of Hesse]], if [[Frederick William, Elector of Hesse|Elector Frederick William]] were to ally with Prussia. The proposition grievously offended Frederick William's "legitimist sensibilities" and the monarch joined the Austrians, despite the Hessian {{lang|de|[[Landtag]]}} voting for neutrality.<ref name="Schmitt">{{Cite journal |last=Schmitt |first=Hans A. |date=1975 |title=Prussia's Last Fling: The Annexation of Hanover, Hesse, Frankfurt, and Nassau, June 15 – October 8, 1866 |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=316–347 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900018008 |s2cid=145525529}}</ref> King [[George V of Hanover]] during the spring of 1866 was contacted by Austrian Emperor [[Franz Joseph I]] about establishing a coalition against the Prussians, but his success took some time. The Hanoverian monarch concluded that his kingdom would fall if it were to fight against the Prussian armies.<ref name="Schmitt"/>

Most of the southern German states sided with Austria against Prussia. Those doing so included the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and [[Kingdom of Württemberg|Württemberg]]. Smaller middle states such as [[Grand Duchy of Baden|Baden]], [[Electorate of Hesse|Hesse-Kassel]] (or Hesse-Cassel), [[Grand Duchy of Hesse|Hesse-Darmstadt]], and [[Duchy of Nassau|Nassau]] also joined with Austria. Many of the German princes allied with the Habsburgs principally out of a desire to keep their thrones.<ref name="Schmitt"/>

Most of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular [[Grand Duchy of Oldenburg|Oldenburg]], [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], and [[Duchy of Brunswick|Brunswick]]. The [[Kingdom of Italy]] participated in the war with Prussia, furthering the process of [[Italian unification]]. In return for their aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to make a separate peace until Florence had obtained Venetia.

As calculated, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. [[Second French Empire|French]] Emperor [[Napoleon III]], a merited friend of Italian [[risorgimento]] who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to retain the unmobilized army, upholding his influence to suit Florence while endangering his negotiating position for territory along the [[Rhine]]. When the Prussian victory became clear, Paris attempted to extract concessions in the Bavarian [[Circle of the Rhine|Palatinate]], [[Rhenish Hesse]] and [[Luxembourg]]. In his speech to the [[Reichstag (German Empire)|Reichstag]] on 2 May 1871, Bismarck said:

{{blockquote|It is known that even on 6 August 1866, I was in the position to observe the French ambassador make his appearance to see me in order, to put it succinctly, to present an ultimatum: to relinquish [[Mainz]], or to expect an immediate declaration of war. Naturally I was not doubtful of the answer for a second. I answered him: "Good, then it's war!" He travelled to Paris with this answer. A few days after one in Paris thought differently, and I was given to understand that this instruction had been torn from Emperor Napoleon during an illness. The further attempts in relation to Luxemburg are known.{{Sfn | Hollyday | 1970 | p = 36}}}}

