View source for Banteng

{{Short description|Species of wild bovine}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date = May 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Banteng
| image = Banteng Alas Purwo.jpg
| fossil_range = Middle [[Pleistocene]]-[[Holocene|Present]]<ref name=Suraprasit2016>{{cite journal|first1=K. |last1=Suraprasit |first2=J.-J. |last2=Jaegar |first3=Y. |last3=Chaimanee |first4=O. |last4=Chavasseau |first5=C. |last5=Yamee |first6=P. |last6=Tian |first7=S. |last7=Panha |title=The Middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from Khok Sung (Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand): biochronological and paleobiogeographical implications |journal=ZooKeys |date=2016 |issue=613 |pages=1–157 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.613.8309 |pmid=27667928 |pmc=5027644 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016ZooK..613....1S }}</ref>
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Gardner, P. |author2=Hedges, S. |author3=Pudyatmoko, S. |author4=Gray, T.N.E. |author5=Timmins, R.J. |date=2024 |title=''Bos javanicus'' |article-number=e.T2888A256426742 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2024-2.RLTS.T2888A256426742.en}}</ref>
| taxon = Bos javanicus
| authority = [[Eduard Joseph d'Alton|d'Alton]], 1823
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = {{collapsible list
    |Javan banteng (''B. j. javanicus'') {{small|d'Alton, 1823}}
    |Indochinese (or Burma) banteng (''B. j. birmanicus'') {{small|[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1898}}
    |Bornean banteng (''B. j. lowi'') {{small|Lydekker, 1912}}
    |[[Bali cattle|Bali banteng]] (''B. j. domesticus'') {{small|Wilckens, 1905}}
  }}
| range_map = Bos javanicus.png
| range_map_caption = Distribution of banteng (2010)<ref name=iucn/><br/>green: present<br/>red: possibly present
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=msw3/><ref name=hooijer/>
| synonyms = list
*''Bos banteng'' {{small|[[Johann Andreas Wagner|Wagner]], 1844}} 
*''Bos bantinger'' {{small|Schlegel and Müller, 1845 }} 
*''Bos banting'' {{small|[[Carl Jakob Sundevall|Sundevall]], 1846 }} 
*''Bos butleri'' {{small|[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1905}}  
*''Bos domesticus'' {{small|Wilckens, 1905 }} 
*''Bos leucoprymnus'' {{small|Quoy and Gaimard, 1830 }} 
*''Bos porteri'' {{small|[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1909 }} 
*''Bos seleniceros'' {{small|[[Edmund Heller|Heller]], 1890 }} 
*''Bos seligniceros'' {{small|Meyer, 1878 }} 
*''Bos sondaicus'' {{small|[[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1842}} 
*''Bibos javanicus''
*''Bibos banteng''
*''Bibos bantinger''
*''Bibos banting''
*''Bibos butleri''
*''Bibos domesticus''
*''Bibos leucoprymnus''
*''Bibos porteri''
*''Bibos seleniceros''
*''Bibos seligniceros''
*''Bibos sondaicus''
}}

The '''banteng''' ('''''Bos javanicus'''''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|æ|n|t|ɛ|ŋ}}), also known as the '''tembadau''',<ref name=phil/> is a species of wild [[Bovinae|bovine]] found in [[Southeast Asia]].

The head-and-body length is between {{convert|1.9|and|3.68|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Hoogerwer1970 /> Wild banteng are typically larger and heavier than their [[Bali cattle|domesticated counterparts]], but are otherwise similar in appearance. The banteng shows extensive [[sexual dimorphism]]; adult bulls are generally dark brown to black, larger and more sturdily built than adult cows, which are thinner and usually pale brown or chestnut red. There is a big white patch on the [[Rump (animal)|rump]]. [[Horn (anatomy)|Horn]]s are present on both sexes, and are typically {{Convert|60|to|95|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. Three [[subspecies]] are generally recognised.

Banteng are [[Cathemerality|active during the day as well as at night]], though [[Nocturnality|activity at night]] is more in areas frequented by humans. [[Herd]]s comprise two to forty individuals, and generally a single bull. Being herbivorous, banteng feed on vegetation such as [[grass]]es, [[sedge]]s, [[Shoot (botany)|shoots]], [[leaves]], [[flower]]s, and [[fruit]]s. Banteng can survive without water for long stretches during [[drought]]s, but drink regularly if possible, especially from [[standing water]]. Not much is known about the [[reproductive physiology]] of banteng, but it might be similar to that observed in [[taurine cattle]]. After a [[gestation]] of nearly 285 days (nine to ten months), a week longer than that typically observed in taurine cattle, a single calf is born. Banteng occur in a variety of [[habitat]]s throughout their range, including open [[deciduous forest]]s, semi-[[evergreen forest]]s, lower [[montane forest]]s, [[grassland]]s, and [[fallow|abandoned farms]].

The largest populations of wild banteng occur in [[Java]], [[Cambodia]], and possibly in [[Kalimantan]] (particularly East Kalimantan and North Kalimantan) and [[Thailand]]. Domesticated banteng occur in [[Bali]] and many [[eastern Indonesia]]n islands (such as [[Sulawesi]], [[Sumbawa]], and [[Sumba]]), Australia, [[Malaysia]], and [[New Guinea]]. Feral populations are found in [[Sabah]] and the [[Northern Territory]] of Australia. Domesticated populations are primarily used for their highly demanded meat, and are used as [[draught animal]]s to a lesser extent. The wild banteng is classified as [[Critically Endangered]] on the [[IUCN Red List]],<ref name=iucn/> and populations have decreased by more than 50% in the past few decades. Rampant [[poaching]] (for food, game, [[traditional medicine]] and horns), [[habitat loss]] and [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] and susceptibility to [[Cattle diseases|disease]] are major threats throughout its range. Wild banteng are legally protected in all countries in their range, and are largely restricted to [[protected area]]s (possibly barring Cambodia). The banteng is the second endangered species to be successfully [[cloning|cloned]], and the first clone to survive beyond infancy.

