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{{Short description|Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire from 274 to 293}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name        = Bahram II<br>{{lang|pal|𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭}}
| title       = [[King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians]]
| image       = Silver coin of Bahram II (cropped).jpg
| image_size  = 
| caption     = [[Ancient drachma|Drachma]] of Bahram II
| succession  = [[List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|Shahanshah]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]]
| reign       = September 274{{snd}}293
| predecessor = [[Bahram I]]
| successor   = [[Bahram III]]
| queen       = [[Shapurdukhtak]]
| issue       = [[Bahram III]]
| royal house = [[House of Sasan]]
| father      = [[Bahram I]]
| birth_date  =
| birth_place = 
| death_date  = 293
| death_place = 
| religion    = [[Zoroastrianism]]
}}
'''Bahram II''' (also spelled '''Wahram II''' or '''Warahran II'''; {{langx|pal|𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭}}) was the fifth [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] [[King of Kings]] (''[[shahanshah]]'') of [[Iran]], from 274 to 293. He was the son and successor of [[Bahram I]] ({{reign|271|274}}). Bahram II, while still in his teens, ascended the throne with the aid of the powerful [[Zoroastrian]] priest [[Kartir]], just like his father had done.

He was met with considerable challenges during his reign, facing a rebellion in the east led by his brother, the [[Kushano-Sasanian]] dynast [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]], who also assumed the title of King of Kings and possibly laid claims to the Sasanian throne. Another rebellion, led by Bahram II's cousin [[Hormizd of Sakastan]] in [[Sakastan (Sasanian province)|Sakastan]], also occurred around this period. In [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzestan]], a Zoroastrian factional revolt led by a high-priest (''[[mowbed]]'') occurred. The [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Carus]] exploited the turbulent situation of Iran by launching a campaign into its holdings in [[Mesopotamia]] in 283. Bahram II, who was in the east, was unable to mount an effective coordinated defense at the time, possibly losing his capital of [[Ctesiphon]] to the Roman emperor. However, Carus died soon afterwards, reportedly being struck by lightning. As a result, the Roman army withdrew, and Mesopotamia was reclaimed by the Sasanians. By the end of his reign, Bahram II had made peace with the Roman emperor [[Diocletian]] and put an end to the disturbances in Khuzestan and the east. 

In the [[Caucasus]], Bahram II strengthened Sasanian authority by securing the [[Kingdom of Iberia|Iberian]] throne for [[Mirian III of Iberia|Mirian III]], an Iranian nobleman from the [[House of Mihran]]. Bahram II has been suggested by scholars to be the first Sasanian ruler to have [[Sasanian coinage|coins]] minted of his family. He also ordered the carving of several rock reliefs that unambiguously emphasize distinguished representations of his family and members of the high nobility. He was succeeded by his son [[Bahram III]], who after only four months of reign, was overthrown by [[Narseh]], a son of the second Sasanian ruler, [[Shapur I]] ({{reign|240|270}}).

== Name ==
His [[theophoric name]] "Bahram" is the [[New Persian]] form of the [[Middle Persian]] ''Warahrān'' (also spelled ''Wahrām''), which is derived from the [[Old Iranian languages|Old Iranian]] ''Vṛθragna''.{{sfn|Multiple authors|1988|pages=514–522}} The [[Avestan]] equivalent was [[Verethragna]], the name of the old Iranian god of victory, whilst the [[Parthian language|Parthian]] version was ''*Warθagn''.{{sfn|Multiple authors|1988|pages=514–522}} The name is transliterated in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''Baranes'',{{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2018|pages=193–194}} whilst the [[Armenian language|Armenian]] transliteration is ''Vahagn/Vrām''.{{sfn|Multiple authors|1988|pages=514–522}} The name is attested in [[Georgian language|Georgian]] as ''Baram''{{sfn|Rapp|2014|page=203}} and [[Latin]] as ''Vararanes''.{{sfn|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1971|p=945}}

