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{{Short description|1831 failed slave rebellion in British-ruled Jamaica}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Baptist War
| place             = [[Colony of Jamaica]]
| image             = Duperly (1833) Destruction of the Roehampton Estate January 1832.png
| caption           = Destruction of the [[Roehampton Estate]], January 1832, during the Baptist War, by [[Adolphe Duperly]]
| partof            = [[Slave_rebellion#North_America|North American slave revolts]]
| date              = 25 December 1831 – 5 January 1832
| combatant1        = {{flagicon image|Flag of Jamaica (1957-1962).svg}} [[Colony of Jamaica]]
| combatant2        = Slave rebels
| commander1        = [[Willoughby Cotton]]
| commander2        = [[Samuel Sharpe]]
| result            = Rebellion suppressed
| casualties2       = At least 307 <ref name=Turner>Turner (1982) p. 161</ref>
| casualties1       = 14  <ref>Turner, Mary. ''[https://archive.org/details/slavesmissionari00turn Slaves and Missionaries: The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787–1834]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1982), p.161</ref>
}}
{{North American Slave Revolts|2|expanded=3000}}
The '''Baptist War'''  was an eleven-day rebellion that started on 25 December 1831 and involved up to 60,000 of the 300,000 [[Slavery|slaves]] in the [[Colony of Jamaica]].<ref name="Higman" /> The uprising was led by a black [[Baptist]] deacon, [[Samuel Sharpe]], and waged largely by his followers. The revolt, though militarily unsuccessful, played a major part in the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire]].
It is also known as the ''Sam Sharp Rebellion'', the ''Christmas Rebellion'', the ''Christmas Uprising'' and the ''Great Jamaican Slave Revolt'' of 1831–32.

== Ideology ==
The missionary-educated rebels had been following progress of the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist]] movement in London; their original intention was to call a peaceful [[general strike]].<ref name=craton>Craton, Michael. ''Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies'' (Cornell University Press, 1983), pp. 297–98</ref> Compared with their [[Presbyterian]], [[Wesleyans|Wesleyan]], and [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] counterparts, Baptist slaves seemed more ready to take action. This may have reflected a higher level of absenteeism among white Baptist missionaries. The relative independence of Black [[deacon]]s facilitated slaves taking greater ownership over their religious life, including reinterpretations of [[Baptist theology]] in terms of their experience (for example, they placed a greater emphasis on the role of [[John the Baptist]], sometimes at the expense of [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]]).<ref name=craton/><ref>Turner, Mary. ''[https://archive.org/details/slavesmissionari00turn Slaves and Missionaries: The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787–1834]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1982), p. 81</ref>

[[Thomas Burchell]], a missionary in [[Montego Bay]], returned from a Christmas vacation in England in late 1831. Rumours circulated among the local Baptist ministry that he was carrying documents signed by [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] that would grant full emancipation. Discontent quickly escalated among slaves when the Jamaican governor announced that the rumours were false and that no emancipation had been granted.<ref name=Revauger>{{cite book |title=The Abolition of Slavery – The British Debate 1787–1840 |first=Cécile |last=Révauger |author-link=Cécile Révauger|pages=107–08 |publisher=Presse Universitaire de France |year= 2008 |isbn=978-2-13-057110-0}}</ref>

== The strike and the uprising ==
Led by [[Baptist]] preacher [[Samuel Sharpe]], enslaved black workers initiated their strike, demanding more freedom and a working wage of "half the going wage rate"; they took an oath to stay away from work until their demands were met. The enslaved labourers, following the example of their ministers, were convinced that the Jamaican government and the plantation owners would capitulate quickly – they were prepared to use force, however, if military action was taken against them.<ref>The overthrow of colonial slavery, 1776–1848
Book by Robin Blackburn p. 432</ref> 

Sharpe was the inspiration for the rebellion and was nicknamed "Daddy" by his followers. His officers were literate slaves, like him, and they included Johnson, a carpenter called Campbell from the York estate, a waggoner from the Greenwich estate named Robert Gardner, Thomas Dove from the Belvedere estate, John Tharp from the Hazlelymph estate, and George Taylor, who, like Sharpe, was a deacon in Burchell's chapel.<ref>Craton, ''Testing the Chains'', p. 299.</ref>