==Taxonomy and phylogeny==
The banteng was first [[Scientific description|described]] by German naturalist [[Eduard Joseph d'Alton|Joseph Wilhelm Eduard d'Alton]] in 1823.<ref name="d'alton" /> "Banteng" derived from the [[Javanese language|Javanese]]/[[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] name for the animal (''banṭéng'').<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Banteng|access-date=8 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Abridged Malay-English Dictionary (Romanised)|page=16|chapter=Banteng|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=8SESAwAAQBAJ|page=16|plainurl=yes}}|publisher=F. M. S. Government Press|last=Wilkinson|first=R. J.|date=1908|location=Kuala Lumpur}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rigg |first=Jonathan |title=A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java |publisher=Lange & Co. |year=1862 |location=Batavia |page=40 |language=en}}</ref> D'Alton based his description on two skulls from [[Java]] (Indonesia), a male and a female; while he described the male as a banteng, he referred to the female simply as a wild [[ox]] from Java.<ref name="d'alton">{{cite book|title=Die Skelete der Wiederkauer, abgebildet und verglichen|trans-title=The Skeletons of the Ruminants, shown and compared|language=de|author=d'Alton, E. J.|date=1823|location=Bonn|publisher=E. Weber|page=plate VIII, figures c and d|author-link=Eduard Joseph d'Alton}}</ref> In 1956, [[Dirk Albert Hooijer]] of the [[Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie]] ([[Leiden]]), where the skulls were first brought to from Java, noted that d'Alton used the name ''Bibos javanicus'', or ''Bos (Bibos) javanicus'' if ''Bibos'' is considered a [[subgenus]] (as it is by some authors), to describe the male.<ref name=hooijer/><ref name="Pennant 1800 35">{{cite book|title=Outlines of the Globe: The View of the Malyan Isles, New Holland, and the Spicy Islands|last=Pennant|first=T.|author-link=Thomas Pennant|volume=IV|publisher=Henry Hughes|location=London|date=1800|url={{Google Books|id=F3ZdAAAAcAAJ|page=35|plainurl=yes}} |page=35}}</ref>

''Bos leucoprymnus'' was suggested as a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] in 1830, but was pointed out to be a cross between a wild banteng and a domesticated individual; Hooijer wrote that he could not infer that this was the case from the original description, and, even if it were a cross, the name would not become [[Valid name (zoology)|invalid]]. Other names proposed for the banteng include ''Bos banteng'' and ''Bos bantinger''. In a 1845 revision of d'Alton's description, the authors opined that both the specimens were wild oxen, referring to them as ''Bos sondaicus'' instead. They mistook the female for a young male, an error that continued in several publications by later authors.<ref name=hooijer>{{cite journal|last=Hooijer|first=D. A.|author-link=Dirk Albert Hooijer|title=The valid name of the banteng: ''Bibos javanicus'' (d'Alton) |url=https://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/149669|pages=223–226|date=1956|volume=34|issue=14|journal=Zoologische Mededelingen Uitgegeven Door Het Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie et Leiden (Zoological Notices Published by the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden)}}</ref>

Fossils of banteng are known from the [[Middle Pleistocene]] of [[Thailand]] along with ''[[Stegodon]]'', [[gaur]], [[wild water buffalo]] and other living and extinct mammals.<ref name=Suraprasit2016/>

===Subspecies===
[[File:BantengSmit.jpg|thumb|A comparison between Indochinese (left) and Javan (right) banteng in facial features (''[[Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London]]'', 1898)]]
[[image:Tembadau 01.jpg|thumb|Bulls of the Javan subspecies (''Bos javanicus javanicus'') are black.]]
[[image:Banteng, Bos javanicus bulls at mineral deposit in Huai Kha Khaeng (20806480202).jpg|thumb|Bulls of the Indochinese subspecies (''Bos javanicus birmanicus''), like those at [[Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary]] (Thailand) are commonly reddish-yellow.]]
Four [[subspecies]] are generally recognised based on [[phenotypic]] differences, though some authors do not accept these, citing extensive breeding between the small remaining banteng populations and other [[sympatric]] cattle. The details of these subspecies are given below:<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla |id = 14200683 |page = 691 |heading=''Bos javanicus''}}</ref><ref name=iucn /><ref name="castello">{{cite book |last1=Castelló |first1=J. R. |title=Bovids of the World: Antelopes, Gazelles, Cattle, Goats, Sheep, and Relatives |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-16717-6 |chapter-url={{Google Books|id=zWyYDwAAQBAJ|page=630|plainurl=yes}}|chapter=Genus ''Bos'': Banteng|pages=630–635}}</ref>
* Javan banteng (''B. j. javanicus'') {{small|d'Alton, 1823}}: Occurs in Java and possibly [[Bali]].
* Indochinese (or Burma) banteng (''B. j. birmanicus'') {{small|[[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1898}}: Occurs on the [[Southeast Asia]]n mainland.
* [[Bali cattle]] (''B. j. domesticus'') <small>Wilckens, 1905</small>: Occurs in Bali, Australia, East Timor, Malaysia, the Philippines<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scherf |first=Beate |date=2000 |title=World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity |url=http://webpages.icav.up.pt/PTDC/CVT/099782/2008/References%20for%20Exomics%20proposal%20&#91;PTDC-CVT-099782-2008&#93;/PDF%20files%20of%20references_max%2030%20&#91;Exomics&#93;/Scherf%20BD%202000_World%20Watch%20List%20for%20Domestic%20Animal%20Diveristy-3rd%20edition.pdf |journal=World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity |publisher=FAO |page=605 |access-date=28 February 2022 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709125750/http://webpages.icav.up.pt/PTDC/CVT/099782/2008/References%20for%20Exomics%20proposal%20&#91;PTDC-CVT-099782-2008&#93;/PDF%20files%20of%20references_max%2030%20&#91;Exomics&#93;/Scherf%20BD%202000_World%20Watch%20List%20for%20Domestic%20Animal%20Diveristy-3rd%20edition.pdf }}</ref> and New Guinea
* Bornean banteng (''B. j. lowi'') {{small|Lydekker, 1912}}: Occurs only in [[Borneo]]. 
<!--the IUCN does not assess the status of this subspecies-->