{| cellspacing="0" style="margin: auto;"
|+ Alliances of the Austro-Prussian War, 1866
| colspan="3" style="padding: 2;" | [[File:Map-AustroPrussianWar.svg|800px|Alliances in the Austro-Prussia War|alt=Map of alliances in the Austro-Prussian War]]
|-
| style="background:#0062bd; border:solid 1px #ccd2d9; color:white; text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Prussia|1803}} '''Kingdom of Prussia'''
| style="background:#ff5850; border:solid 1px #ccd2d9; color:white; text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} '''Austrian Empire'''
| style="background:#2ddda0; border:solid 1px #ccd2d9; text-align:center" | '''Neutral/passive'''
|-
| rowspan="2" style="background:#04C6FF; border:solid 1px #ccd2d9; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" | {{plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|Brunswick}} [[Duchy of Brunswick]]
* [[File:Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]]
* [[File:Flagge Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha (1911-1920).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]
* [[File:Flagge Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha (1826-1911).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg]]
* [[File:Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]
* [[File:Civil flag of Oldenburg.svg|22px|border|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Oldenburg]]
* [[File:Flagge Herzogtum Anhalt.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Anhalt]]
* [[File:Flagge Fürstentümer Schwarzburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Schwarzburg-Sondershausen]]
* [[File:Flag of Germany.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Waldeck (state)|Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont]]
* [[File:Flagge Fürstentum Lippe.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Lippe]]
* [[File:Flag of Lauenburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Saxe-Lauenburg]]
* [[File:Flag of the Free City of Lübeck.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Free City of Lübeck]]
* [[File:Flag of Bremen (middle arms).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]
* [[File:Flag of Hamburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Hamburg]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Kingdom of Italy]]
{{endplainlist}}
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FFB1BD; border:solid 1px #ccd2d9; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" | {{plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Bavaria}} [[Kingdom of Bavaria]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Saxony}} [[Kingdom of Saxony]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Hanover}} [[Kingdom of Hanover]]
* {{flagicon|Württemberg}} [[Kingdom of Württemberg]]
* {{flagicon|Hesse}} [[Electorate of Hesse]]
* {{flagicon|Baden|1871}} [[Grand Duchy of Baden]]
* [[File:Flagge Großherzogtum Hessen ohne Wappen.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Hesse]]
* [[File:Flagge Herzogtum Nassau (1806-1866).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Nassau]]
* [[File:Flagge Herzogtum Sachsen-Meiningen.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen]]
* [[File:Flagge Fürstentum Reuß ältere Linie.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Reuss-Greiz]]
* [[File:Flagge Fürstentum Schaumburg-Lippe.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe]]
* [[File:Flagge der Freien Stadt Frankfurt.png|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Free City of Frankfurt]]
{{endplainlist}}
| style="background:#2DDDA0; border:solid 1px #ccd2d9; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" | {{plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|Luxembourg}} [[Luxembourg]]
* [[File:Limburg_provinciewapen_oud.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)|Duchy of Limburg]]
* [[File:Flagge Großherzogtum Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (1813-1897).svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]]
* [[File:Flagge Fürstentümer Schwarzburg.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt]]
* [[File:Flag of Liechtenstein (1852-1921).svg|boder|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[File:Flagge Fürstentum Reuß jüngere Linie.svg|border|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Principality of Reuss-Gera]]
{{endplainlist}}
|-
| style="background:#FFFEA5; border:solid 1px #FFFEA5; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" | '''Disputed Territory'''
{{plainlist}}
* [[File:Holstein Arms.svg|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Holstein]]
* [[File:Coat of arms of Schleswig.svg|22px|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Schleswig]]
{{endplainlist}}
|}

== Course of the war ==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Nachod 1.JPG|thumb|Cavalry clash at the [[Battle of Nachod]]]]
The first war between two major continental powers in seven years, the Austro-Prussian War used many of the same technologies as the [[Second Italian War of Independence]], including [[rail transport|railways]] to concentrate troops during mobilization and [[telegraphy]] to enhance long-distance communication. The Prussian armed forces used [[Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse|von Dreyse]]'s breech-loading [[needle gun]], which could be rapidly loaded while the soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could be loaded only slowly, and generally from a standing position.

The main campaign of the war occurred in the Habsburg Empire's [[Kingdom of Bohemia]]. Prussian Chief of General Staff [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder|Helmuth von Moltke]] had planned meticulously for the war. At the outset of the war in June, the Prussian armies were gathered along the Prussian border: the Army of the Elbe under [[Karl Herwarth von Bittenfeld]] at [[Torgau]], the First Army under [[Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia (1828-1885)|Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia]] between [[Senftenberg]] and [[Görlitz]], and the Second Army under [[Frederick III, German Emperor|Crown Prince Frederick William]] in [[Silesia]] west of [[Nysa, Poland|Neiße (Nysa)]]. Moltke rapidly mobilized the Prussian armies and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of [[Silesia]]. The Prussian armies converged in Bohemia, led nominally by [[William I, German Emperor|King Wilhelm I]],{{citation needed|date=August 2025}} and the two sides met at the [[Battle of Königgrätz]] (Hradec Králové) on 3 July. The Prussian [[Army of the Elbe]] advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the [[First Army (Austro-Prussian War)|First Army]] on the center, though this was premature, as they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore depended on the timely arrival of the [[Second Army (Austro-Prussian War)|Second Army]] on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant work of its chief of staff, [[Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal]]. Superior Prussian organization and vigor decided the battle against the federal troops, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice between the Empire and its rival came into effect at noon on 22 July.{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=362}} A preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at [[Mikulov|Nikolsburg]].{{sfn|Prussian General Staff|1872|p=378}}