== Background ==
[[Image:Gold coin of Shapur I, minted at Ctesiphon between 260–272.jpg|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of [[Shapur I]]]]
Bahram II was the eldest son of [[Bahram I]] ({{reign|271|274}}), the fourth king ([[shah]]) of the Sasanian dynasty, and the grandson of the prominent shah [[Shapur I]] ({{reign|240|270}}).{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2017|p=157}} The Sasanians had supplanted the [[Parthia]]n [[Parthian Empire|Arsacid Empire]] as the sovereigns of Iran in 224, when [[Ardashir I]] (Bahram II's great-grandfather) defeated and killed its last monarch [[Artabanus IV of Parthia|Artabanus IV]] ({{reign|213|224}}) at the [[Battle of Hormozdgan]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} A [[terminus post quem]] for Bahram II's birth is {{circa|262}}, since that is the date of [[Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]],{{sfn|Rapp|2014|page=28}} which mentions the rest of the royal family but not him.{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=303}} His father, Bahram I, although the eldest son of Shapur I, was not considered a candidate for succession, probably due to his mother's lowly origin. She was either a minor queen or perhaps even a [[concubine]].{{sfn|Weber|2016}}{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=127}} Shapur I died in 270, and was succeeded by his son [[Hormizd I]], who only reigned for a year before he died. Bahram I, with the aid of the powerful [[Zoroastrian]] priest [[Kartir]], ascended the throne.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} He then made a settlement with his brother [[Narseh]] to give up his entitlement to the throne in return for the governorship of the important frontier province of [[Sasanian Armenia|Armenia]], which was constantly the source of [[Roman–Persian Wars|conflict]] between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and Sasanian Empires.{{sfn|Weber|2016}} Nevertheless, Narseh still most likely viewed Bahram I as a usurper.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}

== Governorship and accession ==
[[Image:The provinces of Sakastan, Paradan, Turan, Makuran and Hind in the early Sasanian era.svg|thumb|Map of the southeastern [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] provinces (corresponding to the present-day lands of eastern [[Iran]], western [[Afghanistan]], and western [[Pakistan]]]]
Bahram was briefly given the governorship of the southeastern provinces of [[Sakastan (Sasanian province)|Sakastan]], [[Hind (Sasanian province)|Hind]] and [[Turgistan]], which Narseh had previously governed.{{sfn|Frye|1984|pp=303–304}}{{sfn|Lukonin|1983|pp=729–730}} Sakastan was far away from the imperial court in [[Ctesiphon]], and ever since its conquest the Sasanians had found it difficult to control.{{sfn|Christensen|1993|p=229}} As a result, the province had since its early days functioned as a form of vassal kingdom, ruled by princes from the Sasanian family, who held the title of ''[[sakanshah]]'' ("King of the Saka").{{sfn|Christensen|1993|p=229}} Bahram I's reign lasted briefly, ending in September 274 with his death.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} Bahram II, still in his teens,{{sfn|Frye|1984|pp=303–304}} succeeded him as shah; he was probably aided by Kartir to ascend the throne instead of Narseh.{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2017|p=157}}{{sfn|Skjærvø|2011|pp=608–628}} This most likely frustrated Narseh, who held the title of ''Vazurg Šāh Arminān'' ("Great King of Armenia"), which was used by the heir to the throne.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}}

Bahram II's accession is mentioned in the narratives included in the history of the medieval Iranian historian [[al-Tabari]];

{{quote box|width=750px|align=center|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quote="He is said to have been knowledgeable about the affairs [of government]. When he was crowned, the great men of state called down blessings on his head, just as they had done for his forefathers, and he returned to them greetings in a handsome manner and behaved in a praiseworthy fashion toward them. He was wont to say: If fortune furthers our designs, we receive this with thankfulness; if the reverse, we are content with our share."|source={{sfn|Bosworth|1999|p=46}}}}