A 2015 [[phylogenetic]] study obtained the complete [[mitochondrial genome]] of the Bornean banteng. It showed that the Bornean banteng is closer to the [[gaur]] (''Bos gaurus'') than it is to other banteng subspecies, having [[Genetic divergence|diverged]] from the gaur around {{mya|5.03}}. Moreover, the Bornean banteng is [[Genetic distance|genetically distant]] from taurine cattle and zebu, indicating that the wild Bornean banteng could not have [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridised]] with them, and therefore might form a [[purebreeding]] line. These researchers suggested that the Bornean banteng could be an independent species.<ref name=2015study>{{cite journal |last1=Matsubayashi |first1=H. |last2=Hanzawa |first2=K. |last3=Kono |first3=T. |last4=Ishige |first4=T. |last5=Gakuhari |first5=T. |last6=Lagan |first6=P. |last7=Sunjoto |first7=I. |last8=Sukor |first8=J. R. A. |last9=Sinun |first9=W. |last10=Ahmad |first10=A. H. |title=First molecular data on Bornean banteng ''Bos javanicus lowi'' (Cetartiodactyla, Bovidae) from Sabah, Malaysian Borneo |journal=Mammalia |date=2014 |volume=78 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/mammalia-2013-0052|s2cid=87030755 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260944693}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ishige |first1=T. |last2=Gakuhari |first2=T. |last3=Hanzawa |first3=K. |last4=Kono |first4=T. |last5=Sunjoto |first5=I. |last6=Sukor |first6=J. R. A. |last7=Ahmad |first7=A. H. |last8=Matsubayashi |first8=H. |title=Complete mitochondrial genomes of the tooth of a poached Bornean banteng (''Bos javanicus lowi'' Cetartiodactyla, Bovidae) |journal=Mitochondrial DNA Part A |date=2015 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=2453–2454 |doi=10.3109/19401736.2015.1033694|pmid=26075477 |s2cid=207563841 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278302808}}</ref> A later study in 2021 by Sindling et al., which included the genome of the closely related and now likely extinct [[kouprey]] (''Bos sauveli'') from Cambodia, suggested that on the level of the nuclear genome, the gaur, kouprey and banteng were distinct species, but due to [[incomplete lineage sorting]] as a result of interbreeding between their ancestors, their mitochondrial genomes did not correspond to species-specific lineages. [[Genetic admixture|Admixture]] analysis suggested that East Asian zebu cattle may have ancestry derived from banteng.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Sinding |first1=M.-H. S. |last2=Ciucani |first2=M. M. |last3=Ramos-Madrigal |first3=J. |last4=Carmagnini |first4=A. |last5=Rasmussen |first5=J. A. |last6=Feng |first6=S. |last7=Chen |first7=G. |last8=Vieira |first8=F. G. |last9=Mattiangeli |first9=V. |last10=Ganjoo |first10=R. K. |last11=Larson |first11=G. |last12=Sicheritz-Pontén |first12=T. |last13=Petersen |first13=B. |last14=Frantz |first14=L. |last15=Gilbert |first15=M. T. P. |date=2021 |title=Kouprey (''Bos sauveli'') genomes unveil polytomic origin of wild Asian Bos |journal=iScience |volume=24 |issue=11 |article-number=103226 |bibcode=2021iSci...24j3226S |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.103226 |pmc=8531564 |pmid=34712923}}</ref>

Relationships of members of the genus ''Bos'' based on nuclear genomes after Sinding, et al. 2021.<ref name=":0" />

{{clade|{{clade
|1= ''[[Bos primigenius]]'' +''[[Bos taurus]]'' (aurochs and cattle)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Bos mutus]]'' (wild yak)
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Bison bison]]'' (American bison)
|2=''[[Bison bonasus]]'' (European bison/wisent)
}}}}
|2={{clade
|1='''''Bos javanicus''''' (banteng)
|2=''[[Bos gaurus]]'' (gaur)
|3=''[[Bos sauveli]]'' (kouprey)
}}}}}}|label1=''[[Bos]]''}}

==Characteristics==

[[File:Burgers' Zoo (20190622125153).jpg|thumb|Banteng have a large white patch on the [[Rump (animal)|rump]].]]
The banteng is similar to taurine cattle, with head-and-body length between {{convert|1.9|and|2.25|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Wild banteng are typically larger and heavier than their domesticated counterparts, but are otherwise similar in appearance. The mean shoulder height of wild Javan and Indochinese banteng is {{convert|1.4|m|ft|abbr=on}} for cows and {{convert|1.6|m|ft|abbr=on}} for bulls; Bornean banteng, the smallest subspecies, are shorter. Domesticated banteng cows reach {{convert|1.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the shoulder, while the bulls are {{convert|1.3|–|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name=castello/><ref name=nrc>{{cite report|publisher=National Research Council (U.S.). Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation |date=1983 |title=Little-Known Asian mammals with a promising economic future: Report of an ad hoc panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council |series= Managing Tropical Animal Resources|pages= 7–20, 41–45|url={{Google Books|id=LWIrAAAAYAAJ|page=7|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref> In the wild cows weigh around {{convert|590|–|670|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, while bulls weigh around {{convert|600|–|800|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Weights of domesticated individuals range from {{convert|211|to|242|kg|lb|abbr=on}} for females and from {{convert|335|to|363|kg|lb|abbr=on}} for males.<ref name=mason>{{cite book|title=Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding (2 Volume Pack)|pages=83–342|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=2UEJDAAAQBAJ|page=83|plainurl=yes}}|chapter=Cattle|last1=Hall|first1=S.|last2=Alderson|first2=L.|location=Oxfordshire|publisher=CAB International}}</ref> The largest bulls attain {{convert|3.3|and|3.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} between pegs (nose to rump) with {{convert|0.9|and|0.95|m|ft|abbr=on}} long tail, {{convert|1.76|and|1.91|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[withers]], and weigh {{convert|900|kg|lb|abbr=on}} or more.<ref name=Hoogerwer1970>A. Hoogerwer, 1970, Udjung Kulon: The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros, ''Physical Details'' pp 167–171, Brill Archive</ref><ref>[https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/10/prop/E-CoP10-P-36.pdf Consideration of Proposals for Amendment of Appendix I and II] (pdf)</ref>

The banteng shows extensive [[sexual dimorphism]]; adult bulls are generally dark brown to black, larger and more sturdily built than adult cows, that are thinner and usually pale brown or chestnut red. Females and juveniles additionally have a dark line running along their back. Some bulls may retain their brown colour, sometimes with white spots similar to those seen in [[deer]].<ref name=castello/><ref name=nrc/> The [[Coat (animal)|coat]] of young bulls is reddish brown, and progressively attains the adult colouration starting from the front to the rear parts. Aged bulls may turn grey. The underparts are white to light brown. The face is lighter relative to the rest of the body, whitish or tawny grey at the forehead and around the eyes but darker near the black [[snout]]. There is a big white patch on the [[Rump (animal)|rump]], poorly developed in the Indochinese banteng; the patch may serve as a guide for herds to stay together in the dark. The legs are white below the knees.<ref name=castello/><ref name="phil">{{cite book |last1=Phillipps |first1=Q. |title=Phillipps' Field Guide to the Mammals of Borneo: Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and Kalimantan |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-16941-5 |pages=304–305 |chapter-url={{Google Books|id=0SxzCwAAQBAJ|page=304|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Banteng and water buffalo}}</ref> The back is particularly elevated in bulls due to the unusual lengths of the [[thoracic vertebrae]], giving the impression of a hump.<ref name=nrc/> Horns are typically {{Convert|60|to|75|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, and separated by thick skin at the base. Bulls have long, slender horns with sharp tips and a circular cross-section, and are smooth except for the wrinkled base. The horns of cows are short and tightly curved, pointing inward at the tips, while those of bulls arc upwards and slightly forward. The tail, measuring {{convert|65|to|70|cm|in|abbr=on}}, ends in a black tuft.<ref name=castello/>