[[File:Soerensen Seeschlacht bei Lissa 1866 Rammstoss.jpg|thumb|Austrian victory at the naval [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Battle of Lissa]]]]
Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Stuck in the [[Thuringian Basin]], Hanover's army defeated chaotic Prussians at the [[Battle of Langensalza (1866)|Second Battle of Langensalza]] on 27 June 1866, but, within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers and a homemade logistical catastrophe (they left both the supplies and nearly all ammunition in Hanover).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wawro |first1=Geoffrey |title=The Austro-Prussian War |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-62951-9 |page=76}}</ref> Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states during the [[campaign of the Main]] (river), reaching [[Nuremberg]] and [[Frankfurt]]. The Bavarian fortress of [[Würzburg]] was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day.

The Austrians were more successful in [[Third Italian War of Independence|their war with Italy]], defeating the Italians on land at the [[Battle of Custoza (1866)|Battle of Custoza]] (24 June), and on sea at the [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Battle of Lissa]] (20 July). However, Italy's "[[Hunters of the Alps]]" led by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] defeated the Austrians at the [[Battle of Bezzecca]] on 21 July, conquered the lower part of [[Trentino]], and moved towards [[Trento]]. While the temporary Alpine conquest missed political support by allies, a redeployment of Austrian troops in order to hold the [[Danube]] facilitated an Italian march through the Venetian coastal plain, finally resulting in the [[armistice of Cormons]] on 12 August.
 
=== Major battles ===
[[File:Custozza1866.jpg|thumb| Austrian [[uhlan]]s under Colonel Rodakowski attack Italian [[Bersaglieri]] during the [[Battle of Custoza (1866)|Battle of Custoza]]]]
* 24 June, [[Battle of Custoza (1866)|Battle of Custoza]]: Austrian army defeats Italian army.
* 27 June, [[Battle of Náchod]]: Prussians defeat Austrians.
* 27 June, [[Battle of Trautenau]] (Trutnov): Austrians check Prussian advance but with heavy losses.
* 27 June, [[Battle of Langensalza (1866)|Battle of Langensalza]]: Hanover's army defeats Prussia's. However, Hanover surrenders two days later.
* 29 June, [[Battle of Gitschin]] (Jičín): Prussians defeat Austrians.
* 3 July, [[Battle of Königgrätz]] (Sadová): overwhelming Prussian victory against Austrians.
* 10 July, [[Battle of Kissingen]]: Prussians defeat the Bavarians (7th Army Corps of the [[German Confederation]]).
* 20 July, [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Battle of Lissa]] (Vis): the Austrian fleet decisively defeats the Italian one.
* 21 July, [[Battle of Bezzecca]]: [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]'s "[[Hunters of the Alps]]" defeat an Austrian army.
* 22 July (last day of the war), [[Battle of Lamacs]] (Lamač): Austrians defend Bratislava against Prussian army.
* 24 July, [[Battle of Tauberbischofsheim]], the [[VIII Army Corps (German Confederation)|Federal 8th Corps]] (Württemberg, Baden, Hesse and Nassau) is defeated by Prussia and northern Württemberg is occupied.