==Reign==
===Wars===
[[Image:Hormizd I Kushanshah Merv mint.jpg|thumb|Drachma of [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]]]]
Bahram II was met with considerable challenges during his reign. His brother [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]], who governed the eastern portion of the empire (i.e., the [[Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom]]), rebelled against him.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|pp=81–82}} Hormizd I Kushanshah was the first Kushano-Sasanian ruler to mint coins with the inscription of "Hormizd, the Great Kushan King of Kings" instead of the traditional "Great Kushan King" title.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=81}} The Kushano-Sasanian king, now laying claims to the title of King of Kings, which had originally also been used by the [[Kushan Empire]], displays a "noteworthy transition" ([[Khodadad Rezakhani|Rezakhani]]) in Kushano-Sasanian ideology and self-perception and possibly a direct dispute with the ruling branch of the Sasanian family.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=81}} Hormizd I Kushanshah was supported in his efforts by the Sakastanis, [[Gilan Province|Gilaks]], and Kushans.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}} Another revolt also occurred in Sakastan, led by Bahram II's cousin [[Hormizd of Sakastan]], who has been suggested to be the same person as Hormizd I Kushanshah.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004}} However, according to the [[Iranologist]] Khodadad Rezakhani, this proposal must now be disregarded.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=81}} At the same time, a revolt led by a high-priest (''[[mowbed]]'') occurred in the province of [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzestan]], which was seized by the latter for a period.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|pp=11–12}}

Meanwhile, the Roman emperor [[Carus]], hearing of the civil war occurring in the Sasanian Empire, chose to take advantage of the situation by making a campaign into the empire in 283.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004}} He invaded [[Mesopotamia]] while Bahram II was in the east, and even besieged the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon without much fighting.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=12}} The Sasanians, due to severe internal problems, were unable to mount an effective coordinated defense at the time; Carus and his army may have captured Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Potter|2013|p=26}} However, Carus briefly died afterwards, reportedly being struck by lightning.{{sfn|Potter|2013|p=26}} The Roman army as a result withdrew, and Mesopotamia was re-captured by the Sasanians.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}

=== Consolidation of the empire ===
[[File:Naghsh-e rostam, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 10.jpg|thumb|"Victory" of Bahram II over Roman Emperor [[Carus]] is depicted in the top panel, and the victory over [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] is depicted in the bottom panel at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004}}]]
The following year, Bahram II made peace with the new Roman emperor [[Diocletian]], who was faced with internal issues of his own.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=12}}
In the same year, Bahram II secured the [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberian]] throne for [[Mirian III of Iberia|Mirian III]], an Iranian nobleman from the [[House of Mihran]], one of the [[Seven Great Houses of Iran]].{{sfn|Rapp|2014|pp=243–244}} His motive was to strengthen Sasanian authority in the [[Caucasus]] and utilize the position of the Iberian capital [[Mtskheta]] as an entrance to the important passes through the [[Caucasus Mountains]].{{sfn|Rapp|2014|pp=243–244}} This was of such importance to Bahram II that he allegedly went in person to Mtskheta in order to secure Mirian III's position.{{sfn|Rapp|2014|pp=243–244}} He also sent one of his grandees named Mirvanoz (also a Mihranid) to the country in order to act as the guardian of Mirian III, who was then aged seven.{{sfn|Toumanoff|1969|p=22}} After Mirian III's marriage with Abeshura (daughter of the previous Iberian ruler [[Aspacures I of Iberia|Aspacures]]), 40,000 Sasanian "select mounted warriors/cavalry" were subsequently stationed in eastern Iberia, [[Caucasian Albania]] and [[Gugark]]. In western Iberia, 7,000 Sasanian cavalrymen were sent to Mtskheta to safeguard Mirian III.{{sfn|Rapp|2014|p=247}}