==Ecology and behaviour==

Banteng are active during the day as well as at night, though activity at night is more in areas frequented by humans. They typically form herds of two to forty individuals consisting of a single bull, cows and young. Older males form groups of two or three. Banteng are timid and reclusive, and tend to be highly alert, making approach difficult. Domestic individuals get stressed easily, and need to be handled with care. They rest and seek shelter for safety in dense forests.<ref name=castello/><ref name=nrc/><ref name=phil/> Banteng, particularly cows and calves, walk fast and manoeuvre easily through dense cover.<ref name=hoogerwerf/> Predators of adult banteng include the local populations of [[tiger]]s and [[dhole]]s (Asian wild dogs).<ref name=castello/><ref name="rahman">{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=D. A. |last2=Herliansyah |first2=R. |last3=Rianti |first3=P. |last4=Rahmat |first4=U. M. |last5=Firdaus |first5=A. Y. |last6=Syamsudin |first6=M. |title=Ecology and conservation of the endangered banteng (''Bos javanicus'') in Indonesia tropical lowland forest |journal=HAYATI Journal of Biosciences |date=2019 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=68–80 |doi=10.4308/hjb.26.2.68 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336851732|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Khaewphakdee>{{cite journal |last1= Khaewphakdee |first1= S. |last2= Simcharoen |first2= A. |display-authors=etal |date= April 2020 |title= Weights of gaur (''Bos gaurus'') and banteng (''Bos javanicus'') killed by tigers in Thailand |journal= Ecology and Evolution |volume= 10 |issue= 11 |pages= 5152–5159 |doi= 10.1002/ece3.6268|pmid= 32551089 |pmc= 7297748 |bibcode= 2020EcoEv..10.5152K }}</ref> Banteng use their strong sense of smell to detect predators and as a means of communication within a herd. Their hearing is also highly developed. Vocalisations such as roars and bellows might be common during the breeding season; calves within seven months may produce soft ''eng'' sounds. High-pitched cries are used to raise alarm.<ref name=hoogerwerf/>

===Diet and foraging===
[[File:Balinese cow.JPG|thumb|Banteng feed on vegetation such as grasses.]]
Herbivores, banteng feed on vegetation such as grasses, [[sedge]]s, shoots, leaves, flowers and fruits. They forage at night in open areas, taking breaks of two to three hours in between to [[Ruminant|ruminate]] and rest.<ref name=nrc/><ref name=phil/> They may move to forests at higher altitudes to forage during the rainy season.<ref name=castello/> A study in [[Deramakot Forest Reserve]] ([[Sabah]]) showed the presence of several herbal seeds (such as ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' and ''[[Paspalum conjugatum]]''), bamboo (probably ''[[Dinochloa]]'' species) and tree bark in faecal samples.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matsubayashi |first1=H. |last2=Lagan |first2=P. |last3=Sukor |first3=J. R. A. |title=Herbal seed dispersal by the banteng (''Bos javanicus'') in a Bornean tropical rain forest |journal=Malayan Nature Journal |date=2007 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=297–303 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272238749}}</ref> A study in [[West Java]] showed that banteng grazed mostly on the grasses ''[[Axonopus compressus]]'', ''[[Cynodon dactylon]]'', ''[[Ischaemum muticum]]'' and ''P. conjugatum'', and the woody [[shrub]] ''[[Psychotria malayana]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Vegetation analysis of the habitat of banteng (''Bos javanicus'') at the Pananjung-Pangandaran nature reserve, West Java|last1=Sumardja|first1=E. A.|last2=Kartawinata|first2=K.|issue=13|date=1977|journal=Biotrop Bulletin}}</ref> Banteng can survive without water for several days during droughts, but drink regularly if possible, especially from standing water. They frequent [[salt lick]]s to satisfy their salt requirements; in the absence of licks they drink sea water instead. Banteng can drink highly saline water, and have been observed feeding on seaweed in northern Australia.<ref name=nrc/>

===Reproduction and life cycle===
[[File:Bos javanicus, Diergaarde Blijdorp.jpg|thumb|A mother with her calf]]
Not much is known about the reproductive physiology of banteng, but it might be similar to that observed in taurine cattle. Domestic banteng can become [[sexually mature]] at as early as 13 months of age, and breed after another three months. They conceive easily, with a conception rate of 80–90% recorded in northern Australia.<ref name=nrc/> Breeding has been observed throughout the year in captivity and in wild banteng in Myanmar, though wild individuals on [[Cobourg Peninsula]] mate mainly in October and November, and in Thailand mating peaks in May and June.<ref name=iucn /><ref name=nrc/><ref name=choquent/> After a [[gestation]] of nearly 285 days (nine to ten months), a week longer than that typically observed in taurine cattle, a single calf is born. Males weigh {{convert|16|–|17|kg|lb|abbr=on}} at birth, while females weigh {{convert|14|–|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Young are suckled for as long as 16 months, though some cows may continue nursing till the birth of their next calf.<ref name=castello/><ref name=phil/><ref name=nrc/> A study of wild banteng on Cobourg Peninsula showed that males become sexually mature at three to four years and females at two to four years; males attain their full-grown size five to six years, while females grow completely by three to four years. Calf mortality is high in the first six months of life, and declines quickly thereafter with increasing body size.<ref name=choquent>{{cite journal |last1=Choquent |first1=D. |title=Growth, body condition and demography of wild banteng (''Bos javanicus'') on Cobourg Peninsula, northern Australia |journal=Journal of Zoology |date=1993 |volume=231 |issue=4 |pages=533–542 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1993.tb01936.x}}</ref> Banteng live for as long as 26 years.<ref name=castello/><ref name=phil/>

