View source for Baltic Germans

{{Short description|Ethnic Germans of Latvia and Estonia}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Baltic Germans
| native_name = {{langx|de|Deutsch-Balten}} 
| native_name_lang = German
| region1 =
| pop1 = {{circa|5,200}}<br />(Germans currently in Latvia and Estonia, not necessarily Baltic Germans in the same historical and cultural sense)
| region2 = {{flag|Estonia}}:
| pop2 = 2,701
| region3 = {{flag|Latvia}}:
| pop3 = 2,554
| region4 = '''Historically:'''
| pop4 = {{Center block|{{Plainlist|
* [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|20x22px|alt=|link=]] {{lang|la|[[Terra Mariana]]}}
* [[File:Flag of the Courland Governorate.svg|20x22px|border|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Courland]]
* [[File:Eestimaa värvid.svg|20x22px|border|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Estonia]]
* [[File:Flag of the Governorate of Livonia.svg|20x22px|border|alt=|link=]] [[Duchy of Livonia]]
}}}}
| langs = [[Low German]], [[High German languages|High German]]
| rels = [[Lutheran]] majority<br/>[[Roman Catholic]] minority<ref>According to Gerhard Reichling, out of 250,000 Germans deported from the Baltic states in the [[Flight and expulsion of Germans]] 239,000 were Protestant and 8,000 were Catholic.</ref><ref>Gerhard Reichling, ''Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen'', part 1, Bonn: 1995, pp. 8</ref>
| related_groups = [[Germanic peoples]], [[Germans]], [[Germans in Russia]], [[Estonian Swedes]], [[German diaspora]]; 
more distantly [[Livonians]], [[Estonians]], [[Latvians]];
| related-c = 
}}
{{History of Latvia}}
{{History of Estonia}}

'''Baltic Germans''' ({{langx|de|Deutsch-Balten}} or {{lang|de|Deutschbalten}}, later {{lang|de|Baltendeutsche}}<!--; and остзейцы ''ostzeitsy'' 'Balters' in Russian<ref>Андреева Н. С.2001. Кто такие «остзейцы»? (pp 173-175). ''Вопросы истории''. No 10 173—175</ref>-->; {{langx|et|Baltisakslased}}; {{langx|lv|Vācbaltieši}};
{{langx|liv|Līwõdsaksad}}; {{langx|ltg|Baļtejis vuocīši}}) are [[Germans|ethnic German]] inhabitants of the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], in what today are [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]. Since [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|their resettlement]] in 1945 after the end of [[World War II]], Baltic Germans have drastically declined as a geographically determined [[ethnic groups in Europe|ethnic group]] in the region, with diaspora generally relocating to Germany proper and beyond.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miljan |first=Toivo |title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |year=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=121 |isbn=978-0-8108-6571-6}}</ref> 

Since the [[Late Middle Ages]], native German-speakers formed the majority of [[merchants]] and [[clergy]], and the large majority of the [[Baltic nobility|local landowning nobility]] who effectively constituted a [[ruling class]] over indigenous [[Latvians|Latvian]] and [[Estonians|Estonian]] non-nobles. By the time a distinct Baltic German ethnic identity began emerging in the 19th century, the majority of self-identifying Baltic Germans were non-nobles belonging mostly to the urban and professional middle class.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, [[Catholic Church in Germany|Catholic German]] traders and crusaders (''see {{lang|de|[[Ostsiedlung]]|italic=unset}}'') began settling in the eastern Baltic territories.<ref>{{cite book |last=Christiansen |first=Eric |title=The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier 1100–1525 |date=1980 |location=Minneapolis |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-0994-9 |oclc=6092550}}</ref><!--After the 13th-century [[Livonian Crusade]], the German-speakers assumed control of government, politics, economics, education and culture of these lands--><!--, ruling for more than 700 years until 1918—usually in alliance with Polish, Swedish or Russian overlords following the dissolution of the [[State of the Teutonic Order]]--> With the decline of [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Low German]] became the dominant language of official documents, commerce, education and government and later on [[High German]]. By the first half of the 20th century, the Baltic Germans were, until after World War II, along with the [[Transylvanian Saxons]] and the [[Zipser Germans]] (in Romania and Slovakia respectively), one of the three oldest continuously [[Geographical distribution of German speakers|German-speaking]] and ethnic German groups of the [[German diaspora]] in Europe.

The majority of medieval Catholic settlers and their German-speaking descendants lived in the local towns of [[Terra Mariana|medieval Livonia]]. However, a small wealthy elite formed the [[Baltic nobility]], acquiring large rural estates<!--and comprising the social, commercial, political and cultural elite of [[Livonian Confederation|Livonia]] for several centuries-->. When Sweden had ceded its Livonian territories to the [[Russian Empire]] after the [[Great Northern War]] (1700–1721), many of these German-speaking aristocrats began taking high positions in the military, political and civilian life of the [[Russian Empire]], particularly in its capital city [[Saint Petersburg]]. Most Baltic Germans were citizens of the Russian Empire until Estonia and Latvia achieved independence in 1918. Thereafter, most Baltic Germans held Estonian or Latvian citizenship until their [[Nazi–Soviet population transfers|coerced resettlement]] to [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939, prior to the Soviet invasion and occupation of Estonia and Latvia in 1940.