== Aftermath and consequences ==
[[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] had to overcome the obdurate resistance of King [[William I, German Emperor|Wilhelm I]], interested in substantial annexations of Austrian territory, whereas himself, who wanted to keep all future possibilities open with regard to the enemy, intended to offer rather generous terms. The monarch finally yielded to Bismarck.<ref>Kann (1980), p. 276.</ref> Furthermore, Wilhelm had "planned to install both the crown prince of Hanover and the nephew of the elector of Hesse as titular grand dukes in small territorial residuals of their dynastic inheritance" due to opposition in the government cabinet, including Crown Prince [[Frederick III, German Emperor|Frederick William of Prussia]], to the annexation of several German states.<ref name=Schmitt/> Vienna preferred to support the Habsburg Empire's Saxon neighbor and they both accepted mediation from France's [[Napoleon III]]. The [[Peace of Prague (1866)|Peace of Prague]] on 23 August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]], Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left Berlin free to form the [[North German Confederation]] finalized the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the [[Main (river)|Main River]].

=== For the defeated parties and Schleswig-Holstein ===

[[File:Map-NDB.svg|thumb|The [[North German Confederation]] (red), the South German states (golden) and the exposed Alsace-Lorraine (paler) on their way into the German Empire]]
In addition to war reparations, the following cases of territorial changes took place:
* Austria: The use of the French Emperor as an intermediary happened to avoid ceding the Adriatic realm directly to the Kingdom of Italy, which Austria considered an inferior power, and at the same time to influence [[Napoleon III]] in favor of Austria in the crisis with Prussia.<ref>Robert A. Kann, ''A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918'', University of California Press (1974), p. 272 (1980 paperback printing).</ref> Accordingly, Italy obtained Venetia by the [[Treaty of Vienna (1866)|Treaty of Vienna]] (3 October 1866). The agreed [[Plebiscite of Veneto of 1866|plebiscite]] claimed 99.99% wished to join Italy, the only country to gain fully owned Austrian territory from the conflict.
* Schleswig and Holstein (Austro-Prussian condominium): Became the Prussian [[Province of Schleswig-Holstein]].
* Hanover: Annexed by the enemy, became the [[Province of Hanover]].
* Hesse-Darmstadt: Surrendered to Berlin the small territory it had acquired earlier in 1866 on the extinction of the ruling house of [[Hesse-Homburg]]. The northern half of the remaining land joined the [[North German Confederation]].
* Nassau, Hesse-Kassel, Frankfurt: Annexed by Prussia. Combined with the territory surrendered by Hesse-Darmstadt to form the new [[Hesse-Nassau|Province of Hesse-Nassau]].
* Saxony, Saxe-Meiningen, Reuss-Greiz, Schaumburg-Lippe: Spared from annexation but joined the [[North German Confederation]] in the following year.
* Bavaria: Lost the fringe possessions of [[Bad Orb]] and [[Gersfeld]] as well as the exclave of [[Kaulsdorf (Saale)]] to the enemy, soon a permanent ally protecting the South German bases on the Rhine against France.

=== For the neutral German parties and Liechtenstein ===
Those former German Confederation member states who remained neutral or passive during the conflict took different actions after the Prague treaty:

* [[Liechtenstein]]: Became an independent state and declared permanent neutrality, while maintaining close political ties with Austria. Accused by Bismarck of having manipulated the Confederation Diet vote, the Principality had sent 80 men out on the Imperial side against the Italian volunteers but did not engage in any fighting.<ref name="lie:zeit">{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writers(s); no by-line--> |date=2016-05-11 |title=Sonderausstellung: '1866: Liechtenstein im Krieg – Vor 150 Jahren' |url=http://www.lie-zeit.li/2016/05/sonderausstellung-1866-liechtenstein-im-krieg-vor-150-jahren |access-date=December 8, 2020 |language=de |periodical=Lie:zeit}}</ref> There has been a longstanding yet unverified claim that Liechtenstein's auxiliary force returned home with an extra man, stated either as an "Italian friend" or a [[Defection|defector]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Corbeil |first=Shannon |date=2020-04-29 |title=In 1866, 80 men went to war – this is why 81 came home |url=https://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty-history/liechtenstein-army-81-men-returned |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=We Are The Mighty |language=en}}</ref>
* Limburg and Luxembourg had the Dutch king as their head of state (as ''Grand Duke of Luxembourg'' and ''Duke of Limburg''). The [[Treaty of London (1867)]] affirmed the duchy of Limburg as an integral part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], henceforth becoming the Dutch province of [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]. Luxembourg was guaranteed independence and neutrality from its three neighbours (Belgium, France, and Prussia), but it remained linked by a personal union to the Netherlands until 1890 and a member of the ''[[Zollverein]]'' until its dissolution in 1919.
* Reuss-Schleiz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, [[Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt]]: Joined the North German Confederation.

=== For the new Prussia ===
[[File:Bilderrevolution0263.jpg|thumb|Reception of Prussian troops in Berlin on 21 September 1866]]
Prussia and the [[North German Confederation]] were headed in personal union by King [[William I, German Emperor|Wilhelm]], holder of the [[Bundespräsidium]], and essentially shared their executive power. The territory of the union also encompassed Prussia's Baltic and Polish as well as its remote Danish regions. Federal Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] used occasions like the "[[Three Emperors Dinner]]" of 1867 in Paris and backed up the Kingdom's dominance over the so-called [[Lesser Germany]] with an emerging Russian alliance. His successful policy found support in new political forces, namely the [[Free Conservative Party]] and the [[National Liberal Party (Germany)|National Liberal Party]].

The vanishing authorities protested against their annexation to Berlin's [[house of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] monarchy, and both the dethroned rulers and the local population lamented the loss of sovereignty.<ref name="Schmitt"/> Local resistance and regional loyalty led [[:de:Hans von Hardenberg (Politiker)|Hans von Hardenberg]], the civil commissioner who oversaw the integration of Hanover into Prussia, to remark that "As a whole the Hanoverians are a tougher, less accommodating tribe than the Saxons. Their particularism rests not solely on Prussophobia ... but above all on a deep-rooted conviction that life is nowhere better than in Hanover. Theirs is a solid ... national feeling".<ref name="Schmitt"/> The protests of [[George V of Hanover]] and the local population proved to be an effective obstacle to Hanover's assimilation into Prussia, and led to the founding of the [[German-Hanoverian Party]], which received 46.6% of the Hanoverian vote in the [[1871 German federal election|March 1871 Reichstag election]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stehlin |first=Stewart A. |title=A Study in Particularist Opposition to National Unity |date=2011 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Dordrecht]] |isbn=978-9401024075 |location=New York |pages=2–3}}</ref> Hostility to annexation was also felt in smaller annexed countries such as the central one, where the dethroned [[Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel]] strongly condemned "the usurpation of the Electorate of Hesse by the crown of Prussia".<ref name="Schmitt2">{{Cite journal |last=Schmitt |first=H. A. |date=1985 |title=From Sovereign States to Prussian Provinces: Hanover and Hesse-Nassau, 1866–1871 |journal=[[The Journal of Modern History]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=24–56 |doi=10.1086/242776 |jstor=1898934 |s2cid=144459369}}</ref> Anti-annexationist petitions were organised and reached a significant number of signatures, with a separatist one in Hanover mobilizing half a million.{{Sfn|Heinzen|2017|page=44}} In Nassau, Prussian soldiers were reportedly attacked by locals "with stones and axes"; according to Jasper Heinzen, "brawls between occupation troops and local veterans soon became so prevalent that one historian has called these incidents the most distinctive inaugural feature of the Prussian era".{{Sfn|Heinzen|2017|page=45}}

Anti-Prussian and separatist sentiment in the new provinces continued into the next confrontation, as local Prussian authorities complained about "a not insignificant number" of deserters from Hanover and Schleswig, and the population reacted to the [[Franco-Prussian War]] with "recurrent acts of sabotage on telegraph lines, latent French sympathies, and a widespread disinterest in the establishment of armed home guards".{{Sfn|Heinzen|2017|page=54}} Nevertheless, the formed North German Confederation would go on to win the war and unite with its allies Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and southern Hesse. According to [[Geoffrey Wawro]], the political and military power accumulated by Prussia allowed it to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then "force the Catholic states very much against their will into a federal union" in 1871.{{Sfn|Wawro|2003|page=302}} The resulting [[German Empire]] would become one of the most influential world powers.