It became the largest slave uprising in the British West Indies, mobilising as many as 60,000 of Jamaica's 300,000 slaves.<ref name=Revauger/><ref name=Higman>Barry W. Higman, "Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834", ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'', Vol. 16, No. 2 (Autumn, 1985), pp. 365–67</ref> During the rebellion, fourteen white people and over 307 rebels were killed.<ref name="turnermention">Turner (1982) p. 161</ref>

Violence exploded on 27 December when a group of slaves burned down the Kensington estate, in the hills above Montego Bay. The governor appointed Colonel William Grignon, a prominent St. James [[lawyer]] and militia commander, to suppress the strike and force the slaves back to work. Grignon was also a powerful landowner with several working estates, including one at Salt Spring, where a series of incidents in December were the sparks for the uprising.<ref>Craton, ''Testing the Chains'', p. 293.</ref> 

Grignon led his militia against the slaves, expecting them to scatter easily, but strong resistance from rebels armed with stockpiled guns and ammunition forced a retreat. This early victory put Sharpe and his forces in control of the rural areas of the Parish of St James.<ref>Bleby, Henry, ''Death Struggles of Slavery: Being a Narrative of Facts and Incidents Which Occurred in a British Colony, During the Two Years Immediately Preceding Negro Emancipation'' (London: Hamilton, Adams and Co, 1853), pp. 9–11.</ref>

On December 31, the colonial authorities instituted [[martial law]].<ref>Richard Dunn, ''A Tale of Two Plantations: Slave Life and Labor in Jamaica and Virginia'' (Cambridge: Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 344.</ref> Sir [[Willoughby Cotton]] of the [[British Army]] assumed responsibility for dealing with the rebels and enlisted the [[Jamaican Maroons]] of [[Accompong Town]] to confront Sharpe's followers in the second week of January 1832. Though the Maroons were themselves descended from escaped slaves, they formed a loose alliance with the colonial government to protect their vulnerable community. 

Accompong Maroons attacked the rebels at Catadupa, but they too chose to retreat because the rebels were "too strong".<ref>Michael Siva, ''After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739–1842'', PhD Dissertation (Southampton: Southampton University, 2018), p. 201. </ref> They soon gained the upper hand, however, and quickly defeated the rebels in a second skirmish; Sharpe's deputy Campbell was slain. When Cotton's regulars were besieged in their camp by a large rebel army at [[Maroon Town, Jamaica|Maroon Town]], the Accompong Maroons relieved them, killing more rebels and capturing scores of them, including another of Sharpe's deputies, Dehany.<ref>Siva, ''After the Treaties'', pp. 202–03. </ref>

When news came that the Windward Maroons from [[Charles Town, Jamaica]] and [[Moore Town]] had also pledged to fight for Cotton, the rebel cause collapsed. A final battle ended with the capture of rebel leader Gillespie. The remaining slaves, led by Robert Gardner, surrendered when they learned that the Windward Maroons had been sent to finish them off. <ref>Siva, ''After the Treaties'', p. 203. </ref>

== Suppression and death toll ==
The rebellion was quickly suppressed by the colonial authorities.<ref name=Jamaica-Guide.info>{{cite web |title = An End to Slavery – 1816–1836: Jamaica Reluctantly Makes History by Freeing its Slaves |url = http://caribya.com/jamaica/history/slavery.emancipation/ |access-date = 2017-01-18 |archive-date = 2017-01-18 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170118231142/http://caribya.com/jamaica/history/slavery.emancipation/ |url-status = dead }}</ref> The reaction of the colonial government and reprisals of the [[plantocracy]] were far more brutal than any actions undertaken by the rebels; approximately 500 rebels were killed, with 207 killed outright during the revolt. After the rebellion, an estimated 310 to 340 enslaved Jamaicans, including Sharpe, Gardner, and the other captured slave leaders, were killed through "various forms of judicial executions". 