The Baltic German population never surpassed more than 10% of the total population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Baltic-states|title=Baltic states &#124; History, Map, People, Independence, & Facts|website=Britannica.com|access-date=February 23, 2022|archive-date=June 11, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611102707/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37264/Baltic-states|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1881, there were 180,000 Baltic Germans in Russia's Baltic provinces; however, by 1914, this number had declined to 162,000.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwLVOSCXhXcC&q=baltic+german+community&pg=PA144|title=Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten|first=Georg von|last=Rauch|date=September 7, 1974|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02600-1|via=Google Books}}</ref> In 1881 there were approximately 46,700 Germans in [[Estonia]] (5.3% of the population).<ref>[http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm Baltic Germans in Estonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223082557/http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}, Estonian Institute einst.ee</ref> According to the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897, there were 120,191 Germans in [[Latvia]], or 6.2% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/latvia/9.htm|title=Latvia - Population|website=countrystudies.us|access-date=November 16, 2008|archive-date=June 23, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623125039/http://countrystudies.us/latvia/9.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Baltic German presence in the Baltics came effectively close to an end in late 1939, following the signing of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] and the subsequent [[Nazi–Soviet population transfers]].<ref name="LSM-Oct2018">{{cite news |last1=Ķibilds |first1=Mārtiņš |title=After 700 years in Latvia, Baltic Germans vanished in a matter of weeks |url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/culture/history/after-700-years-in-latvia-baltic-germans-vanished-in-a-matter-of-weeks.a297470/ |access-date=26 October 2018 |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting of Latvia]] |date=26 October 2018 |archive-date=October 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026175109/https://eng.lsm.lv/article/culture/history/after-700-years-in-latvia-baltic-germans-vanished-in-a-matter-of-weeks.a297470/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Nazi Germany]] resettled almost all the Baltic Germans under the {{lang|de|[[Heim ins Reich]]}} program into the newly formed {{lang|de|[[Reichsgau]]e}} of {{lang|de|[[Reichsgau Wartheland|Wartheland]]}} and [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia|Danzig-West Prussia]] (on the territory of the occupied [[Second Polish Republic]]). In 1945, most ethnic Germans were [[heimatvertriebene|expelled]] from these lands as part of the wider [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsion of Germans]] from Central and Eastern Europe after World War II. Resettlement was planned by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] for the territory remaining under Germany under terms of the border changes promulgated at the [[Potsdam Conference]], i.e. west of the [[Oder–Neisse line]].

Ethnic Germans from [[East Prussia]] and Lithuania are sometimes incorrectly considered Baltic Germans for reasons of cultural, linguistic, and historical affinities. Germans of [[East Prussia]] held Prussian, and after 1871, [[German nationality law|German citizenship]], because the territory they lived in was part of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]].

==Ethnic composition==
Baltic Germans were not a purely German ethnic group. The early crusaders, tradesmen and craftsmen and even nobles often married local women,as there were no German women available. Some noble families, such as the [[Lieven]]s, claimed descent through such women from native chieftains. Many of the German [[Livonian Order|Livonian-Order]] soldiers died during the [[Livonian War]] of 1558–1583. New German arrivals came to the area. During this time, the [[Low German]] (''Plattdeutsch'') of the original settlers was gradually replaced by the [[High German languages|High German]] (''Hochdeutsch'') of the new settlers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hagström Molin |first=Emma |date=2025-07-22 |title=Colonisation, Decline and Loss: Making Livonian Time in Nineteenth-Century Russia |journal=Time & Society |language=EN |article-number=0961463X251333853 |doi=10.1177/0961463X251333853 |issn=0961-463X}}</ref>

In the course of their 700-year history, Baltic German families had ethnic German roots, but also intermarried extensively with Estonians, Livonians and Latvians, as well as with other Northern or Central European peoples, such as Danes, Swedes, Irish, English, Scots, Poles, Hungarians and Dutch.In the early years of the Russian empire, some even married into Russian nobility and society. In cases where any intermarriage occurred, members of the other ethnic groups frequently assimilated into German culture, adopting German language, customs, and family names. They were then considered Germans, leading to the [[ethnogenesis]] of the Baltic Germans. The families of [[Barclay de Tolly]] and of [[George Armitstead (mayor)|George Armitstead]] (1847&ndash;1912), who had emigrated from the British Isles, married into and became part of the Baltic-German community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/I_MMVII/toimetus.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012014431/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/I_MMVII/toimetus.html|title=Deutschbalten, im 19.Jh. entstandene Bez. fÜr die dt. Bewohner der Ostseeprovinzen des Russ. Reiches, der spÄteren Staaten Estland und Lettland|archive-date=October 12, 2016|access-date=February 23, 2022}}</ref>

==Territories==
Baltic German settlements in the Baltic area consisted of the following territories:
*''[[Estonia|Estland]]'' ({{langx|la|Estonia}}; {{langx|et|Eestimaa}}), roughly the northern half of present-day Estonia; major towns: ''Reval'' ([[Tallinn]]), ''Narwa'' ([[Narva]]), ''Wesenberg'' ([[Rakvere]]), ''Weissenstein'' ([[Paide]]), ''Hapsal'' ([[Haapsalu]]).
*''[[Livonia|Livland]]'' ({{langx|la|Livonia}}; {{langx|et|Liivimaa}}; {{langx|lv|Vidzeme}}), roughly the southern half of present-day Estonia and the northern and eastern part of today's Latvia ([[Vidzeme]]); major towns: [[Riga]], ''Wenden'' ([[Cēsis]]), ''Wolmar'' ([[Valmiera]]), ''Walk'' ([[Valga, Estonia|Valga]] and [[Valka]]), ''Dorpat'' ([[Tartu]]), ''Pernau'' ([[Pärnu]]), ''Fellin'' ([[Viljandi]]).
*''[[Courland|Kurland]]'' ({{langx|la|Curonia}}; also {{langx|en|Courland}}; {{langx|lv|Kurzeme}}), roughly the western half of present-day Latvia ([[Courland|Kurzeme]] and [[Zemgale]]); major towns: ''Mitau'' ([[Jelgava]]), ''Windau'' ([[Ventspils]]), ''Libau'' ([[Liepāja]]).
*''[[Saaremaa|Ösel]]'' (the island of Saaremaa) belonging to present-day Estonia; major town: ''Arensburg'' ([[Kuressaare]]).

==History==

===Conquering the Baltics===
{{main|Livonian Crusade|Terra Mariana}}
[[Image:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg|thumb|Map of [[Terra Mariana]] in 1260]]
[[File:LivoniaCitznsCmmnrs.png|thumb|left|Citizens in 16th century medieval Livonia (upper panel), commoners (lower panel)]]

Small numbers of [[Germans|ethnic Germans]] began to settle in the area in the late 12th century, when traders and Christian missionaries began to visit the coastal lands inhabited by tribes who spoke [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] and [[Baltic languages]]. Systematic conquest and settlement of these lands was completed during the [[Northern Crusades]] of the 12th and 13th centuries; this resulted in creation of the [[Terra Mariana]] confederation, under the protection of Roman Popes and [[Holy Roman Empire]]. After the heavy defeat in the 1236 [[Battle of Saule]] the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] became a part of the [[Teutonic Order]].