===Diseases and parasites===
Banteng host several [[endoparasite]]s such as [[liver fluke]]s (that cause [[fasciolosis]]), [[intestinal worm]]s (such as ''Strongyloides papillosus'') and ''[[Paramphistomum]]'' species (that cause [[Amphistomiasis|paramphistomiasis]]).<ref name=nrc/><ref name=hoogerwerf>{{cite book|pages=159; 173–174; 219; 220–227 |url={{Google Books|plainurl=yes|page=159|id=pc4UAAAAIAAJ}}|title=Udjung Kulon: The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros|last=Hoogerwerf|first=A.|author-link=Andries Hoogerwerf|location=Leiden|publisher=E. J. Brill|date=1970}}</ref> Banteng are susceptible to [[bovine malignant catarrhal fever]] caused by ovine [[gammaherpesvirus]] 2 (OvHV-2).<ref name=nrc/><ref>{{cite conference|title=Malignant catarrhal fever of banteng (''Bos javanicus'') in an Italian zoo|author1=Autorino, G. L.|author2=Eleni, C.|author3=Frontoso, R.|author4=Cocumelli, C. |author5=Rosone, F. |author6= Cerbo, P. di|author7= Altigeri, A.|author8=  Marianelli, M. |author9=  Lorenzetti, R.|author10=  Manna, G. |author11=  Friedrich, K.|author12= Scicluna, M. T.|conference= XIII National Società Italiana di Diagnostica di Laboratorio Veterinaria (SIDiLV) Congress (12-14 October 2011) |location=Trani |publisher= SIDiLV|date=2011|pages=60–62}}</ref> ''Bali ziekte'', which is a skin disease seen exclusively in banteng, begins with a dry [[eczema]], worsening to [[necrosis]] and lacerated [[mucous membrane]]s in the affected area. Other diseases including  [[Blackleg (disease)|blackleg]] and [[bovine viral diarrhoea]], have caused several deaths in captivity.<ref name=nrc/>

[[Ectoparasite]]s recorded in banteng include ''[[Amblyomma testudinarium]]'', ''[[Haemaphysalis cornigera]]'' and ''[[Rhipicephalus]]'' species. Like [[water buffalo]]es, banteng have considerable immunity against [[tick]]s and [[tick-borne disease]]s.<ref name=nrc/><ref name=hoogerwerf/> A study in northern Australia revealed a [[Mutualism (biology)|mutually]] [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship between banteng and the [[Torresian crow]], that fed off ectoparasites (possibly [[ixodid tick]]s) from exposed parts of the banteng's body, mainly between the hind legs. This is especially notable, as it is the first known symbiotic relationship between a native bird species and a non-native wild mammal, and it took only 150 years to develop.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=C. J. A. |last1=Bradshaw |first2=W. W. |last2=White |title=Rapid development of cleaning behaviour by Torresian crows ''Corvus orru'' on non-native banteng ''Bos javanicus'' in northern Australia |journal=Journal of Avian Biology |date=2006 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=409–411 |doi=10.1111/j.2006.0908-8857.03595.x}}</ref>

==Habitat and distribution==

Banteng occur in a variety of habitats throughout their range, including open [[deciduous forest]]s, semi-evergreen forests, lower [[montane forest]]s, abandoned farms and grasslands. They occur up to an elevation of {{convert|2100|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the sea level.<ref name=iucn /><ref name=phil/> The largest populations of wild banteng occur in Cambodia, Java and possibly in Borneo, Viet Nam ([[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Tay Nguyen]]) and Thailand. They are also known to occur in [[Kalimantan]] (Borneo) and Myanmar; their presence is uncertain in Bali, Sarawak, China, Laos and they are feared to have gone [[extinct]] in (if they were present in) Bangladesh, Brunei and India. Domesticated banteng occur in Bali and many eastern Indonesian islands (such as [[Sulawesi]], [[Sumbawa]], and [[Sumba]]), Australia, Malaysia and New Guinea. Feral populations are found in [[East Kalimantan]], the [[Northern Territory]] in Australia, and possibly in [[Enggano]] and [[Sangihe Islands|Sangihe]] in Indonesia.<ref name=iucn /><ref name=mason/>

In the past banteng were widespread in the Southeast Asian mainland, including [[Yunnan Province]] (China) and extending to Borneo and Java through [[Peninsular Malaysia]]; northeastern India and Bali were probably part of the range. Some researchers have excluded Bali from the historical range in the absence of fossil evidence, considering banteng to be an introduced species.<ref name=iucn/> However, in East Kalimantan cave art portraying a bovid, dating back to {{circa|10,000 BC}}, has been suggested by some to be a depiction of banteng and led to speculation that the species might have reached up to the [[Wallace Line]] by that time.<ref name=chazine>{{cite journal |last=Chazine |first=J.-M. |pages=219–230 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/5105503.pdf |volume=44 |issue=1 |date=2005 |journal=Asian Perspectives |title=Rock art, burials, and habitations: Caves in East Kalimantan |doi=10.1353/asi.2005.0006 |hdl=10125/17232 |s2cid=53372873 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dutch naturalist [[Andries Hoogerwerf]] notes that banteng possibly occurred since prehistoric times in Java, as indicated by remains dating back to {{circa|1,000 BC}} discovered in the Sampung cave in [[Ponorogo Regency]], [[Central Java]].<ref name=hoogerwerf/>

==Interaction with humans==
Human association with banteng could date back several millennia, as suggested by animal remains and art discovered in caves.<ref name=chazine/><ref name=hoogerwerf/> Hooijer opined that the earliest reference to the banteng was made by the Welsh naturalist [[Thomas Pennant]] in his 1800 account ''Outlines of the Globe'', where he mentions a record of "wild oxen, of a reddish brown colour, with vast horns, and of a great size" in Java.<ref name="Pennant 1800 35"/> However, Hoogerwerf pointed out that the banteng may have been mentioned in literature as old as the ''[[Nagarakretagama]]'' (1365 AD), a [[eulogy]] to the Javanese king [[Hayam Wuruk]], which includes a description of a [[royal hunt]] of several animals including banteng. Moreover, records from the 18th century show that banteng were used as beasts of burden to carry several items such as coffee plants.<ref name=hoogerwerf/>