By the time of Bahram II's death in 293, the revolts in the east had been suppressed, with his son and heir [[Bahram III]] being appointed the governor of Sakastan, receiving the title of ''[[sakanshah]]'' ("King of the Saka").{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=12}} Following Bahram II's death, Bahram III, against his own will, was proclaimed shah in [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]] by a group of nobles led by [[Wahnam]] and supported by Adurfarrobay, governor of [[Meshan]].{{sfn|Klíma|1988|pp=514–522}} After four months of reigning, however, he was overthrown by Narseh, who had Wahnam executed.{{sfn|Weber|2016}} The line of succession was thus shifted to Narseh, whose descendants continued to rule the empire until its fall in 651.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}}

==Relations with Kartir and religious policy==
Before Bahram II, the Sasanian shahs had been "lukewarm Zoroastrians."{{sfn|Skjærvø|2011|pp=608–628}} He displayed a particular fondness to his name-deity by giving his son the name of Bahram, and by selecting the wings of the god's bird, [[Verethragna]], as the central component of his [[Sasanian crowns|crown]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} Bahram II, like his father, received the influential Zoroastrian priest Kartir well. He saw him as his mentor, and handed out several honors to him, giving him the rank of grandee (''[[wuzurgan]]''), and appointing him as the supreme judge (''[[dadwar]]'') of the whole empire, which implies that thenceforth priests were given the office of judge.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=76}} Kartir was also appointed the steward of the [[Anahid fire-temple]] at [[Istakhr]], which had originally been under the care of the Sasanian family.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}} The Sasanian kings thus lost much of their religious authority in the empire.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}} The clergy from now on served as judges all over the country, with court cases most likely being based on Zoroastrian jurisprudence, with the exception of when representatives of other religions had conflicts with each other.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}}

It is thus under Bahram II that Kartir unquestionably becomes a powerful figure in the empire; the latter claimed on his inscription at the [[Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]] that he "struck down" the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as the [[Christianity|Christians]], [[Jews]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]], and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]].{{sfn|Skjærvø|2011|pp=608–628}} According to the modern historian Parvaneh Pourshariati: "it is not clear, however, to what extent Kartir's declarations reflect the actual implementation, or for that matter, success, of the measures he is supposed to have promoted."{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=348}} Indeed, Jewish and Christian sources, for example, make no mention of persecutions during this period.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=348}}{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=24}}

==Coins==
[[Image:Coin of Bahram II, Herat mint (2).jpg|thumb|Gold dinar of Bahram II alone, [[Herat]] mint]]
Starting with Bahram II, all the Sasanian shahs are portrayed with earrings on their [[Sasanian coinage|coins]].{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=832}} He is the first shah to have wings on his crown, which refers to the wings of the god's bird, Verethragna.{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=829}} Like his predecessors (with the exception of [[Ardashir I]] and Shapur I, whose legends were slightly different), Bahram II's legend on his coinage was "the Mazda-worshiping, divine Bahram, King of Kings of Iran(ians) and non-Iran(ians), whose image/brilliance is from the gods."{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=836}}{{sfn|Shayegan|2013|p=805}}{{efn|In [[Middle Persian]]: ''Mazdēsn bay Warahrān šāhān šāh Ērān ud Anērān kēčihr az yazdān''.{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=836}}}}

Several coin types were minted during Bahram II's reign; one type imitates him alone; another with him and a female figure; a third one with Bahram II and an unbearded youngster wearing a high [[tiara]] (known as a [[Media (region)|Median]] bonnet); and a fourth one shows Bahram II with the female figure and the unbearded youngster all together.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|pp=25–26}}{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=831}} The female figure is wearing different headdress on some of the coins, sometimes with a boar, griffin, horse or eagle.{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|p=26}} The precise meaning of these variations is unclear.{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|p=26}}