During the next three centuries, German-speaking soldiers, clergymen, merchants and craftsmen constituted the majority of the quickly growing urban population, as the native inhabitants usually were prohibited from settling there. In 1230, the [[Livonian Order]] invited over 200 German merchants from [[Gotland]] to settle in [[Tallinn]] where they founded a market town.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miljan |first1=Toivo |title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |date=21 May 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5 |page=200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pUawCQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> Membership in the [[Hanseatic League]] and active trade links with Russia and Europe increased the wealth of German traders.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mokyr |first1=Joel |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510507-0 |pages=495–498 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssNMAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Skutsch |first1=Carl |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-19388-1 |page=503 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXYKAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

===Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish rule===
{{main|Estonia under Swedish rule|Duchy of Courland and Semigallia}}
[[File:Sw BalticProv en.png|thumb|Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish lands in the Baltics]]
As the military power of the Teutonic Knights weakened during the 15th century wars with the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]], [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]], the Livonian branch in the north began to pursue its own policies. When the Prussian branch of the Order secularized in 1525 and became a Polish vassal state as the [[Duchy of Prussia]], the Livonian branch remained independent while searching for a similar way to secularize. Livonia became mostly Protestant during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Filyushkin |first=Alexander |date=2016 |title=Livonian War in the Context of the European Wars of the 16 th Century: Conquest, Borders, Geopolitics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44647035 |journal=Russian History |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |issn=0094-288X}}</ref>

In 1558, the [[Tsardom of Russia]] began the [[Livonian War]] against [[Terra Mariana]] which soon involved the Kingdoms of Poland, Sweden, and Denmark and lasted for 20 years. In 1561, Terra Mariana ceased to exist and was divided among Denmark (which took the island of [[Saaremaa|Ösel]]), Sweden (which took northern Estonia) and Poland, which annexed the newly created [[Duchy of Livonia]], and granted the [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]], a vassal state of Poland-Lithuania, to the last Master of the Livonian Order [[Gotthard Kettler]]. The secularized land was divided among the remaining knights who formed the basis of [[Baltic nobility]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Filyushkin |first=Alexander |date=2016 |title=Livonian War in the Context of the European Wars of the 16 th Century: Conquest, Borders, Geopolitics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44647035 |journal=Russian History |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |issn=0094-288X}}</ref>

The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia existed as a German-speaking country until 1795, while the northern part of Duchy of Livonia was conquered by Sweden which controlled [[Estonia under Swedish rule|parts of Estonia]] between 1561 and 1710 and [[Swedish Livonia]] between 1621 and 1710, having signed an agreement with the local Baltic German nobles not to undermine their political rights and autonomy.

The ''Academia Gustaviana'' (now [[University of Tartu]]) was founded in 1632 by King [[Gustavus Adolphus]] of Sweden. It remained the only institution of higher education in the former Livonian territories and became the intellectual focus of the Baltic Germans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-27 |title=History of the University of Tartu {{!}} Tartu Ülikool |url=https://ut.ee/en/content/history-university-tartu |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=ut.ee |language=en}}</ref>

At the end of the 17th century, Sweden introduced the land [[reduction (Sweden)|reduction]] in its Baltic provinces and properties held by German nobility became the property of [[the Crown]]. That effectively turned serfs into free peasants. However, it would be overturned when Russia conquered these territories in 1710 and restored the rights of German landowners under the [[Treaty of Nystad]].{{cn|date=May 2025}}

===Russia's Baltic governorates (1710–1917)===
{{main|Baltic governorates}}
[[File:Meyerbaltikum.jpg|thumb|Russian Baltic governorates]]
[[File:Baltic Germans.png|thumb|Distribution of Baltic Germans in the Russian Empire in 1897 {{legend|#000053|15% - 20% German}}  {{legend|#0000ac|10% - 15% German}}  {{legend|#3f48cc|5% - 10% German}}  {{legend|#00a2e8|3% - 5% German}}  {{legend|#99d9ea|1% - 3% German}}  {{legend|#c3c3c3|0% - 1% German}}]]
[[File:Ethnographic map of Lithuanians and Latvians in 1847 by Heinrich Berghaus.jpg|thumb|Ethnographic map of Lithuanians (Littauer) and Latvians (Letten) in 1847 by [[Heinrich Berghaus]]. The green spots in Memel ([[Klaipėda]]), Libau ([[Liepāja]]), Windau ([[Ventspils]]), Goldingen ([[Kuldiga]]), Mitau ([[Jelgava]]), Volmar ([[Valmiera]]) and Riga show German populations]]
[[File:Rundale palace, still the most beautiful in the world. Latvia (10759228303).jpg|thumb|Dukes of Courland's [[Rundāle Palace]]]]
[[File:Vääna mõisa peahoone 18.-19.saj (2).jpg|thumb|alt=Vääna manor, Estonia.|The many manors in Estonia and Latvia testify to the former splendor of the Baltic German landowning class. Pictured, the von Stackelberg family's manor in [[Vääna]], Estonia]]
[[File:Mezotne garden side 2014 (1b).jpg|thumb|The von Lieven family's [[Mežotne Palace]] in Latvia]]
Between 1710 and 1795, following Russia's success in the [[Great Northern War]] and the three [[Partitions of Poland]], the areas inhabited by Baltic Germans eventually became [[Baltic governorates]] of the [[Russian Empire]]: [[Courland Governorate]], [[Governorate of Livonia]] and [[Governorate of Estonia]].

====Autonomy====
[[File:Ethnic Composition Latvia.jpg|thumb|Ethnic Composition Latvia 1863-1935. Up until the end of the 19th century, many now Latvian settlements had dominant German populations.]]
The Baltic provinces remained autonomous and were self-governed by the local [[Baltic nobility]]. Until the imperial reforms of the 1880s, local government was in the hands of the [[landtag]] of each province, in which only members of the matriculated [[Baltic nobility]] held membership and cities were ruled by German [[burgomaster]]s.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Between 1710 and approximately 1880, the Baltic German ruling class enjoyed great autonomy from the Imperial government and achieved great political influence in the Imperial court. Starting from the 18th century, the Baltic German nobility also assumed some leading posts in the Russian imperial government.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Germans, other than the local estate-owners, mainly lived in the cities, such as [[Riga]], [[Tallinn|''Reval'']], [[Tartu|''Dorpat'']], [[Pärnu|''Pernau'']] and [[Jelgava|''Mitau'']]. As late as the mid-19th century, the population of many of these cities still had a German majority, with Estonian, Latvian or Jewish minorities. By 1867, [[Riga]]'s population was 42.9% German.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lnvm.lv/en/|title=National History Museum of Latvia|website=Lnvm.lv|access-date=February 23, 2022|archive-date=January 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110114837/http://lnvm.lv/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> Until the late 19th century, most of the professional and learned classes in the region, the ''[[Intellectual|literati]]'', were Germans.