===Domestication and uses===
[[File:Feeding the Banteng.jpg|thumb|right|An Indonesian man feeding his [[Bali cattle]]]]
The banteng was domesticated in Indonesian islands of Java or Bali probably around 3,500 BC. The domesticated population consists of mainly the Bali cattle in Indonesia.<ref name=mason/><ref name="mohd2009">{{cite journal |last1=Mohamad |first1=K. |last2=Olsson |first2=M. |last3=van Tol |first3=H. T. A. |last4=Mikko |first4=S. |last5=Vlamings |first5=B. H. |last6=Andersson |first6=G. |last7=Rodríguez-Martínez |first7=H. |last8=Purwantara |first8=B. |last9=Paling |first9=R. W. |last10=Colenbrander |first10=B. |last11=Lenstra |first11=J. A. |last12=DeSalle |first12=R.  |title=On the origin of Indonesian cattle |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2009 |volume=4 |issue=5 |article-number=e5490 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005490|pmid=19436739 |pmc=2677627 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5490M |doi-access=free }}</ref> As of 2016, Bali cattle comprise nearly 25% of the Indonesian cattle population (2.45&nbsp;million out of the total 9.8&nbsp;million).<ref name=mason/> Domesticated banteng are docile and can tolerate hot, humid weather. Moreover, they can thrive and maintain their normal body weights even on poor quality fodder. They are primarily used for their highly demanded meat, that has been described as lean and soft.<ref name=nrc/><ref>{{cite book|title=Beef Cattle Production Systems|last=Herring|first=A. D.|date=2014|publisher=CAB International|isbn=978-1-78064-507-0|location=Boston|pages=22–23|url={{Google Books|plainurl=yes|page=22|id=NSExBQAAQBAJ}} }}</ref> They are also used as draught animals to a limited extent; banteng are reportedly less efficient than [[zebu]] in dragging carts on roads, though they are suitable for agricultural work.<ref name=fao>{{cite report|author=Hall, D.|date=2006|chapter=Asian livestock benefiting from innovation|editor= McLeod, A. |title= Livestock Report 2006 |publisher=Animal Production and Health Division, FAO|pages=77–83| chapter-url=https://www.fao.org/3/a0255e/a0255e09.htm}}</ref> However, banteng produce little milk; they lactate for only six to ten months, and the daily produce is just {{convert|0.9|–|2.8|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. They are also vulnerable to diseases such as bovine malignant catarrhal fever. In 1964, an outbreak of an unidentified disease, locally known as "[[Jembrana disease|jembrana]]", wiped out 10–60% of domesticated banteng populations in several areas in Bali; similar but less intense outbreaks have continued in the following years.<ref name=nrc/> The disease was later determined to be caused by a [[lentivirus]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcox |first1=G. E. |last2=Chadwick |first2=B. J. |last3=Kertayadnya |first3=G. |title=Recent advances in the understanding of Jembrana disease |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |date=1995 |volume=46 |issue=1–3 |pages=249–255 |doi=10.1016/0378-1135(95)00089-S|pmid=8545963 }}</ref>

====In Australia====

Domesticated banteng were first introduced to Australia in 1849 with the establishment of a British military outpost called [[Port Essington]] on [[Cobourg Peninsula]]. Twenty animals were taken to the western [[Arnhem Land]], in present-day Northern Territory, as a source of meat. A year after the outpost's establishment, poor conditions including crop failure and tropical disease led to its abandonment. On the departure of British troops, the banteng were released from their grazing pastures and allowed to form a feral population.<ref>{{cite report|author1=Letts, G. A.|author2=Vos, A. W. E. L. B. |date=1979 |title=Feral animals in the Northern Territory - Report of the Board of Inquiry |publisher=Northern Territory Government}}</ref> By the 1960s, researchers realised that a population of about 1,500 individuals had developed in the tropical forests of Cobourg Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Letts, G. A.|date= 1964 |title=Feral animals in the Northern Territory|journal=Australian Veterinary Journal |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=84–88|doi=10.1111/j.1751-0813.1964.tb01703.x}}</ref> As of 2007, around 8,000–10,000 feral banteng occur in Australia, mainly in [[Garig Gunak Barlu National Park]] (Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory).<ref name=bradshaw2007>{{cite journal |author1=Bradshaw, C. J. |author2= Brook, B. W. |date=2007 |title=Ecological-economic models of sustainable harvest for an endangered but exotic megaherbivore in northern Australia |journal=Natural Resource Modeling |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=129–156 |doi=10.1111/j.1939-7445.2007.tb00203.x |bibcode= 2007NRM....20..129B |s2cid= 53608203 }}</ref><ref name=bradshaw2006>{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=C. J. |last2=Isagi |first2=Y. |last3=Kaneko |first3=S. |last4=Bowman |first4=D. M. J. S. |last5=Brook |first5=B. W. |title=Conservation value of non-native banteng in northern Australia |journal=Conservation Biology |date=2006 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1306–1311 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00428.x |pmid=16922247 |bibcode=2006ConBi..20.1306B |s2cid=32728112 }}</ref> In a survey published in 1990, the population density in the forests was found to be around {{convert|70|/sqkm|/sqmi|abbr=on}}, close to that on their initial introduction 140 years ago.<ref name="Bowman1990">{{cite journal |doi=10.1071/BT9900593 |title=Dynamics of forest clumps on Chenier Plains, Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory |year=1990 |last1=Bowman |first1= D. M. J. S. |journal=Australian Journal of Botany |volume=38 |page=593 |last2=Panton |first2=W. J. |last3=McDonough |first3=L. |issue=6 |bibcode=1990AuJB...38..593B }}</ref>

Australian banteng are considered a non-native [[vermin]] species, as they reportedly trample and destroy vegetation cover by overgrazing, and sometimes harm and kill people who may closely approach them. Moreover, banteng can transmit lethal diseases such as [[brucellosis]] to humans as well as other cattle. As such banteng are occasionally shot to bring down their numbers in Australia, but some have expressed concern about their conservation given the decline in banteng populations outside the country.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Banteng cattle|pages=8–9|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=g5VUDwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes|page=8}}|last=West|first=P.|title=Guide to Introduced Pest Animals of Australia|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|date=2018|location=Victoria, Melbourne}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Corridors to Extinction and the Australian Megafauna|isbn=978-0-12-407790-4|page=274|url={{google books|id=C0blLvmdp04C|page=274|plainurl=yes}}|location=London|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier|last=Webb|first=S.}}</ref> In a study in the [[monsoon forest]]s of Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, banteng were found to cause little damage by overgrazing, especially when compared with [[feral pig]]s in the region.<ref name="Bowman1991">{{cite journal |author1=Bowman, D. M. J. S. |author2=Panton, W. J. |year=1991 |title=Sign and habitat impact of Banteng (''Bos javanicus'') and pig (''Sus scrofa'') Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Australia |journal=Australian Journal of Ecology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=15–17 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1991.tb01477.x|bibcode=1991AusEc..16...15B }}</ref> Instead, grazing by banteng possibly minimises potential dry grass build-up, thus limiting encroachment of seasonal fires (hence postfire grassland) into monsoonal forest areas, and this may help with the [[Seed dispersal|dispersal]] and [[Seed germination|germination]] of seeds.<ref name="Bowman1990"/> 
[[File:Sapi Madura - panoramio.jpg|thumb|A pair of [[Madura cattle]] ]]

