View source for Basil

{{Short description|Important culinary herb}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Basel}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{speciesbox
|image = Ocimum basilicum 8zz.jpg
|genus = Ocimum
|species = basilicum
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''Basil'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|æ|z|əl}}, {{respell|BAZ|əl}};<ref name="Collins">{{Cite web |title=British: Basil |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/basil?showCookiePolicy=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129090005/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/basil?showCookiePolicy=true |archive-date=29 November 2014 |access-date=25 September 2014 |website=[[Collins Dictionary]]}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|b|eɪ|z|əl}}, {{respell|BAY|zəl}};<ref name="Collins2">{{Cite web |title=American: Basil |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/basil?showCookiePolicy=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129090005/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/basil?showCookiePolicy=true |archive-date=29 November 2014 |access-date=25 September 2014 |website=[[Collins Dictionary]]}}</ref>}} ('''''Ocimum basilicum'''''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɒ|s|ɪ|m|ə|m|_|b|ə|ˈ|z|ɪ|l|ɪ|k|ə|m}}, {{respell|OS|ih|məm|_|bə|ZIL|ih|kəm}}<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Ocimum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|basilica}}</ref>}}), also called '''great basil''', is a [[culinary herb]] of the family [[Lamiaceae]] (mints). It is a [[hardiness (plants)|tender]] plant, and is used in [[cuisine]]s worldwide. In [[Western cuisine]], the generic term "basil" refers to the [[variety (botany)|variety]] also known as [[Genovese basil]] or sweet basil. Basil is native to tropical regions from [[Central Africa]] to [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="simon">{{Cite web |last=Simon |first=James E |date=23 February 1998 |title=Basil |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/basil.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502080706/https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/basil.html |archive-date=2 May 2017 |access-date=22 January 2018 |publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Department of Horticulture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN}}</ref> In [[temperate climate]]s basil is treated as an [[annual plant]], but it can be grown as a short-lived [[perennial]] or [[Biennial plant|biennial]] in warmer [[Hardiness zone|horticultural zone]]s with [[Tropical climate|tropical]] or [[Mediterranean climate]]s.<ref name="simon" />

There are many [[List of basil cultivars|varieties of basil]] including sweet basil, [[Thai basil]] (''O. basilicum'' var. ''thyrsiflora''), and [[Mrs. Burns' Lemon basil|Mrs. Burns' Lemon]] (''O.''{{Nbsp}}''basilicum var. citriodora''). ''O. basilicum'' can [[Cross-pollination|cross-pollinate]] with other species of the ''Ocimum'' genus, producing [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s such as [[lemon basil]] (''O. × citriodorum'') and [[African blue basil]] (''O. × kilimandscharicum'').

== Description ==
[[File:Timelapse-Basil-growing.oga|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Timelapse]] of growing basil]]
[[File:Ocimum basilicum desiccated 5145~2016 01 03.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Desiccated basil showing seed dispersal]]

Basil is an [[Annual plant|annual]], or sometimes [[perennial]], herb. Depending on the [[Variety (botany)|variety]], plants can reach heights of between {{convert|30 and 150|cm|ft|0|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kandil |first1=M. A. M. |last2=Khatab |first2=M. E. |last3=Ahmed |first3=S. S. |last4=Schnug |first4=E |date=2009 |title=Herbal and essential oil yield of Genovese basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) grown with mineral and organic fertilizer sources in Egypt |journal=Journal für Kulturpflanzen |volume=61 |pages=443–449 |number=12}}</ref> Basil [[leaves]] are glossy and ovulate, with smooth or slightly toothed edges that typically cup slightly; the leaves are arranged oppositely along the square stems.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Britannica |first1=((The Editors of Encyclopaedia)) |title=basil (herb) |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/basil |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=21 December 2023}}</ref>  Leaves may be green or purple. Its flowers are small and white, and grow from a central [[inflorescence]], or [[Raceme#Spike|spike]], that emerges from the central stem atop the plant.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} Unusual among [[Lamiaceae]], the four [[stamen]]s and the [[pistil]] are not pushed under the upper lip of the [[Corolla (flower)|corolla]], but lie over the inferior lip. After [[entomophily|entomophilous]] pollination, the corolla falls off and four round [[achene]]s develop inside the bilabiate [[calyx (botany)|calyx]].{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}