German political and [[cultural autonomy]] ceased in the 1880s, when [[Russification]] replaced German administration and schooling with the usage of [[Russian language|Russian]]. After 1885 provincial governors usually were Russians.

====Rise of native peoples====
Years of peace under Russian rule brought increasing prosperity and many new manor houses were built on country estates, but economic exploitation worsened the situation of the native population.
For examples, see [[List of palaces and manor houses in Latvia]] and [[List of palaces and manor houses in Estonia]].{{cn|date=May 2025}}

The native [[Latvians|Latvian]] and [[Estonians|Estonian]] population enjoyed fewer rights under the Baltic German nobility compared with farmers in Germany or Sweden. In contrast to the Baltic Germans, Estonians and Latvians had restricted [[civil rights]] and resided mostly in rural areas as [[serfs]], tradesmen, or as servants in manors and urban homes. They had no rights to leave their masters and no surnames. This was in keeping with the social scheme of things in [[Russian Empire]]. It lasted until the 19th century, when [[emancipation]] from [[serfdom]] brought those inhabitants increased civil freedoms and some political rights.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

In 1804, Livonian peasant law was introduced by the Imperial government, aimed at improving conditions for serfs. Serfdom was abolished in all Baltic provinces between 1816 and 1820, about half a century earlier than in Russia proper. For some time, there was no outward tension between the German speakers and indigenous residents.

Earlier, if any Latvian or Estonian who managed to rise above his class was expected to Germanize and to forget his roots, by the mid-19th century German urban classes began to feel increasing competition from the natives, who after [[the First Latvian National Awakening]] and [[Estonian national awakening]] produced their own middle class and moved to German- and Jewish-dominated towns and cities in increasing numbers.

The [[Revolution of 1905]] led to attacks against the Baltic German landowners, the burning of manors, and the torture and even killing of members of the nobility. During the 1905 Revolution groups of rebels burned over 400 manor houses and German-owned buildings and killed 82 Germans. In response Cossack punitive expeditions aided by German nobles and officers burned down hundreds of farms, arrested and deported thousands and summarily executed at least 2,000 people.

Reaction to 1905 Revolution included a scheme by Karl Baron von Manteuffel-Szoege and Silvio Broedrich-Kurmahlen to pacify the countryside by settling up to 20,000 ethnic German farmers, mostly from [[Volhynia]], in Courland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myvolyn.de/wolhynien-spezial/wolhynier-im-baltikum.html|title=Begegnung mit Wolhynien|website=Myvolyn.de}}</ref>

===World War I===
{{main|Ober Ost|United Baltic Duchy}}
World War I brought the end of the alliance of the Baltic Germans and the Russian Tsarist government. German heritage led to their being viewed as the enemy by [[Russians]]. They were also seen as traitors by the [[German Empire]] if they remained loyal to Russia. Their loyalty to the state was questioned, and rumours of a German [[fifth column]] increased with the defeats of the Imperial army led by Baltic German general [[Paul von Rennenkampf]]. All German schools and societies were closed in the Estonian Governorate and Germans were ordered to leave the Courland Governorate for inner Russia.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

Courland was conquered by Germany in 1915 and included into the military [[Ober Ost]] administration. After the Russian surrender at the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] in 1918, the [[German Empire]] occupied the remaining Baltic provinces.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

The [[Ober Ost]] military administration began plans for German colonization of Courland. On April 20, 1917, the Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern front announced that a third of arable land there should be reserved for settlement by German war veterans. This was approved by Courland's German nobility on September 22, 1917.<ref name="auto"/>

====United Baltic Duchy====
Livonian and Estonian nobles delivered a note of independence to Soviet representatives in Stockholm on January 28, 1918, announcing their intention to break away from Russia under the rights granted to them by the [[Treaty of Nystad]] of 1721. In response, the Bolsheviks, who controlled Estonia, arrested 567 leading Germans and deported them to Russia. After the signing of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] they were allowed to return. Under German-Soviet treaties, Germany gained control over Courland, Riga, Saaremaa (Ösel), Livonia and Estonia.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

In the spring of 1918, Baltic Germans announced the restoration of the independent [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)|Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and pursued plans for uniting it with the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. On April 12, 1918, Baltic German representatives from all Baltic provinces met in Riga and called on the German Emperor to annex the Baltic lands.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

Subsequently, a plan for a [[United Baltic Duchy]] ruled by [[Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg]], instead of outright annexation, was developed. Its regency council met on November 9, 1918, but collapsed with the German Empire.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

===Independent Baltic states===
{{main|Latvian War of Independence|Baltische Landeswehr}}
The Baltic Germans' rule and class privileges came to the end with the demise of the Russian Empire (due to the [[Bolshevik revolution]] of October 1917) and the independence of [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] in 1918–1919.

Baltic Germans suffered greatly under Bolshevik regimes in Estonia and Latvia. While the Bolshevik regimes were short-lived, they pursued the [[Red Terror]] against Germans, often killing them purely because of their nationality.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hnq7AwAAQBAJ&q=baltic+germans&pg=PA244|title=The Estonians; The long road to independence|first1=Gunter|last1=Faure|first2=Teresa|last2=Mensing|date=September 7, 2018|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-1-105-53003-6|via=Google Books}}{{self-published source|date=February 2020}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}}

After the collapse of the German Empire, Baltic Germans in Estonia began forming volunteer units to defend against the Bolshevik threat. On November 27, 1918 this was authorized by the Estonian government, and the Volunteer Baltic Battalion (''Freiwilligen Baltenbataillon'') was formed under the command of Colonel [[Constantin von Weiss]] ([[:de:Constantin von Weiß|de]]).

During the Estonian and Latvian wars of independence from 1918 to 1920, many Baltic Germans voluntarily enlisted in the newly formed Estonian and Latvian armies to help secure the independence of these countries from Russia. These Baltic German military units became known as the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'' in Latvia and ''[[Baltenregiment]] ([[:de:Baltenregiment|de]])'' in Estonia. The State archives of Estonia and Latvia keep individual military records of each person who fought in this war.

''Baltische Landeswehr'' units took Riga on May 22, 1919 which was followed by White Terror in which up to 2,000 people, mostly Latvians, were shot as suspected Bolshevik supporters.