===Bonapartist lure and lukewarm Austrian desire for revenge===
[[File:Europe 1867 map en.png|thumb|Map of Europe in 1867]]
It was in order to prevent "unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge" and forestall intervention by France or Russia that [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] had pushed King [[William I, German Emperor|Wilhelm]] to make peace with the Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of further gains.{{Sfn|Taylor|1955|page=48}} As to the exclusion from political Germany, the conciliatory Emperor [[Francis Joseph I]] did not face notable public pressure for resilience, although the [[Napoleon III|French ruler]] made him restrict a negotiated freedom of the failing [[South German Confederation]] to reunite with the North.

Having lost his position as minister-president of Saxony over his Prussian counterpart's unwillingness to negotiate the peace with him, the new Austrian leader [[Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust]] was "impatient to take his revenge on Bismarck for [[Battle of Königgrätz|Sadowa]]". As a preliminary step, the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]] was "rapidly concluded". The Protestant Beust "persuaded Francis Joseph to accept [[Hungarians|Magyar]] demands which he had until then rejected",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Albertini |first=Luigi |author-link=Luigi Albertini |title=The Origins of the War of 1914 |date=1952 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=I |page=4}}</ref> but Austrian plans fell short of French hopes (e.g. [[Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen]] proposed a plan which required the French army to fight alone for six weeks in order to allow Austrian mobilization).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aronson |first=Theo |author-link=Theo Aronson |title=The Fall of the Third Napoleon |date=1970 |publisher=[[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell & Company Ltds]] |page=58}}</ref> King [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] and the Italian government wanted to join this potential alliance, but domestic public opinion there was bitterly opposed as long as Paris kept a French garrison in Rome protecting [[Pope Pius IX]], thereby denying the country the possession of its capital (Rome had been declared so in March 1861, when the first national parliament had met in Turin). Napoleon III was not strictly opposed to this (in response to a French minister of State's declaration that Italy would never lay its hands on Rome, the Emperor had commented "You know, in politics, one should never say 'never'."{{Sfn|Aronson|1970|page=56}}) and had made various proposals for resolving the [[Roman Question]], but Pius rejected them all. Despite his support for Italian unification, Napoleon could not press the issue for fear of angering Catholics in France. Raffaele de Cesare, an Italian journalist, political scientist, and author, noted that:

{{blockquote|The alliance, proposed two years before 1870, between France, Italy, and Austria, was never concluded because Napoleon III ... would never consent to the occupation of Rome by Italy. ... He wished Austria to avenge Sadowa, either by taking part in a military action, or by preventing South Germany from making common cause with Prussia. ... If he could ensure, through Austrian aid, the neutrality of the South German States in a war against Prussia, he considered himself sure of defeating the Prussian army, and thus would remain arbiter of the European situation. But when the war suddenly broke out, before anything was concluded, the first unexpected French defeats overthrew all previsions, and raised difficulties for Austria and Italy which prevented them from making common cause with France. ... For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations ... Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured.<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Cesare |first=Raffaele |url=https://archive.org/details/thelastdaysofpap00cesauoft |title=The Last Days of Papal Rome |date=1909 |publisher=[[Constable & Robinson|Archibald Constable & Co.]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thelastdaysofpap00cesauoft/page/439 439]–443}}</ref>}}