Judicial records show that many of the death sentences were ordered for minor offenses (one recorded execution was for the theft of a pig; another, a cow).<ref>Mary Reckord. "The Jamaican Slave Rebellion of 1831", ''Past & Present'' (July 1968), 40(3): pp. 122, 124–25. </ref> An 1853 account by missionary Henry Bleby described how the courts commonly executed three or four persons simultaneously; bodies were then piled up and taken by Black labourers to be dumped in [[mass grave]]s on the outskirts of town. <ref name=Revauger/>

Total property damage was estimated in the Jamaican Assembly's summary report, issued in March 1832, at £1,154,589 (roughly £124,000,000 in 2021). Thousands of rebels had set fire to more than 100 properties, destroying over 40 sugar works and the homes and estates of nearly 100 white Jamaicans.<ref>Dunn, ''A Tale of Two Plantations'', pp. 343–44.</ref>

White Baptist missionaries were suspected of having encouraged and supplied the rebellion. Some, such as [[William Knibb]] and Bleby, were arrested and subjected to [[tarred and feathered|tar and feathers]] but were later released. Churches that had been built for the use of Black congregations were vandalised and destroyed by white mobs.<ref>Masters, P., 2006: Missionary triumph over slavery. Wakeman Trust, London. {{ISBN|1-870855-53-1}}. pp. 17–23</ref>

==Aftermath==
As a result of the Baptist War, hundreds of slaves ran away into the [[Cockpit Country]] in order to avoid being forced back into slavery. The Maroons were dispatched to track them down, but only a handful of slaves were captured and sent back to their plantations. Many runaways were still at large when the British government formally abolished slavery in 1833.<ref>Siva, ''After the Treaties'', pp. 205–08.</ref>

Historians argue that the brutality of the Jamaican plantocracy during the revolt accelerated the passage of full emancipation. When Burchell and Knibb gave their accounts before the House of Commons, the representatives were outraged that white Englishmen had been abused for merely associating with rebellious slaves. Parliament passed the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]], beginning initial measures late that year, followed by partial emancipation (outright for children six or under, six years' apprenticeship for the rest) in 1834 and then unconditional emancipation of chattel slavery in 1838.<ref name="Jamaica-Guide.info"/><ref>Craton, ''Testing the Chains'', pp. 316–19.</ref>

==In literature==
* [[Andrea Levy]]'s 2010 novel ''[[The Long Song]]'' recounts, through a fictional narrative, the events of the Baptist War.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Long Song by Andrea Levy|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/7500150-the-long-song|publisher=Good Reads|access-date=24 December 2017}}</ref>
* The 1929 novel ''The White Witch of Rosehall'', by [[Herbert G. de Lisser]], has a climax set in [[White Witch of Rose Hall|Rose Hall]] at the time of the Baptist War.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Crane|first1=Ralph|last2=Stafford|first2=Jane|last3=Williams|first3=Mark|title=The Oxford History of the Novel in English, Vol IX|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=265}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Craton, Michael: ''The Economics of Emancipation: Jamaica and Barbados, 1823–1843'' (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1995).
* Heuman, Gad: "A Tale of Two Jamaican Rebellions", in: ''Jamaican Historical Review'' (1996), 19: pp.&nbsp;1–8.
* {{cite book |first=Adam |last=Hochschild |title=Bury the Chains: The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/burychainsprophe00hoch |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/burychainsprophe00hoch/page/338 338]–343 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin, New York 2005}}
* Morrison, Doreen: ''Slavery's Heroes: [[George Liele]] and the Ethiopian Baptists of Jamaica 1783-1865'', 2004, CreateSpace. {{ISBN|978-1500657574}}.
* Reckord, Mary: ''The Jamaican Slave Rebellion of 1831. Past and Present'' (July 1968), 40(3): pp.&nbsp;108–125.
* Rodriguez, Junius P. (ed.): ''Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion'', Westport 2006, CT: Greenwood.
* Short, K.R.M.: "Jamaican Christian Missions and the Great Slave Rebellion of 1831–2", in: ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'', (1976), 27(1): pp.&nbsp;57–72.
* Turner, Mary: ''Slaves and Missionaries : The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787–1834'' (University of Illinois Press, 1982).

{{Wars and uprisings in Jamaica}}
{{British colonial campaigns}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Afro-Caribbean history]]
[[Category:History of the Colony of Jamaica]]
[[Category:Baptist Christianity|War]]
[[Category:Slave rebellions in North America]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1831]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1832]]
[[Category:19th-century rebellions]]
[[Category:Wars involving Jamaica]]
[[Category:1831 in Jamaica]]
[[Category:Abolitionism in Jamaica]]
[[Category:1832 in Jamaica]]
[[Category:December 1831]]
[[Category:January 1832]]
[[Category:Slavery in Jamaica]]
[[Category:Attacks during Christmas celebrations]]