Baltic German outlying estates were frequent targets of local Bolsheviks (as portrayed in the film, ''[[Coup de Grâce (1976 film)|Coup de Grâce]]'') and the combination of local Bolsheviks and nationalists following independence brought about land nationalisations and a displacement of Baltic Germans from positions of authority. Baltic Germans of the Livonian Governorate found themselves in two new countries, both of which introduced sweeping agrarian reforms aimed at the large land owners, an absolute majority of whom were Germans.

As a result of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] and the subsequent [[Russian Civil War]], many Baltic Germans fled to Germany. After 1919, many Baltic Germans felt obliged to depart the newly independent states for [[Weimar Republic|Germany]], but many stayed as ordinary citizens.<ref>Hiden, John, ''The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik'', [[Cambridge University]] Press, 1987, {{ISBN|0-521-32037-2}}</ref>

In 1925, there were 70,964 Germans in Latvia (3.6%) and 62,144 in 1935 (3.2% of population). Riga remained by far the largest German center with 38,523 Germans residing there in 1935, while Tallinn then had 6,575 Germans.<ref name="auto"/>

While the German landed class soon lost most of their lands after the agrarian reforms, they continued to work in their professions and to lead their companies. German cultural autonomy was respected.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Cultural_autonomy_of_national_minorities_and_cultural_self-government_in_the_Republic_of_Estonia/|title=Estonica.org - Cultural autonomy of national minorities and cultural self-government in the Republic of Estonia|website=Estonica.org|access-date=February 23, 2022|archive-date=February 4, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204182842/http://www.estonica.org/en/Cultural_autonomy_of_national_minorities_and_cultural_self-government_in_the_Republic_of_Estonia/}}</ref> The [[Committee of the German Baltic Parties]] in Latvia and [[German-Baltic Party|Deutsch-baltische Partei in Estland]] in Estonia participated in elections and won seats.

At the same time, as both young states built their institutions, this often reduced the status of their minorities. In Latvia, children of mixed marriages were registered as Latvians while in Estonia they took the nationality of their fathers, who increasingly were Estonians. This quickly reduced the number of German children. German place names were eliminated from public use. German congregations lost their churches. [[St Mary's Cathedral, Tallinn|Tallinn Cathedral]] was given to an Estonian congregation in 1927. [[1923 Latvian church property referendum|After the 1923 referendum]] [[St. James's Cathedral, Riga|St. James's Cathedral]] in Riga was lost and [[Riga Cathedral]] taken away after another [[1931 Latvian Riga Cathedral referendum|referendum in 1931]].
[[File:Proportion Baltic Germans.png|thumb|upright|Decrease in the proportion of Baltic Germans in the largest Latvian cities]]

====Agrarian reforms====
{{main|Latvian Land Reform of 1920}}
At the start of independence, Baltic Germans owned 58% of land in Estonia and 48% in Latvia. Radical [[Latvian Land Reform of 1920|agrarian reform]]s were implemented in both countries to break German power and to distribute land to the veterans of independence wars and landless peasants. This largely destroyed the landed class of German noble families and their economic base.

On October 10, 1919, the Estonian parliament expropriated 1,065 estates (96.6% of all estates). The law of March 1, 1926 set the compensation to the former owners of arable land at about 3% of its market value and no compensation at all for the forests. This almost instantly bankrupted the German noble class, even if they were allowed to keep some 50 hectares of their lands.<ref name="auto"/>

On September 16, 1920, the [[Constitutional Assembly of Latvia]] nationalized 1,300 estates comprising 3.7{{nbsp}}million hectares of land. Former German owners were allowed to keep 50 hectares of land and farm equipment. In 1924, the [[Saeima]] decided that no compensation would be paid to former owners. In 1929, the Saeima voted that veterans of the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'' could not receive any land.<ref name="auto"/>

====Estonia====
In Estonia, there was only one German party, which from 1926 was led by [[Axel de Vries]] ([[:de:Axel de Vries|de]]), editor of ''Revaler Bote''. Their leading parliamentarian was Werner Hasselblatt (1890–1958). Germans never received ministerial posts in governments. The three largest minorities – Germans, Swedes and Russians – sometimes formed election coalitions. The ''Deutsch-baltische Partei in Estland'' was established to defend the interests of German landowners, who wanted to receive compensation for their nationalized lands and properties. After land nationalization they received no compensation, but could keep plots up to 50 hectares, which was not enough to support their manor houses.

Germans were banned from governmental and military positions{{fact|date=June 2023}}. Many Germans sold their properties and emigrated to Scandinavia or Western Europe. Most of the grand manor houses were taken over by schools, hospitals, local administration and museums.

Estonia's Baltic German population was smaller than Latvia's, so as Estonians continued to fill professional positions such as law and medicine, there was less of a leadership role for the Baltic Germans. Baron Wilhelm [[Wrangel family|Wrangell]], leader of the Baltic German cultural association between 1933 and 1938 was included in the Estonian Council of State after 1937 as a token representative of minorities. The last leader of Baltic German Cultural administration was [[:de:Hellmuth Weiss|Hellmuth Weiss]].

On February 12, 1925, Estonia adopted the Cultural Autonomy and National Minorities Act, which provided for some cultural autonomy of Germans. Despite this, the German community in Estonia continued to decline as the majority of young people chose to emigrate. By 1934, there were 16,346 Baltic Germans in Estonia, 1.5% of the total population.<ref name="auto1"/>

Estonia allowed German schools to teach in the German language. These schools were overseen by the ''Gesellschaft Deutsche Schulhilfe'', which was part of the Union of German Societies in Estonia. After adoption of the Minority law of February 5, 1925 the Baltic German Cultural Council was created on November 1, 1925. In 1928, German schools were attended by 3,456 pupils.<ref name="auto"/>

====Latvia====
[[File:Large Guild Riga 1918.jpg|thumb|upright|Building of the {{clarification needed span|text=Large Guild|reason=What was the "Large Guild".  Appropriate citation, please.|date=July 2024}} in Riga, 1918]]

In Latvia, Baltic Germans remained a politically active and organized ethnic group, although they lost some influence after the [[1934 Latvian coup d'état]]. A couple of times Germans received ministerial posts in coalition governments. The commander of Latvia's Navy between 1919 and 1931 was Admiral Archibald Count of [[Keyserlingk family|Keyserlingk]].