As the coins' legends contain no information regarding the status of these characters, it is difficult to analyze them.{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=831}} The unbearded youngster is usually understood as being the crown prince Bahram III,{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|p=25}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} while the female figure is usually labelled as Bahram II's queen Shapurdukhtak, who was his cousin.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}}{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=831}}{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|p=26}} If the supposition is correct, this would make Bahram II the first (and last) shah to have coins minted of his family.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}} According to the Iranologist [[Touraj Daryaee]], "this is an interesting feature of Bahram II in that he was very much concerned to leave a portrait of his family which incidentally gives us information about the court and the [[Persian people|Persian]] concept of the royal banquet (''bazm'')."{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=11}} The modern historian [[Jamsheed Choksy]] has attempted to establish that the female figure in reality illustrates the goddess [[Anahita]],{{efn|The worship of Anahita was popular under the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] and Sasanians,{{sfn|Choksy|1989|p=131}} and she enjoyed the status of patron deity of the Sasanian dynasty.{{sfn|Choksy|1989|p=119}}}} whilst the unbearded youngster illustrates Verethragna.{{sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2008|p=26}} The reverse shows the traditional [[fire altar]] flanked by two attendants.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}
<gallery>
File:Coin of Bahram II with his queen, Shapurdukhtak.jpg|Drachma of Bahram II with his queen [[Shapurdukhtak]]
File:Silver coin of Bahram II (together with prince), struck at the Balkh mint.jpg|Drachma of Bahram II with his son and heir [[Bahram III]]
File:Bahram II, with Queen and Prince.jpg|Drachma of Bahram II with Shapurdukhtak and Bahram III
</gallery>

== Rock reliefs ==
Various rock reliefs were carved under Bahram II; one of them being at [[Guyim, Shiraz|Guyom]], 27&nbsp;km northwest of [[Shiraz]], where Bahram is portrayed standing alone.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} An additional relief at [[Sar Mashhad]], south of [[Kazerun]], portrays Bahram as a hunter: a dead lion reclines at his feet, and he thrusts his sword into a second lion as it attacks him.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} His queen Shapurdukhtak is holding his right hand in a signal of safeguard, whilst Kartir and another figure, most likely a prince, are watching.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} The scenery has been the subject of several symbolic and metaphorical meanings, thought it is most likely supposed to portray a simple royal display of braveness during a real-life hunt.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} An inscription of Kartir is underneath the relief.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} A third relief at [[Sarab-e Bahram]], close to [[Nurabad, Fars|Nurabad]], and 40&nbsp;km north of [[Bishapur]], portrays Bahram II facing, with Kartir and Papak, the governor of Iberia, to his left, and two other grandees to his right.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}

[[File:IranBishapur6.jpg|thumb|The [[Bishapur]] relief of Bahram II on horseback, being met by a group of Arab envoys.]]
A fourth relief, at Bishapur, portrays Bahram mounted on a horse, whilst facing an Iranian grandee who is escorting a group of six men resembling [[Arabs]] in their clothing, arriving with horses and [[Dromedary|dromedaries]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} Apparently, it depicts the diplomatic mission from the [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarite]] king [[Shammar Yahri'sh]] at the beginning of his reign.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Overlaet |first1=Bruno |author1-link=Bruno Overlaet |title=A Himyarite diplomatic mission to the Sasanian court of Bahram II depicted at Bishapur |journal=Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy |date=November 2009 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=218–221 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0471.2009.00313.x}}</ref> A fifth relief, at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]], portrays Bahram II standing whilst being surrounded by his family members and attendants; to his left are the sculptures of Shapurdukhtak, a prince, the crown prince Bahram III, Kartir, and Narseh.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} To his right are the sculptures of Papak, and two other grandees.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} 

A sixth relief, portraying an equestrian combat, was carved directly below the [[Tomb of Darius the Great|tomb]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] King of Kings [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BCE}}).{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} The relief has two panels. The top panel depicts Bahram II's war against Carus, which he claims as a victory. The lower panel depicts Bahram II's war with Hormizd I Kushanshah.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004}} A seventh relief, at Tang-e (or Sarab-e) Qandil, depicts a [[divine right of kings|divine investiture]] scene, with Bahram II receiving a flower from Anahita.{{sfn|Canepa|2013|p=864}} Bahram II also erected two rock reliefs in [[Barm-e Delak]]: the first depicts Bahram II giving a flower to Shapurdukhtak; the second depicts Bahram II making gesture of piety, whilst being offered a [[diadem]] by a courtier.{{sfn|Canepa|2013|p=864}}