=== Phytochemistry ===
The various basils have such distinct scents because the [[volatile organic compound|volatile aromatic compounds]] vary with cultivars.<ref name="simon" /> The essential oil from European basil contains high concentrations of [[linalool]] and [[methyl chavicol]] (estragole), in a ratio of about 3:1.<ref name="simon" /><ref name="janick">{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Seung-Joo |last2=Umano |first2=Katumi |last3=Shibamoto |first3=Takayuki |last4=Lee |first4=Kwang-Geun |date=2005 |title=Identification of Volatile Components in Basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' L.) and Thyme Leaves (''Thymus vulgaris'' L.) and Their Antioxidant Properties |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=91 |pages=131–137 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.05.056}}</ref> Other constituents include: [[1,8-cineole]], [[eugenol]], and [[myrcene]], among others.<ref name="simon" /><ref name="Breitmaier2006">{{Cite book |last=Eberhard Breitmaier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yrbR2WZ8bwC&pg=PA11 |title=Terpenes: Flavors, Fragrances, Pharmaca, Pheromones |date=22 September 2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-3-527-31786-8 |pages=11– |quote=Acyclic monoterpenoid trienes such as p-myrcene and configurational isomers of p- ocimene are found in the oils of basil (leaves of Ocimum basilicum, Labiatae), bay (leaves of Fimenta acris, Myrtaceae), hops (strobiles of Humulus lupulus, ... |access-date=2 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012210605/http://books.google.com/books?id=9yrbR2WZ8bwC&pg=PA11 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[clove]] scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol.<ref name="Islam2011">{{Cite book |last=Md Shahidul Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCMnYLLb758C&pg=PA50 |title=Transient Receptor Potential Channels |date=4 February 2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-007-0265-3 |pages=50– |quote=Eugenol is a vanilloid contained in relatively high amounts in clove oil from Eugenia caryophyllata, as well as cinnamon leaf oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and oil from the clove basil Ocimum gratissimum. While eugenol is often referred to as ... |access-date=2 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012221020/http://books.google.com/books?id=TCMnYLLb758C&pg=PA50 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The aroma profile of basil includes 1,8-cineole<ref name="suie">{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=B. Christopher |display-authors=etal |date=1999 |title=Substantial UV-B-mediated induction of essential oils in sweet basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' L.) |journal=[[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=507–510 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00767-5|bibcode=1999PChem..51..507J }}</ref><ref name="edsh">{{Cite journal |last1=Baritaux |first1=O. |last2=Richard |first2=H. |last3=Touche |first3=J. |last4=Derbesy |first4=M. |display-authors=etal |date=1992 |title=Effects of drying and storage of herbs and spices on the essential oil. Part I. Basil, ''Ocimum basilicum'' L. |journal=[[Flavour and Fragrance Journal]] |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=267–271 |doi=10.1002/ffj.2730070507}}</ref> and [[methyl eugenol]].<ref name="suie" /><ref name="mobg">{{Cite journal |last1=Miele |first1=Mariangela |last2=Dondero |first2=R |last3=Ciarallo |first3=G |last4=Mazzei |first4=M |display-authors=etal |date=2001 |title=Methyleugenol in ''Ocimum basilicum'' L. Cv. 'Genovese Gigante' |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=517–521 |doi=10.1021/jf000865w |pmid=11170620|bibcode=2001JAFC...49..517M }}</ref> In this species eugenol is [[Isoeugenol synthase|synthesised]] from [[coniferyl acetate]] and [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate|NADPH]].<ref name="Lin-et-al-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Jerry |last2=Massonnet |first2=Mélanie |last3=Cantu |first3=Dario |date=2019-07-01 |title=The genetic basis of grape and wine aroma |journal=[[Horticulture Research]] |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio|Nature]] + [[Nanjing Agricultural University]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1{{endash}}24 |article-number=81 |doi=10.1038/s41438-019-0163-1 |issn=2052-7276 |pmc=6804543 |pmid=31645942|bibcode=2019HorR....6...81L }}</ref>