====Hybrids====

Domesticated banteng have been hybridised with other types of cattle. [[Madura cattle]], found in Java, are fertile hybrids of banteng and zebu. A small breed, the bulls weigh between {{convert|250|and|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and the cows weigh {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. They are used in local traditional events such as bull racing and cow beauty contests. Other hybrids include Donggala, Galekan and Java Brebes (Jabres) cattle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nijman |first1=I. J. |last2=Otsen |first2=M. |last3=Verkaar |first3=E. L. C. |last4=de Ruijter |first4=C. |last5=Hanekamp |first5=E. |last6=Ochieng |first6=J. W. |last7=Shamshad |first7=S. |last8=Rege |first8=J. E. O. |last9=Hanotte |first9=O. |last10=Barwegen |first10=M. W. |last11=Sulawati |first11=T. |last12=Lenstra |first12=J. A. |title=Hybridization of banteng (''Bos javanicus'') and zebu (''Bos indicus'') revealed by mitochondrial DNA, satellite DNA, AFLP and microsatellites |journal=Heredity |date=2003 |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=10–16 |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800174 |pmid=12522420|s2cid=517918 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2003Hered..90...10N }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url={{Google Books|id=Ee2n9IG4EH4C|page=119|plainurl=yes}} |title=Rural Indonesia: Socio-Economic Development in a Changing Environment |isbn=978-0-8147-8197-5 |year=1993 |last1=Thorbecke |first1=E. |last2=Van der Pluijm |first2=T.|page=119|publisher=New York University Press |location=New York}}</ref> While all hybrids with zebu are fertile, the male hybrids resulting from a cross with [[taurine cattle]] are sterile.<ref name=iucn /> A program to cross-breed domestic and wild banteng began in June 2011, resulting in five pregnancies. This was intended to help improve the quality and productivity of the domesticated breed. The wild bulls were transported from the [[Baluran National Park]] in [[Situbondo]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Harsaputra |first=I. |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/04/02/bali-cows-meet-java-bulls-east-java.html |title=Bali cows to meet Java bulls in East Java |date=2 April 2012 |access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>

=== As symbol ===
[[File:Flag of Perhimpunan Indonesia.png|thumb|Flag of ''[[Perhimpoenan Indonesia]]'' in the 1920s]]
[[File:Pancasila.svg|thumb|upright=0.6|The shield of [[National emblem of Indonesia|Indonesian national emblem]], with the banteng's head in top-left]]
Certain elements in the Indonesian independent movements proposed it to be part of the Indonesian flag before the 1939 decided in favour of the [[Flag of Indonesia|plain red-and-white flag]].<ref name="Kahin2003">{{cite book|first=G. M.|last= Kahin|title=Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDgBBzWQ2DAC&pg=PA98|year=2003|publisher=SEAP Publications|isbn=978-0-87727-734-7|pages=97–98 note 101}}</ref>

The banteng's head appears as one of the five emblems in the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|shield]] of [[National emblem of Indonesia|Indonesia's coat-of-arms]], "Garuda Pancasila". The emblem appears on the top-left of the shield, representing the fourth principle of the Indonesian five-point state philosophy ([[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]), "Democracy that is Guided by the Inner Wisdom in the Unanimity Arising Out of Deliberations Amongst Representatives". A number of political parties in the country used the banteng's head as its symbol, including the [[Indonesian National Party]] (of President [[Sukarno]]), the [[Indonesian Democratic Party]], and the [[Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle]] (of Presidents [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] and [[Joko Widodo]]).<ref name="Kahin2015">{{cite encyclopedia|first=A. |last=Kahin|title=Banteng|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcuhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-8108-7456-5|page=65}}</ref><ref name="Indonesia.go.id">{{cite web |url=http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/symbol-and-the-state/state-emblem.html |title=State Emblem |publisher=Indonesia.go.id |access-date=23 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120409202218/http://indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/symbol-and-the-state/state-emblem.html |archive-date=9 April 2012 }}</ref>

===Threats and conservation===

The wild banteng is classified as [[Critically Endangered]] on the [[IUCN Red List]], and populations have decreased by more than 50% in the past few decades. In 2008, the IUCN estimated the global banteng population at 5,000–8,000 individuals. Rampant poaching (for food, game, [[traditional medicine]] and horns), habitat loss and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] and susceptibility to disease are major threats throughout the range. Most populations throughout the range are small and isolated. Banteng are legally protected in all countries in their range, and are largely restricted to protected areas.<ref name=iucn /> 
[[File:Bos javanicus, (wild) Banteng - Huai Kha Khaeng (20536293581).jpg|thumb|A herd in the [[Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary]] (Thailand)]]
Most other populations are small and fragmented, and many are on the decline. Surveys in eastern Cambodia between 2009 and 2011 estimated the total population in [[Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary]] and [[Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary]] at 1,980–5,170 individuals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gray |first1=T. N. E. |last2=Prum |first2=S. |last3=Pin |first3=C. |last4=Phan |first4=C. |title=Distance sampling reveals Cambodia's Eastern Plains Landscape supports the largest global population of the endangered banteng ''Bos javanicus'' |journal=Oryx |date=2012 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=563–566 |doi=10.1017/S0030605312000567|doi-access=free }}</ref> Surveys in the following years (up to 2016) in these sanctuaries and adjacent areas (such as the [[Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary]]) gave an approximate total of 4,600 individuals. Recent updates to these surveys suggest widespread collapse of these populations. The [[Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary]] population is estimated in have decline rapididly from 382 in 2010, with too few recorded in 2020 to produce a population estimate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nuttall|first1=Matthew N.|last2=Griffin|first2=Olly|last3=Fewster|first3=Rachel M.|last4=McGowan|first4=Philip J. K.|last5=Abernethy|first5=Katharine|last6=O'Kelly|first6=Hannah|last7=Nut|first7=Menghor|last8=Sot|first8=Vandoeun|last9=Bunnefeld|first9=Nils|title=Long-term monitoring of wildlife populations for protected area management in Southeast Asia|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|year=2022|volume=4|issue=2|language=en|article-number=e614|doi=10.1111/csp2.614|s2cid=245405123|issn=2578-4854|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022ConSP...4E.614N |hdl=1893/33780|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Populations in [[Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary]] and [[Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary]] have declined from around 1000 in each site in 2010 to only 370 and 485 respectively in 2020.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Groenenberg|first1=Milou|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348534080|title=Population Status of Ungulates in the Eastern Plains Landscape of Cambodia|last2=Crouthers|first2=Rachel|last3=K|first3=Yoganand|date=2020-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Urgent action needed to protect ungulate species as their populations dwindled over the past de|url=https://www.wwf.org.kh/?365756/Urgent-action-needed-to-protect-ungulate-species-as-their-populations-dwindled-over-the-past-decade|access-date=2021-12-22|website=www.wwf.org.kh|language=en}}</ref>