Another reason that Imperial Chancellor Beust's supposedly desired revanche against Prussia did not materialize is seen in the fact that, in 1870, the Hungarian Prime Minister Count [[Gyula Andrássy]] was "vigorously opposed".{{Sfn|Albertini|1952|page=6}}

== See also ==
* [[Wars and battles involving Prussia]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
* {{Cite book |last=Balfour |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Balfour (historian) |url=https://archive.org/details/kaiserhistimes0000balf_v0r1 |title=The Kaiser and his Times |date=1964 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |isbn=0-39300-661-1 |ref=none |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barry |first=Quintin |title=Road to Koniggratz: Helmuth von Moltke and the Austro-Prussian War 1866 |date=2010 |publisher=[[Helion (publisher)|Helion]] |isbn=978-1906033378 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bassett-Powell |first=Bruce |title=Armies of Bismarck's Wars: Prussian 1860–67 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Casemate Publishers|Casemate]] |isbn=978-1935149231 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Breuilly |first=John |author-link=John Breuilly |title=The Formation of the First German Nation-State, 1800–1871 |date=1996 |publisher=Red Globe Press |isbn=0333527186}}
* {{Cite journal |author-link=Brian Bond |date=1966 |title=The Austro-Prussian War, 1866 |journal=[[History Today]] |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=538–546 |ref=none |author-last=Bond |author-first=Brian}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=M. |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 |date=2017 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0786474707 |edition=4th |location=Jefferson, North Carolina}}
* {{Cite book |last=Heinzen |first=Jasper |title=Making Prussians, Raising Germans: A Cultural History of Prussian State-Building after Civil War, 1866–1935 |date=2017 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1107198791 |location=York, England |doi=10.1017/9781108182737}}
* {{Citation |last=Hollyday |first=FBM |title=Bismarck |date=1970 |series=Great Lives Observed |publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hozier |first=H. M. |author-link=Henry Hozier |title=The Seven Weeks' War: the Austro-Prussian Conflict of 1866 |date=2012 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=McElwee |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/artofwarwaterloo0000mcel |title=The Art of War: Waterloo to Mons |date=1974 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=0-253-20214-0 |location=Bloomington |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Prussian General Staff |title=The Campaign of 1866 in Germany |date=1872 |publisher=[[William Clowes Ltd.|Clowes & Sons]] |location=London |translator-last=von Wright |translator-first=Colonel |translator-last2=Hozier |translator-first2=Henry M. |translator-link2=Henry Hozier}}
* {{Cite book |last=Scheibert |first=Justus |author-link=Justus Scheibert |title=Seven Months in the Rebel States During the North American War 1863 |date=1863 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Showalter |first=Dennis E. |author-link=Dennis Showalter |title=The Wars of German Unification |date=2004 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A. J. P. |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor |title=The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918 |date=1948 |edition=2nd |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A. J. P. |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor |title=Bismarck: the Man and Statesman |date=1955}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wawro |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Wawro |title=The Austro-Prussian War: Austria's War with Prussia and Italy in 1866 |date=1997 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-62951-9 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wawro |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Wawro |title=The Franco–Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871 |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-58436-1}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Austro-Prussian War}}
* [http://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/deutscher_krieg.htm Further information about the war] {{in lang|de}}

{{GermanUnification}}
{{Risorgimento}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Austro-Prussian War| ]]
[[Category:1866 in the German Confederation]]
[[Category:1866 in Prussia]]
[[Category:1866 in the Austrian Empire]]
[[Category:Austria–Prussia relations|War]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1866]]
[[Category:History of Schleswig-Holstein]]
[[Category:Wars involving Baden]]
[[Category:Wars involving Bavaria]]
[[Category:Wars involving Hesse-Kassel]]
[[Category:Wars involving Italy]]
[[Category:Wars involving Liechtenstein]]
[[Category:Wars involving Saxony]]
[[Category:Wars involving Waldeck]]
[[Category:Wars involving Württemberg]]
[[Category:William I, German Emperor]]
[[Category:Franz Joseph I of Austria]]