=== Similar species ===
Some similar species in the same genus may be commonly called "basil", although they are not varieties of ''Ocimum basilicum''.
* Camphor basil, African basil (''[[Ocimum kilimandscharicum|O. kilimandscharicum]]'')
* Clove basil, also African basil (''[[Ocimum gratissimum]]'')<ref name="tgte">{{Cite journal |last1=Fandohan |first1=P. |last2=Gnonlonfin |first2=B |last3=Laleye |first3=A |last4=Gbenou |first4=JD |last5=Darboux |first5=R |last6=Moudachirou |first6=M |display-authors=etal |date=2008 |title=Toxicity and gastric tolerance of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum basilicum in Wistar rats |journal=[[Food and Chemical Toxicology]] |volume=46 |issue=7 |pages=2493–2497 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2008.04.006 |pmid=18511170}}</ref><ref name="aaeo">{{Cite journal |last1=Pessoa |first1=L. M. |last2=Morais |first2=SM |last3=Bevilaqua |first3=CM |last4=Luciano |first4=JH |date=2002 |title=Anthelmintic activity of essential oil of ''Ocimum gratissimum'' Linn. and eugenol against ''Haemonchus contortus'' |journal=[[Veterinary Parasitology (journal)|Veterinary Parasitology]] |volume=109 |issue=1–2 |pages=59–63 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4017(02)00253-4 |pmid=12383625}}</ref>
* [[Holy basil]] (''[[Ocimum tenuiflorum]]'', formerly known as ''O. sanctum'')<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2012 |title=''Ocimum tenuiflorum'' L., Synonyms |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-137105 |access-date=28 November 2019 |publisher=The Plant List, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Gardens}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
{{Further|List of basil cultivars}}
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}

The exact taxonomy of basil is uncertain due to the immense number of cultivars, its ready [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphy]], and frequent [[cross-pollination]] (resulting in new hybrids) with other members of the genus ''Ocimum'' and within the species. ''Ocimum basilicum'' has at least 60 varieties, which further complicates taxonomy.<ref name="simon" />

=== Cultivars ===
[[File:Prem Tinsulanonda International School garden.jpg|thumb|Thai basil growing at a school in Thailand]]
Most basils are cultivars of sweet basil. Most basil varieties have green leaves, but a few are purple, such as, 'Purple Delight'.
* [[Anise basil]], [[Licorice basil]], or [[Persian basil]] (''O. basilicum'' 'Liquorice')
* [[Cinnamon basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Cinnamon')
* [[Dark opal basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Dark Opal')
* [[Genovese basil]] or Sweet Basil (''Ocimum basilicum'')
* [[Greek basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum var. minimum'')
* [[Spicy globe basil|Globe basil]], dwarf basil, French basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Minimum')<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ocimum minimum information from NPGS/GRIN |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/~sbmljw/cgi-bin/taxon.pl?70463 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924161135/http://www.ars-grin.gov/~sbmljw/cgi-bin/taxon.pl?70463 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |website=ars-grin.gov}}</ref>
* [[Lettuce leaf basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Crispum')
* [[Naples|Napolitano]] basil, also known as Napoletano basil, Neapolitan basil, [[Mammoth basil]], Bolloso Napoletano basil, Napolitano Mammoth-Leafed basil, or Italian Large-Leaf basil (''Ocimum basilicum'')
* Purple basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Purpurescens')
* [[Red rubin basil|Rubin basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum'' 'Rubin')
* [[Thai basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum'' var. ''thyrsifolium'')

=== Hybrids ===
* [[African blue basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum × O. kilimandscharicum'')
* [[Lemon basil]] (''Ocimum basilicum × O. americanum'')<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Ocimum africanum'' Lour. taxonomy detail from NPGS/GRIN |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=463843 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913143509/https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=463843 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |website=ars-grin.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=''Ocimum'' × ''africanum'' Lour. in 'The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species' |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-136798 |access-date=3 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218164414/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-136798 |archive-date=18 February 2022}}</ref>
* Spice basil (''Ocimum basilicum × O. americanum''), which is sometimes sold as holy basil

=== Etymology ===
The name "basil" comes from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|basilius}}, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|βασιλικόν φυτόν}} ({{Transliteration|el|basilikón phytón}}), meaning "royal/kingly plant", possibly because the plant was believed to have been used in production of royal perfumes.<ref name="eo">{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=Basil |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Basil |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025133900/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=basil |archive-date=25 October 2012 |publisher=Etymology Online, Douglas Harper}}</ref> Basil is likewise sometimes referred to in [[French language|French]] as {{lang|fr|"l'herbe royale"}} ('the royal herb').<ref name="CarrollVona2006">{{Cite book |last1=Anstice Carroll |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RNZGgvsspMUC&pg=PA16 |title=The Dictionary of Wholesome Foods: A Passionate A-to-Z Guide to the Earth's Healthy Offerings, with More Than 140 Delicious, Nutritious Recipes |last2=Embree De Persiis Vona |last3=Gianna De Persiis Vona |date=2006 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-1-56924-395-4 |pages=16– |quote=The name "basil" comes from the Greek word for "king" – so greatly did the Greeks esteem this king of herbs. Herbe royale, the French respectfully call it. In Italy basil serves the goddess Love; a sprig of it worn by a suitor bespeaks his loving ... |access-date=2 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012212928/http://books.google.com/books?id=RNZGgvsspMUC&pg=PA16 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Latin name has been confused with [[basilisk]], as it was supposed to be an [[antidote]] to the basilisk's venom.<ref name="eo" />