The only populations of more than 50 individuals in Thailand occur in the [[Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary]] and possibly in the [[Kaeng Krachan National Park]].<ref name=iucn/> A survey between 2000 and 2003 in Java identified four to five significant populations, with the highest numbers in the [[Ujung Kulon National Park]] (300–800 individuals), the Baluran National Park (206 individuals) and the [[Meru Betiri National Park]] (200 individuals).<ref>{{cite report|last=Pudyatmoko|first= S. |date=2004|chapter=Does the banteng (''Bos javanicus'') have a future in Java? Challenges of the conservation of a large herbivore in a densely populated island|title=Knowledge Marketplace Reports of the 3rd IUCN World Conservation Congress|page=6}}</ref> In East Java, a survey between 2011 and 2013 recorded rapid decline in populations in the Baluran National Park, though the numbers appeared to be stable in the Meru Betiri National Park; the researchers identified poaching, habitat disturbance, competition with other species, changes in vegetation cover and habitat loss as major threats.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Recent status of banteng (''Bos javanicus'') conservation in East Java and its perspectives on ecotourism planning|last1=Hakim|first1=L.|last2=Guntoro|first2=D. A.|last3=Waluyo|first3=J.|last4=Sulastini|first4=D.|last5=Hartanto|first5=L.|last6=Nakagoshi|first6=N.|s2cid=56310702|pages=152–157|volume=5|issue=3|journal=Journal of Tropical Life Science|year=2015|doi=10.11594/jtls.05.03.08|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Borneo numbers have fallen in areas like Kalimantan and Sabah, mainly due to poaching and human disturbance. The steepest decline (by more than 50%) took place between 1970 and 2000 due to deforestation and conversion of forests into plantations. Minor populations have been reported from areas such as [[Kulamba Wildlife Reserve]], Deramakot Forest Reserve and Sipitang Forest Reserve during 2009–2015; individuals might still occur in the Belantikan Hulu region ([[Central Kalimantan]]), [[Kayan Mentarang National Park]] ([[North Kalimantan]]) and [[Kutai National Park]] (East Kalimantan).<ref name=iucn />

====Threats to domesticated banteng====

Since a small [[founder event]] occurred in Australia with the introduction of only 20 previously domesticated banteng, a [[genetic bottleneck]] has inevitably occurred, causing all banteng presently in Australia to lack [[genetic diversity]] as a result of [[inbreeding]]. Genetic invariability can lead to [[inbreeding depression]], resulting in harmful [[Genetic mutation|mutation]]s and reduced immunity to diseases. This was proven by an analysis of 12 [[Microsatellite (genetics)|microsatellite]]s, that recorded a high [[inbreeding coefficient]] of 0.58.<ref name="bradshaw2007"/> Despite the limited [[genetic pool]] of this population, conservationists hope that populations at risk can be preserved. Some have proposed that a deliberate introduction of the endangered populations to the stable but non-native Australian variety would enable viable conservation, though how it would affect Northern Territory grazing ranges is unknown.<ref name="bradshaw2006"/>

Another possible threat is [[introgression]] with other cattle and similar bovids throughout their range where they coexist in the wild or due to crossbreeding programs, that may compromise the genetic integrity or purity of banteng populations.<ref name=fao/><ref name=iucn/> This, coupled with possibly low genetic diversity in small, isolated populations, is a major concern in Sabah, where water buffaloes might crossbreed with wild banteng. However, little genetic research has been done in this area to conclusively establish the impact of such crossbreeding on banteng survival.<ref name=iucn /> In a bid to protect the genetic purity of Bali cattle, Bali has banned other cattle varieties on the island.<ref name=fao/>

====Cloning====

The banteng is the second endangered species to be successfully [[cloning|cloned]], and the first clone to survive beyond infancy (the first was a [[gaur]] that died two days after birth).<ref>{{cite journal |title=In brief |journal=Nature Biotechnology |date=2003 |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=473–475 |doi=10.1038/nbt0503-473|s2cid=12907904 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Banteng clone leads charge for endangered animals |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/banteng-clone-leads-charge-for-endangered-animals-20030409-gdgklk.html |access-date=12 May 2020 |newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=9 April 2003}}</ref> Scientists at [[Advanced Cell Technology]] in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] extracted DNA from skin cells of a dead male banteng, that were preserved in the [[San Diego Zoo]]'s cryobank [[Frozen Zoo]] facility, and transferred it into [[Ovum|egg]]s from domestic banteng cows, a process called [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]. Thirty [[embryo]]s were created and sent to [[Trans Ova Genetics]], where they were implanted in domestic banteng cows. Two were carried to term and delivered by [[Caesarian section]]. The first was born on 1 April 2003, and the second two days later. The second was [[animal euthanasia|euthanised]], apparently suffering from large offspring syndrome (an [[Overgrowth syndrome|overgrowth disorder]]), but the first survived and lived for seven years at the San Diego Zoo, where it died in April 2010 after it broke a leg and was euthanised.<ref>{{cite news|work=Advanced Cell Technology |url=http://www.advancedcell.com/press-release/collaborative-effort-yields-endangered-species-clone |title=Collaborative effort yields endangered species clone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023235648/http://www.advancedcell.com/press-release/collaborative-effort-yields-endangered-species-clone |archive-date=23 October 2006 |date=8 April 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ro |first1=C. |title=The increasingly realistic prospect of 'extinct animal' zoos |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20180328-the-increasingly-realistic-prospect-of-extinct-animal-zoos |access-date=12 May 2020 |work=BBC}}</ref>
{{clear}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Bantin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180228042515/http://www.wildcattleconservation.org/SpeciesFactSheets/BosJavanicus.htm Banteng ''bos javanicus'' d'Alton] from [https://web.archive.org/web/20190206225339/http://www.wildcattleconservation.org/ wildcattleconservation.org]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050410181907/http://www.cdu.edu.au/newsroom/story.php?nID=149 Banteng thrive on Cobourg Peninsula] from [[Charles Darwin University|CDU Homepage]]
* [https://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1491901.htm "Banteng thrive on Cobourg Peninsula"], article on banteng in Australia
* [https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/species/439 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile] <!-- Old website: http://ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/servlet/gov.doi.species_profile.servlets.SpeciesProfile?spcode=A00Q  -->
<!--* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060422074254/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Bos_javanicus/ images and movies of the banteng ''(Bos javanicus)''] at [[ARKive]] - Doesn't really work anymore - images aren't at Wayback machine. -->
{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q183035}}

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