<gallery>
File:Guyum.JPG|Rock relief of Bahram II at [[Guyim, Shiraz|Guyom]]
File:نقش برجسته و سنگ نوشته سرمشهد.jpg|Rock relief at Sar Mashhad, showing Bahram II slaying two lions
File:Sarab Bahram relief.jpg|The [[Sarab-e Bahram]] relief of Bahram II surrounded by grandees, [[Kartir]] and Papak being on his left
File:Naqshe Rostam Darafsh Ordibehesht 93 (43).JPG|Court scene at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]
File:Sarab-e Qandil Panel view.jpg|Tang-e (or Sarab-e) Qandil relief depicting a divine investiture scene of Bahram II receiving a flower by the goddess [[Anahita]]
File:Barm-e Dilak 1.JPG|First [[Barm-e Delak]] relief of Bahram II giving a flower to Shapurdukhtak
File:Barm-e Dilak 2.JPG|Second Barm-e Delak relief of Bahram II making gesture of piety, whilst being offered a [[diadem]] by a courtier
</gallery>

== Legacy ==
During the reign of Bahram II, art in Sasanian Iran flourished, notably in the portrayals of the shah and his courtiers.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} He is the first and only shah to have a woman illustrated on his coins, apart from the 7th-century Sasanian queen [[Boran]] ({{reign|630|630|631|632}}).{{sfn|Brosius|2000}} The modern historian Matthew P. Canepa calls Bahram II a relatively weak shah, whose shortscomings allowed Kartir to take over some of the royal privileges.{{sfn|Canepa|2013|p=862}} Military wise, however, Bahram II was more successful, putting an end to the disturbances in Khuzestan and the east, and repelling the Romans from Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Daryaee|2018}}{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=235}} According to Daryaee and Rezakhani, Bahram II's reign "appears to be one of stability and increasing introspection for the Sasanian administration."{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2016|p=29}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{The History of al-Tabari|volume=5}}	
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia | last = Brosius | first = Maria | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition | location = New York | year = 2000 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Canepa|first1=Matthew P. |editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Sasanian Rock Reliefs}}
* {{cite journal |last=Choksy|first=Jamsheed K.|author-link= Jamsheed Choksy |year=1989 |title=A Sasanian Monarch, his queen, crown prince, and deities: The coinage of Wahram II|journal=American Numismatic Society |volume=1 |pages=117–135 |jstor=43580158 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book|last=Christensen|first=Peter|title=The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press|year=1993|isbn=978-1784533182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ebB_ac13v3UC&q=false|pages= 1–351}}
* {{cite book |title=The Sasanian Era |year=2008 |publisher= I.B.Tauris |last1=Curtis|first1= Vesta Sarkhosh|last2=Stewart|first2=Sarah |pages=1–200 |isbn=978-1845116903|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYsAAwAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book | title = Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire | year = 2014 | publisher = I.B.Tauris | last = Daryaee| first = Touraj | author-link = Touraj Daryaee | pages = 1–240 | isbn = 978-0857716668 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LU0BAwAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |first1=Touraj |last1=Daryaee|first2=Khodadad|last2=Rezakhani|title=From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran |date=2016 |publisher=H&S Media |pages=1–126|isbn=978-1780835778|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYnMCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |first1=Touraj |last1=Daryaee|first2=Khodadad|last2=Rezakhani|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE – 651 CE) |date=2017 |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Sasanian Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=978-0692864401|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|last1=Daryaee|first1=Touraj|authorlink=|title=Bahram II|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-604?}}
* {{The Cambridge History of Iran|volume=3b | last = Lukonin | first = V. G. | authorlink =  | chapter = Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade | pages=681–747}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Bahrām | last = Multiple authors | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-the-name-of-six-sasanian-kings | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 | pages = 514–522 | location = New York | year = 1988 }}
*{{cite book | last = Payne | first = Richard E. | title = A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity |publisher=Univ of California Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0520292451|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtjsCQAAQBAJ&q=false | pages = 1–320 }}
* {{cite book|last=Pourshariati|first=Parvaneh|title=Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84511-645-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=David |author-link1=David Stone Potter |title=Constantine the Emperor |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199755868}}