== Distribution and habitat ==
Basil is native to [[India]] and other tropical regions stretching from Africa to South East Asia, but has now become globalized due to human cultivation.<ref name="simon" />

== Cultivation ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}

=== Growing conditions ===
Basil is sensitive to cold, with best growth in hot, dry conditions. Basil prefers high light conditions and grows best under full sun conditions. Increasing light intensity, particularly the [[Photosynthetically active radiation|photosynthetic photon flux density]], can significantly enhance the plant's fresh weight, dry matter content, and height.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larsen |first1=Dorthe H. |last2=Woltering |first2=Ernst J. |last3=Nicole |first3=Celine C. S. |last4=Marcelis |first4=Leo F. M. |date=2020-12-04 |title=Response of Basil Growth and Morphology to Light Intensity and Spectrum in a Vertical Farm |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=11 |article-number=597906 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2020.597906|pmid=33424894 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-462X|pmc=7793858 |bibcode=2020FrPS...1197906L }}</ref>

However, due to its common use, basil is cultivated in many countries around the world. Production areas include countries in the Mediterranean area, those in the [[temperate zone]], and others in [[subtropical]] climates.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hiltunen |first1=Raimo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLxiMFPvAfUC&q=basil+medicinal+uses&pg=PA56 |title=Basil: The Genus Ocimum |last2=Holm |first2=Yvonne |date=2003-09-02 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780203303771 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418170831/https://books.google.com/books?id=fLxiMFPvAfUC&pg=PA56&dq=basil+medicinal+uses&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZ16mPkq3TAhUl6YMKHZbTBsoQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=basil%20medicinal%20uses&f=false |archive-date=18 April 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

In Northern Europe, Canada, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand, basil grows best if sown under glass in a [[peat]] pot, then planted out in late spring/early summer<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petetti |first=Silvia |date=2024-04-30 |title=Orto, ecco cosa piantare a maggio: saranno tra gli alimenti estivi più buoni |url=https://www.biopianeta.it/2024/04/orto-ecco-cosa-piantare-a-maggio-saranno-tra-gli-alimenti-estivi-piu-buoni/ |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=Bio Pianeta |language=it-IT}}</ref> (when there is little chance of a frost); however, it can also thrive when planted outside in these climates. Additionally, it may be sown in soil once chance of frost is past. It fares best in well-drained soil with direct exposure to the sun.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Although basil grows best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot and, like most herbs, will do best on a sun-facing windowsill, kept away from cold drafts. A [[greenhouse]] or [[row cover]] is ideal if available. It can, however, even be grown in a basement under fluorescent lights. Supplemental lighting produces greater biomass and [[phenol]] production, with red + blue specifically increasing growth and flower bud production. {{Nowrap|[[UV-B]]}} increases the [[volatile organic compound|volatiles]] in ''O. basilicum'' [[essential oil]], which has not been reproducible in other plants, and so may be unique to the genus or even to this species.<ref name="Marondedze-et-al-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Marondedze |first1=Claudius |last2=Liu |first2=Xinyun |last3=Huang |first3=Shihui |last4=Wong |first4=Cynthia |last5=Zhou |first5=Xuan |last6=Pan |first6=Xutong |last7=An |first7=Huiting |last8=Xu |first8=Nuo |last9=Tian |first9=Xuechen |last10=Wong |first10=Aloysius |date=2018-11-01 |title=Towards a tailored indoor horticulture: a functional genomics guided phenotypic approach |journal=[[Horticulture Research]] |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio|Nature]] + [[Nanjing Agricultural University]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1{{endash}}10 |article-number=68 |doi=10.1038/s41438-018-0065-7 |issn=2052-7276 |pmc=6210194 |pmid=30393542|bibcode=2018HorR....5...68M }}</ref>