Six, later seven, German parties existed and formed a coalition in the [[Saeima]]. The leading politicians were Baron Wilhelm Friedrich Karl von Fircks, leader of the Baltic-German People's Party and [[Paul Schiemann]], editor-in-chief of the ''[[Rigasche Rundschau]]'' newspaper and leader of the Baltic-German Democratic Party. Increased activity of National Socialist supporters in the German community led to the resignation of Schiemann from the ''Rigasche Rundschau'' in 1933.

Minority cultural affairs were overseen by the Ministry of Culture and the German section was led by pastor Karl Keller (1868–1939) and later by Wolfgang Wachtsmuth. In 1923, there were 12,168 pupils in German schools. The Herder Institute, a private German university with three faculties (Theology, Jurisprudence and Political Science and Philosophy) was established.

In 1926, the German community introduced voluntary self-taxation, asking all Germans to contribute up to 3% of their monthly income to community activities. In 1928, the Baltic German National Community was established as the central representative body of Baltic Germans in Latvia.<ref name="auto"/>

The educational autonomy of Germans was severely limited in 1931–1933, when the Minister of Education [[:lv:Atis Ķeniņš|Atis Ķeniņš]] introduced a policy of latvianization in minority schools. On July 18, 1934 the autonomous German schools were brought under complete control of the Ministry of Education.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

After the coup of May 15, 1934, all associations and independent business organizations had to shut down. This affected the German community especially hard, as they lost their ancient communal centers – [[Large Guild, Riga|guilds]], and all of their property was nationalized. A wave of takeovers of Jewish, Russian and German businesses then followed; banks, factories and trading companies were purchased by state-owned banks at set rates in order to reduce minority control over businesses.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

===Resettlement of all Baltic Germans (1939–1944)===
{{See also|Nazi–Soviet population transfers|Evacuation of German civilians during the end of World War II|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)}}
<gallery>
Bundesarchiv Bild 137-066679, Karte zur Umsiedlung Baltendeutscher.jpg|[[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] plans to "resettle" Baltic Germans in "[[Reichsgau Wartheland|Warthegau]]"
Bundesarchiv Bild 137-054418, Umsiedlung Baltendeutscher, Mädchen.jpg|At the port
Bundesarchiv Bild 137-054452, Stettin, Ankunft von Umsiedlern.jpg| Baltic German resettlers disembark at the port of Stettin from the ship ''[[SS General von Steuben|General Steuben]]''.
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E12315, Warthegau, Baltendeutsche Umsiedler.jpg|Resettled Baltic Germans make a new home in what had been the home of [[Expulsion of Poles by Germany|previously expelled Poles]] in "[[Reichsgau Wartheland|Warthegau]]".
Bundesarchiv Bild 137-068427, Wartheland, Neubauten für Umsiedler.jpg|Newly built village in ''[[Reichsgau Wartheland]]''
</gallery>

====1939–1940====
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 137-054436, Riga, Umsiedlung Baltendeutscher.jpg|thumb|upright|Boxed goods of departing Germans, Riga, 1939]]
In 1940, Estonia and Latvia became Soviet republics. One of the main conditions imposed by [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] on [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] in August 1939 was the prior transfer of all ethnic Germans living in Estonia and Latvia to areas under German military control.<ref name="LSM-Oct2018" /> These became known as the [[Nazi–Soviet population transfers]]. Stalin proceeded to set up Soviet military bases in Estonia and Latvia in late 1939.

In a speech to the [[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]] on October 6, 1939, which was broadcast live on radio, Hitler announced that German minorities should be resettled in the Reich (Back home to the Reich, ''[[Heim ins Reich]]''). Resettlement was overseen by [[Heinrich Himmler|Himmler]] who created a new Reich Commisariat for the Strengthening of Germandom for this purpose.

Treaties were signed with Estonia and Latvia in 1939 and 1940 concerning the emigration of Baltic Germans and the liquidation of their educational, cultural, and religious institutions. Nazi Germany succeeded in getting the Baltic Germans to abandon their homes and homeland in haste. Due to the imposition of wartime rationing, Germans were banned from taking along any valuables, objects of historic value, fuels and even food. A massive sell-off of household items and small businesses followed. Larger properties, real estate and businesses were sold over a longer period of time by a special German commission to local governments.

*Some 13,700 Baltic Germans were resettled from Estonia by early 1940.
*Around 51,000 Baltic Germans were resettled from Latvia by early 1940.

The Estonian and Latvian governments published books containing alphabetical lists of the names of resettled Baltic German adults together with their birthdate, birthplace and last address in the Baltics.<ref>''Eestist saksamaale ümberasunute nimestik''/''Verzeichnis der aus Estland nach Deutschland Umgesiedelten'', Oskar Angelus, Tallinn 1939; "Izceļojušo vācu tautības pilsoņu saraksts" : "The list of resettled citizens of German ethnicity".1940</ref>

Baltic Germans left by ships from the port cities of Estonia and Latvia to the ports of [[Gdynia]] and [[Szczecin]] and then were transported to [[Poznań]] and [[Łódź]] in ''[[Reichsgau Wartheland]]'' (sometimes called ''Warthegau'') and other [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany]]. The "new" homes and farms they were given to live in had been owned and inhabited by Poles and Jews just a few months earlier who were executed or deported eastwards when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. The new arrivals fulfilled Nazi plans for the ethnic Germanization of these lands.

====Spring 1941 resettlement====
In early 1941, the Nazi German government arranged another resettlement for all those who had refused to leave in 1939 or 1940. The action was called the ''Nachumsiedlung''. This time around no compensation was offered for any property or belongings left behind and this group of resettlers were treated with intense suspicion or considered traitors because they had refused Hitler's first call to leave the Baltics in 1939. Most of these arrivals were first settled in filtration camps. Unknown to the general public, the [[Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union]] was only two to four months away, and this was Hitler's last chance to transfer these people in peacetime conditions.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

By this time, the remaining Baltic Germans in Estonia and Latvia found themselves in a vastly different situation than in 1939. Their countries were now occupied by the Soviet Union, and intense pressure and intimidation had been put on anyone with a position of privilege or wealth before 1939. Mass arrests and some killings had taken place. Fearing a worsening of the situation, the vast majority of the remaining Baltic Germans decided to leave. About 7,000 resettled from Estonia by late March 1941, and approximately 10,500 resettled from Latvia by late March 1941. Even though the German government had planned a relocation that would be limited to ethnic Germans only, ultimately a considerable share of resettlers were non-Germans of various ethnicities (mostly Estonians and Latvians, but also individuals of Slavic ethnicity), who used this as the only legal route to escape the Soviet regime.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

No books were published listing those who resettled in 1941; however, the present-day archives of Estonia and Latvia still have the lists of all those who left in this year.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

====1941–1944====
A very small minority of Baltic Germans refused again to be resettled and remained in the Baltics past March 1941. Some fell victim to the [[Soviet deportations]] to Siberian [[gulag]]s beginning in early June 1941. The names and data of those deported from Estonia from 1941 to 1953 have been published in books. Details are kept at the [[Museum of Occupations]] in Estonia.