* {{The Cambridge History of Iran|volume=3a|last=Frye|first=R. N.|authorlink= Richard Nelson Frye|chapter=The political history of Iran under the Sasanians}}
* {{cite book | title = The History of Ancient Iran | year = 1984 | publisher = C.H.Beck | last = Frye | first = R. N. | isbn = 9783406093975 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye| url-access = registration }}
* {{cite book |last1=Schindel |first1=Nikolaus |editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Sasanian Coinage}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kia |first1=Mehrdad |title=The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2016 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-1610693912 }} (2 volumes)
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Bahrām III | last = Klíma | first = O. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-03 | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. III, online edition, Fasc. 5 | pages = 514–522 | location = New York | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite book |last2=Jones |first2=A. H. M. |last1=Martindale |first1=J. R. |last3=Morris |first3=J. |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume 1, AD 260-395 |date=1971 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521072335}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Bahrām II | last = Shahbazi | first = A. Shapur | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-02 | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 | pages = 514–522 | location = New York | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Hormozd Kusansah |first=A. Shapur |last=Shahbazi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hormozd-kusansah | location = New York |year=2004 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last = Shahbazi |first = A. Shapur |title = Sasanian dynasty |url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty |year = 2005 |encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition | location = New York }}
* {{cite book |last1=Shayegan|first1=M. Rahim|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Sasanian Political Ideology}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Kartir | last = Skjærvø | first = Prods Oktor | author-link = Prods Oktor Skjaervo | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kartir | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. XV, Fasc. 6 | pages = 608–628 | location = New York | year = 2011 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Rapp|first1=Stephen H.|title=The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1472425522|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T8VIBQAAQBAJ&q=rapp+inscription+kartir}}
* {{cite book | title = ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity | year = 2017 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | last = Rezakhani | first = Khodadad | isbn = 978-1474400299 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bjRWDwAAQBAJ&q=false}}
* {{cite journal |last=Toumanoff|first=Cyril |author-link= Cyril Toumanoff |year=1969 |title=Chronology of the early kings of Iberia|journal=Traditio |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=25 |pages=1–33 |doi= 10.1017/S0362152900010898|jstor=27830864 |s2cid=151472930 }} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Narseh | last = Weber | first = Ursula | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/narseh-sasanian-king | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition | location = New York | year = 2016 }}
* {{ODLA|last1=Wiesehöfer|first1=Josef|authorlink=Josef Wiesehöfer|title=Bahram I|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-603?rskey=rkOrOO&result=1}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Bahrām (Vərəθraγna) | last1 = Gnoli |first2 = G. P. |last2= Jamzadeh | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-1 | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 | pages = 510–514 | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite journal | title = Wahrām II., König der Könige von Ērān und Anērān | trans-title = Wahram II, King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran | last = Weber | first = Ursula | journal = Iranica Antiqua | volume = 44 | year = 2009 | pages = 559–643 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Wahrām II. | last = Weber | first = Ursula | url = https://www.dr-ursula-weber.de/Prosopographie/web/viewer.php?file=Wahram_II.pdf | encyclopedia  = Prosopographie des Sasanidenreiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. [Prosopography of the Sasanian Empire in the 3rd Century AD] | year = 2024 }}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian dynasty]]||||293}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Bahram I]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran]]|years=274–293}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Bahram III]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Sasanian Rulers}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bahram 02}}
[[Category:293 deaths]]
[[Category:3rd-century Sasanian monarchs]]
[[Category:3rd-century births]]
[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars]]
[[Category:Sasanian governors of Sakastan]]