Basil prefers well-drained organic soils, as adequate oxygen availability in the root zone is essential for optimal plant growth. Poor soil drainage can lead to root hypoxia, which negatively affects overall plant development and essential oil yield.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khater |first1=El-Sayed |last2=Bahnasawy |first2=Adel |last3=Abass |first3=Wael |last4=Morsy |first4=Osama |last5=El-Ghobashy |first5=Hossam |last6=Shaban |first6=Yousry |last7=Egela |first7=Mohsen |date=2021-06-17 |title=Production of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under different soilless cultures |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=12754 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-91986-7 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8211801 |pmid=34140544 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1112754K }}</ref>

=== Pruning, flowering, and seeding ===
[[File:Xylocopa pubescens female with mite 1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Female [[carpenter bee]] foraging]]
[[File:The Flowers of Italian Basil.jpg|thumb|Flowers of Italian Basil]]
Once a stem produces flowers, foliage production stops on that stem, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines. To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some stems can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds. Picking the leaves off the plant helps promote growth, largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds, which can be saved and planted the following year. If allowed to go to seed, a basil plant will grow back the next year.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== Propagation methods ===

==== Seeds ====
The optimal germination temperature for basil seeds ranges between 34.5–39.0°C, while the base germination temperature lies between 9.8–13.2°C.{{cn|date=May 2025}} No significant variation in optimal germination temperature has been observed among different basil cultivars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Diana D. |last2=Cameron |first2=Arthur C. |date=1994-02-01 |title=Postharvest Shelf Life of Sweet Basil (''Ocimum basilicum'') |url=https://doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.29.2.102 |journal=HortScience |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=102–103 |doi=10.21273/hortsci.29.2.102 |issn=0018-5345}}</ref> Prior to sowing, basil (''Ocimum basilicum'') seeds can be hydroprimed by soaking in water for 12 hours, which effectively enhances germination rates and seedling vigor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Noorhosseini |first1=Seyyed Ali |last2=Jokar |first2=Nargesh Khatun |last3=Damalas |first3=Christos A. |date=2017-08-01 |title=Improving Seed Germination and Early Growth of Garden Cress (Lepidium sativum) and Basil (''Ocimum basilicum'') with Hydro-priming |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-017-9728-0 |journal=Journal of Plant Growth Regulation |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=323–334 |doi=10.1007/s00344-017-9728-0 |issn=0721-7595|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Cuttings ====
Basil (''Ocimum basilicum'' L.) is commonly propagated through cuttings. Compared to seed propagation, basil cuttings tend to result in earlier harvest and higher yield. The typical propagation method involves selecting healthy, non-lignified stem segments approximately 5–10 cm in length, preferably apical shoots that retain 2 to 5 leaves, which are then inserted into moist soil until root development occurs. After rooting, the plantlets are transplanted into the field.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haijie |first1=D. |last2=Mengmeng |first2=G. |last3=Genhua |first3=N. |date=2018-09-01 |title=Are cuttings a viable alternative to seeds for sweet basil production? |url=https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2018.1212.70 |journal=Acta Horticulturae |issue=1212 |pages=303–306 |doi=10.17660/actahortic.2018.1212.70 |issn=0567-7572|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Exposing basil cuttings to blue light significantly accelerates root formation, thereby shortening the growth period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Tuanhui |last2=Ma |first2=Ping |last3=Li |first3=Cuiying |last4=Yin |first4=Rong |last5=Ma |first5=Fengwang |date=2013-12-01 |title=Role of ascorbic acid in enhancing hypoxia tolerance in roots of sensitive and tolerant apple rootstocks |journal=Scientia Horticulturae |language=en |volume=164 |pages=372–379 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2013.10.003|bibcode=2013ScHor.164..372B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Diseases ===
Basil suffers from several plant pathogens that can ruin the crop and reduce [[crop yield|yield]]. [[Fusarium wilt]] is a soil-borne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. [[Seedling]]s may be killed by ''[[Pythium]]'' [[damping off]]. A common [[foliage|foliar]] disease of basil is [[gray mold]] caused by ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]''; it can cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. [[Black Spot (disease)|Black spot]] can be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the [[fungi]] [[genus]] ''[[Colletotrichum]]''. [[Downy mildew]] caused by ''[[Peronospora belbahrii]]'' is a significant disease, as first reported in Italy in 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garibaldi |first1=A. |last2=Minuto |first2=A. |last3=Minuto |first3=G. |last4=Gullino |first4=M. L. |date=March 2004 |title=First Report of Downy Mildew on Basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) in Italy |journal=Plant Disease |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=312 |doi=10.1094/PDIS.2004.88.3.312A |pmid=30812374 |bibcode=2004PlDis..88..312G |doi-access=}}</ref> It was reported in the Florida in 2007 and by 2008 had spread along the eastern United States, reaching Canada.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=P. D. |last2=Raid |first2=R. N. |last3=Harmon |first3=P. F. |last4=Jordan |first4=S. A. |last5=Palmateer |first5=A. J. |date=February 2009 |title=First Report of Downy Mildew Caused by a Peronospora sp. on Basil in Florida and the United States |journal=Plant Disease |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=199 |doi=10.1094/PDIS-93-2-0199B |pmid=30764112 |bibcode=2009PlDis..93..199R |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wick |first1=R. L. |last2=Brazee |first2=N. J. |date=March 2009 |title=First Report of Downy Mildew Caused by a Peronospora Species on Sweet Basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) in Massachusetts |journal=Plant Disease |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=318 |doi=10.1094/PDIS-93-3-0318B |pmid=30764191 |bibcode=2009PlDis..93..318W |doi-access=}}</ref> Basil cultivars resistant to ''P. belbahrii'' have been developed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://marylandgrows.umd.edu/2020/02/21/basil-bounces-back-with-downy-mildew-resistant-cultivars/ |title=Maryland Grows Blog |date=21 February 2020 |access-date=29 September 2023}}</ref>