After the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union and the conquest of Latvia and Estonia, a small number of Baltic Germans were allowed to return in order to serve as translators, but requests of many resettled Germans to be allowed to return to their homelands were denied by Himmler's [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. Many German Baltic men were mobilized in the occupied Warthegau and served in the German army.

The resettled Germans fled west with the retreating German army in 1944. No precise numbers or lists are available for them. However, several thousand Baltic Germans remained in the Baltics after 1944, but they were subject to widespread discrimination (and possible deportation to Siberia until 1953) by the Soviet authorities ruling Estonia and Latvia. As a result of this, many hid or lied about their Baltic German origins. Most of those who stayed after 1944 were children of mixed ethnic marriages or themselves married to ethnic Estonians, Latvians or Russians and their descendants no longer consider themselves German.

===="Second resettlement" 1945====
{{Main|Evacuation of German civilians during the end of World War II}}

The Soviet Union's advance into Poland and Germany in late 1944 and early 1945 resulted in the Baltic Germans being evacuated by the German authorities (or simply fleeing) from their "new homes" to areas even further in the west to escape the advancing [[Red Army]]. Most of them settled in [[West Germany]], with some ending up in [[East Germany]].

In stark contrast to the resettlements in 1939–1941, this time the evacuation in most of the areas was delayed until the last moment, when it was too late to conduct it in an orderly fashion, and practically all of them had to leave most of their belongings behind. Seeing as they had been living in these "new" homes only for about five years, this was almost seen as a second forced resettlement for them, albeit under different circumstances.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Many Baltic Germans were on board the [[KdF Ship Wilhelm Gustloff|KdF Ship ''Wilhelm Gustloff'']] when it was sunk by a Soviet submarine on January 30, 1945. By one estimate,<ref name="DiscoveryChannel">"Wilhelm Gustloff: World's Deadliest Sea Disasters". ''Unsolved History'', The Discovery Channel. Season 1, Episode 14. (Original air date: March 26, 2003)</ref> about 9,400 people on board died, which would make it the largest loss of life in a single ship sinking [[List of maritime disasters|in history]]. Additionally, many Baltic Germans died during the sinking of the [[SS General von Steuben|SS ''General von Steuben'']] on February 10, 1945.

Two books listing the names and personal data of all Baltic Germans who died as a result of the resettlements and wartime conditions between 1939 and 1947 have been published by the Baltic German genealogical society: ''Deutsch-baltisches Gedenkbuch. Unsere Toten der Jahre 1939–1947'' by Karin von Borbély, Darmstadt, 1991; and ''Nachtrag zum Deutsch-baltisches Gedenkbuch'' by Karin von Borbély, Darmstadt, 1995.

With Estonia and Latvia falling under Soviet rule after 1944, most Baltic Germans did not return to the Soviet-occupied Baltics.

====Canada====
Many thousands of Baltic Germans emigrated to [[Canada]] starting in 1948 with the support of Canadian [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|The Earl Alexander of Tunis]], who had known many Baltic Germans when he had commanded the [[Baltische Landeswehr|Baltic German Landeswehr]] for a short time in 1919. Initially, only 12 Germans were allowed to settle in 1948. Based on the good behavior of this group, many thousands of Baltic Germans were soon allowed to immigrate during the following years.<ref name="auto1"/>

A small group of [[Latvians and Baltic Germans in Corner Brook, Newfoundland|Latvians and Baltic Germans]] emigrated to Newfoundland as part of then Premier Joseph Smallwood's New Industries Program. Several families in Corner Brook built, operated and worked in the cement and gypsum plants that provided essential material for the creation of Newfoundland's infrastructure after Confederation.

===Destruction of cultural heritage in the Soviet Baltics (1945–1989)===
[[File:Great Cemetery Riga 02.jpg|thumb|Some better preserved tombstones in Riga's [[Great Cemetery]]]]
During the Soviet Baltic time, Soviet authorities governing the [[Estonian SSR]] and the [[Latvian SSR]], politically empowered by their victory in [[World War II]], were keen to erase any traces of ethnic German rule in past centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/701004|title=Russification policies imposed on the Baltic people by the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union|author=Mehmet Oğuzhan|website=Dergipark.org.tr|access-date=February 23, 2022}}</ref> Numerous statues, monuments, structures or landmarks with German writing were destroyed, vandalized or left to ruin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}

The largest Baltic German cemeteries in Estonia, [[Kopli cemetery]] and [[Mõigu cemetery]], both standing since 1774, were completely destroyed by the Soviet authorities. The [[Great Cemetery]] of Riga, the largest burial ground of Baltic Germans in Latvia, standing since 1773, also had the vast majority of its graves destroyed by the Soviets.

===1989 to present===
{{main|List of palaces and manor houses in Latvia|List of palaces and manor houses in Estonia}}
The present-day governments of Estonia and Latvia, who regained their independence in 1991, generally take a positive, or sometimes neutral, view towards the contributions of the Baltic Germans in the development of their cities and countries throughout their history. An occasional exception to this comes with some criticism in relation to the major landowners, who controlled most of the rural areas of the Baltics, and the ethnic Estonians and Latvians, until 1918.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}

After Estonia regained independence from the [[Soviet Union]] on August 20, 1991, the exiled association of the German Baltic nobility sent an official message to the president-to-be [[Lennart Meri]] that no member of the association would claim proprietary rights to their former Estonian lands. This, and the fact that the first German ambassadors to [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] were both Baltic Germans, helped to further reconcile the Baltic Germans with these two countries.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}

Cooperation between Baltic German societies and the governments of Estonia and Latvia has made the restoration of many small Baltic German plaques and landmarks possible, such as monuments to those who fought in the 1918–1920 War of Independence.