Non-pathogenic bacteria found on basil include ''[[Novosphingobium]]'' species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ceuppens |first1=Siele |last2=Delbeke |first2=Stefanie |last3=De Coninck |first3=Dieter |last4=Boussemaere |first4=Jolien |last5=Boon |first5=Nico |last6=Uyttendaele |first6=Mieke |date=21 August 2015 |title=Characterization of the Bacterial Community Naturally Present on Commercially Grown Basil Leaves: Evaluation of Sample Preparation Prior to Culture-Independent Techniques |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=10171–10197 |doi=10.3390/ijerph120810171 |pmc=4555336 |pmid=26308033 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Uses==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Basil, fresh | kJ=94| water=92.06 g | protein=3.15 g | fat=0.64 g | carbs=2.65 g | fiber=1.6 g | sugars=0.30 g | | calcium_mg=177 | iron_mg=3.17 | magnesium_mg=64 | phosphorus_mg=56 | potassium_mg=295 | sodium_mg=4 | zinc_mg=0.81 | copper_mg=0.385 | manganese_mg=1.148 | selenium_ug=0.3 | vitC_mg=18.0 | thiamin_mg=0.034 | riboflavin_mg=0.076 | niacin_mg=0.902 | pantothenic_mg=0.209 | vitB6_mg=0.155 | folate_ug=68 | choline_mg=11.4 | vitA_ug=264 | betacarotene_ug=3142 | vitE_mg=0.80 | vitK_ug=414.8 | opt1n=[[Betaine]] | opt1v=0.4 mg | source_usda=1 }}
[[File:Basilic-spice.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Dried basil leaves]]

===Culinary===
{{Cookbook}}
Basil is most commonly used fresh in recipes. In general, it is added last, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being [[blanching (cooking)|blanched]] quickly in boiling water.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} It has a flavor resembling that of [[liquorice]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=The Culinary Institute of America |author-link=The Culinary Institute of America |title=The Professional Chef |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-470-42 135-2 |edition=9th |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=180}}</ref>

==== Leaves and flowers ====
The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "[[African Blue basil|African Blue]]".{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} Basil is one of the main ingredients in [[pesto]], an [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] sauce with [[olive oil]] and basil as its primary ingredients, and is used in other sauces and [[salad dressing]]s.<ref name=":0" /> Many national cuisines use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods, such as to thicken soups. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create flavor in ice cream or [[chocolate truffle]]s.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} It is sometimes used to infuse oils and vinegars.<ref name=":0" />

Lemon basil has a strong [[lemon]]y smell and flavor due to the presence of [[citral]]. It is widely used in [[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesia]], where it is called {{lang|id|kemangi}} and served raw as an accompaniment to meat or fish.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

==== Seeds ====
{{Main|Basil seeds}}

When soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties [[hydrophile|become gelatinous]], and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as the [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] ''[[faluda]]'', the [[Iranian cuisine|Iranian]] {{Transliteration|fa|[[Sharbat (beverage)|sharbat-e-rihan]]}}, or {{lang|vi|hột é}}.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} In Kashmir, the [[Ramadan]] fast is often broken with ''babre beole'', a [[Sharbat (beverage)|sharbat]] made with basil seeds.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-09 |title=Traditional Summer Drinks of India: Beat the Heat with Refreshing Recipes |url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/278433/traditional-summer-drinks-of-india-how-to-make-refreshing-recipes/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=The Better India |language=en}}</ref>