Since 1989, many elderly Baltic Germans, or their descendants, have taken holidays to Estonia and Latvia to look for traces of their own past, their ancestral homes, and their family histories. Most of the remaining manor houses have new owners, and operate as hotels that are open to the public.

==Notable Baltic Germans==
{{Main|List of Baltic Germans}}
[[File:Barclay de Tolly stamp 2011.jpg|thumb|Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly. Russia postage stamp, 2011.]]
Baltic Germans played leading roles in the society of what are now Estonia and Latvia throughout most of the period from 13th to mid-20th century, with many of them becoming noted scientists, including [[Karl Ernst von Baer]],<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Baer, Karl Ernst von |volume= 3|last= Clodd |first= Edward |author-link= Edward Clodd | page = 191 |short=1 }}</ref> [[Emil Lenz]],<ref>{{cite wikisource|title=Author:Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz}}</ref> and [[Friedrich Zander]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sollinger |first1=Günther |last2=Zigmunde |first2=Alīda |date=2018 |title=From airplanes to rockets - Friedrich Zander and early aviation in Riga |url=https://dom.lndb.lv/data/obj/file/29071136 |publisher=RTU Press |page=11 |isbn=978-9934-22-039-5}}</ref> and explorers, such as [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]], [[Adam Johann von Krusenstern]],<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Krusenstern, Adam Ivan |volume= 15 | page = 934 |short=1 }}</ref> [[Ferdinand von Wrangel]] and [[Otto Schmidt]]. A number of Baltic Germans served as ranking generals in the [[Russian Imperial Army]] and [[Imperial Russian Navy|Navy]], including [[Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly]],<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Barclay de Tolly, Michael Andreas |volume= 3 | page = 395 |short=1 }}</ref>  [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden]], [[Paul von Rennenkampf]] and [[Franz Eduard von Totleben]].

Many Baltic Germans, such as Baron [[Pyotr Wrangel]], [[Roman von Ungern-Sternberg|Baron Ungern]], [[Yevgeny Miller|Eugen Müller]] and Prince [[Anatol von Lieven]], sided with the [[White movement|Whites]] and related anti-Bolshevik forces (like the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'' and the ''[[Freikorps in the Baltic|Freikorps]]'' movement) during the [[Russian Civil War]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

==See also==<!-- -double wikilinks, please respect alphabetical order -->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Baltic nobility]]
*Cemeteries
**[[Kopli cemetery]]
**[[Mõigu cemetery]]
**[[Great Cemetery]]
**[[Raadi cemetery]]
*[[Courland]]
*[[Deutsch-Baltische Gesellschaft]]
*[[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)]]
*[[Freikorps in the Baltic]]
*[[History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union]]
*[[Livonia]]
*[[Livonian Confederation]]
*[[Nazi-Soviet population transfers]]
*[[Northern Crusades]]
*''[[Revalsche Zeitung]]''
*[[Teutonic Knights]]
*[[Estonian Swedes]]
*[[List of Russian explorers]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061015180850/http://www.z-g-v.de/english/aktuelles/?id=56#deutschbalt Short history of Baltic Germans from Berlin centre against expulsions]
* [http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm Detailed history of the Baltic Germans in Estonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223082557/http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}
* [http://conflicts.rem33.com/images/The%20Baltic%20States/lat_deut.htm Detailed history of the Baltic Germans in Latvia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929135448/http://conflicts.rem33.com/images/The%20Baltic%20States/lat_deut.htm |date=September 29, 2023 }}
* Richards Olafs Plavnieks, [https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/indexablecontent/uuid:a0ec98b4-a624-4d40-be07-edfbb62a567e 1939-1945 "Wall of blood": The Baltic German case study in national socialist wartime population policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012014539/https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/indexablecontent/uuid:a0ec98b4-a624-4d40-be07-edfbb62a567e |date=October 12, 2016 }}
* European Population Transfers, 1939–1945 by Joseph B. Schechtman
* ''Eestist saksamaale ümberasunute nimestik'' : ''Verzeichnis der aus Estland nach Deutschland Umgesiedelten'', Oskar Angelus, Tallinn 1939
* "Izceļojušo vācu tautības pilsoņu saraksts" : "The list of resettled citizens of German ethnicity". 1940
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071102182215/http://vip.latnet.lv/lpra/kangeris.htm The "repatriation" of the Baltic Germans after the signing of the pacts]
* International Affairs: The Return of the Baltic Germans, E. C. Helmreich, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Aug., 1942), pp.&nbsp;711–716
* Helmreich E.C. (1942). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1949981 The return of the Baltic Germans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722034327/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1949981 |date=July 22, 2023 }}. ''[[The American Political Science Review]]'' 36.4, 711–716.
* Whelan, Heide W. (1999). ''Adapting to Modernity: Family, Caste and Capitalism among the Baltic German Nobility''. Ostmitteleuropa in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, vol. 22. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1999. {{ISBN|3-412-10198-2}}
* Hiden, John W. (1970). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637940 The Baltic Germans and German policy towards Latvia after 1918] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517054205/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637940 |date=May 17, 2023 }}. ''[[The Historical Journal]]'' 13.2, 295–317.
* Hiden, John (1987). ''The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-89325-9}}
* Anders Henriksson (1983). ''The Tsar's Loyal Germans. The Riga Community: Social Change and the Nationality Question, 1855–1905''. Boulder, Colorado: East European Monographs. {{ISBN|0-88033-020-1}}
* Mikko Ketola (2000). ''The Nationality Question in the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, 1918–1939''. Helsinki: Publications of the Finnish Society of Church History. {{ISBN|952-5031-17-9}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.deutsch-balten.de/ Baltic German community website] (in German)
* [http://www.deutschbaltischekulturstiftung.de/index.php Baltic German museum] (in German)
* [http://www.baltische-ritterschaften.de/index.htm The association of German Baltic Nobility]
* [http://www.mois.ee/english Estonian Manors Portal] the English version introduces 438 well-preserved manors historically owned by the Baltic Germans (Baltic nobility)
* [https://eng.lsm.lv/article/features/video/documentary-examines-the-disappearance-of-the-baltic-germans.a380224/ Documentary examines the disappearance of the Baltic Germans]. 4 November 2020. [[Public Broadcasting of Latvia]].

{{German diaspora}}
{{Ethnic groups in Latvia}}
{{Ethnic groups in Estonia}}
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[[Category:Baltic Germans]]
[[Category:Demographics of Estonia]]
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