=== Folk medicine ===
Basil is used in [[traditional medicine|folk medicine]] practices, such as those of [[Ayurveda]] or [[traditional Chinese medicine]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Ambrose |first1=Dawn C. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwLpDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |title=Leafy Medicinal Herbs: Botany, Chemistry, Postharvest Technology and Uses |last2=Manickavasagan |first2=Annamalai |last3=Naik |first3=Ravindra |date=2016 |publisher=CABI |isbn=9781780645599 |pages=33–34}}</ref><!--note, the source is more specific-->

=== Insecticide and insect repellent ===
Studies of the essential oil have shown [[Insecticide|insecticidal]] and [[Insect repellent|insect-repelling]] properties,<ref name="apia">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Dube S, Upadhhyay PD, Tripath SC |date=1989 |title=Antifungal, physicochemical, and insect-repelling activity of the essential oil of ''Ocimum basilicum'' |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=67 |issue=7 |pages=2085–2087 |doi=10.1139/b89-264|bibcode=1989CaJB...67.2085D }}</ref> including potential toxicity to [[mosquito]]s.<ref name="etdp">{{Cite journal |last1=Maurya |first1=Prejwltta |last2=Sharma |first2=Preeti |last3=Mohan |first3=Lalit |last4=Batabyal |first4=Lata |last5=Srivastava |first5=C.N. |display-authors=etal |date=2009 |title=Evaluation of the toxicity of different phytoextracts of ''Ocimum basilicum'' against ''Anopheles stephensi'' and ''Culex quinquefasciatus'' |journal=[[Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology]] |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=113–115 |doi=10.1016/j.aspen.2009.02.004|bibcode=2009JAsPE..12..113M }}</ref> The essential oil is found by Huignard et al. 2008 to inhibit electrical activity by decreasing [[action potential]] amplitude, by shortening the post [[hyperpolarization (biology)|hyperpolarization]] phase, and reducing the action frequency of action potentials. In Huignard's opinion this is due to the [[linalool]] and [[estragole]], the amplitude reduction due to linalool, and the phase shortening due to both.<ref name="Regnault-Roger-et-al-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Regnault-Roger |first1=Catherine |last2=Vincent |first2=Charles |last3=Arnason |first3=John Thor |date=2012-01-07 |title=Essential Oils in Insect Control: Low-Risk Products in a High-Stakes World |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=405–424 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554 |issn=0066-4170 |pmid=21942843}}</ref>

''[[Callosobruchus maculatus]]'', a pest which affects [[cowpea]], is repelled by the essential oil.<ref name="Regnault-Roger-et-al-2012" /> The essential oil mixed with [[kaolin]] is both an [[adulticide]] and an [[ovicide (insecticide)|ovicide]], effective for three months against ''C. maculatus'' in cowpea.<ref name="Regnault-Roger-et-al-2012" /> The [[thrips]] ''[[Frankliniella occidentalis]]'' and ''[[Thrips tabaci]]'' are repelled by ''O. basilicum'', making this useful as an [[insect repellent]] in other crops.<ref name="Kirk-et-al-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Kirk |first1=William D. J. |last2=de Kogel |first2=Willem Jan |last3=Koschier |first3=Elisabeth H. |last4=Teulon |first4=David A. J. |date=2021-01-07 |title=Semiochemicals for Thrips and Their Use in Pest Management |url=https://eprints.keele.ac.uk/7806/1/Kirk%20et%20al%20Ann%20Rev%20Ent%2066%20semiochemicals%202020%20jan%2013.docx |journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=101–119 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-022020-081531 |issn=0066-4170 |pmid=33417819 |s2cid=231304158|doi-access=free }}</ref> The pests ''[[Sitophilus oryzae]]'', ''[[Stegobium paniceum]]'', ''[[Tribolium castaneum]]'', and ''[[Bruchus chinensis]]'' are evaluated by Deshpande et al. 1974 and '77.<ref name="Regnault-Roger-et-al-2012" />

=== Nematicide ===
The essential oil is found by Malik et al. 1987 and Sangwan et al. 1990 to be [[nematicide|nematicidal]] against ''[[Tylenchulus semipenetrans]]'', ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'', ''[[Anguina tritici]]'', and ''[[Heterodera cajani]]''.<ref name="Chitwood-2002">{{Cite journal |last=Chitwood |first=David J. |date=2002 |title=Phytochemical Based Strategies for Nematode Control |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=221–249 |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.032602.130045 |issn=0066-4286 |pmid=12147760 |bibcode=2002AnRvP..40..221C }}</ref>

=== Bacterial and fungal inhibition ===
The essential oil of the leaf and [[terminal shoot]] is effective against a large number of bacterial species including ''[[Lactiplantibacillus plantarum]]'' and ''[[Pseudomonas]]'' spp.<ref name="Davidson-et-al-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Davidson |first1=P. Michael |last2=Critzer |first2=Faith J. |last3=Taylor |first3=T. Matthew |date=2013-02-28 |title=Naturally Occurring Antimicrobials for Minimally Processed Foods |journal=[[Annual Review of Food Science and Technology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=163–190 |doi=10.1146/annurev-food-030212-182535 |issn=1941-1413 |pmid=23244398}}</ref> The essential oil of the leaf and [[terminal shoot]] is also effective against a large number of fungal species including ''[[Aspergillus]]'' spp., ''[[Candida (fungus)|Candida]]'' spp., ''[[Mucor]]'' spp., and ''[[Geotrichum candidum]]''.<ref name="apia" /><ref name="Davidson-et-al-2013" />

== In culture ==

=== Religion ===
[[File:WHH Isabella Pot of Basil DelArt.jpg|thumb|''Isabella and the Pot of Basil'', William Holman Hunt, 1868]]
There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The [[ancient Egypt]]ians and ancient Greeks believed basil would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on.<ref name="Nelson-Shellenbarger2013">{{Cite book |last=Nelson-Shellenbarger |first=Robin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kS1kIC1IhcC&pg=PT38 |title=Family Herbal Wellness |date=25 February 2013 |publisher=Booktango |isbn=978-1-4689-2481-7 |pages=38– |access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=This is a book about herbalism and alternative medicine, not about ancient history.|date=March 2022}} However, [[Herbalist]] [[Nicholas Culpeper]] saw basil as a plant of dread and suspicion.{{why|date=March 2022}}<ref name="GL">{{Cite book |last=Bill Neal |title=Gardener's Latin |date=1992 |publisher=[[Robert Hale (publishers)|Robert Hale]] |isbn=0709051069 |location=London |page=16}}</ref>

In [[Portugal]], dwarf bush basil is traditionally presented in a pot, together with a poem and a paper [[carnation]], to a sweetheart, on the religious holidays of [[John the Baptist]] (see {{Section link|Saint John's Eve|Portugal}}) and Saint [[Anthony of Padua]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}

Basil has religious significance in the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], where it is used to sprinkle holy water.<ref name="blessing-of-the-waters">{{Cite web |title=Blessing of the Waters known as Agiasmos conducted by a Greek Orthodox priest |url=http://www.completely-crete.com/blessing-of-the-waters.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307021718/http://www.completely-crete.com/blessing-of-the-waters.html |archive-date=7 March 2012 |access-date=2012-09-10}}</ref> The [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] and [[Romanian Orthodox Church]] use basil ({{langx|bg|босилек}}, {{Transliteration|bg|bosilek}}; {{langx|sr|босиљак}}, {{Transliteration|sr|bosiljak}}; {{langx|mk|босилек}}, {{Transliteration|mk|bosilek}}) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars.<ref name="MacDermott1998">{{Cite book |last=Mercia MacDermott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gh4IE6toGJMC&pg=PA114 |title=Bulgarian Folk Customs |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |date=1998 |isbn=978-1-85302-485-6 |pages=114– |access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref> Some Greek Orthodox Christians avoid eating it due to its association with the legend of the [[Elevation of the Holy Cross]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Complete Book of Greek Cooking |publisher=HarperPerennial |date=1991 |isbn=9780060921293 |pages=7}}</ref>

=== Art and literature ===
In [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s 14th century [[The Decameron|''Decameron'']], the fifth story of the narrative's [[Summary of Decameron tales#Fourth day|fourth day]] involves a pot of basil as a central plot device. This famous story inspired [[John Keats]] to write his 1814 poem "[[Isabella, or the Pot of Basil]]", which was in turn the inspiration for two paintings of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]: [[John Everett Millais]]'s [[Isabella (Millais painting)|''Isabella'']] in 1849 and in 1868 the ''[[Isabella and the Pot of Basil]]'' by [[William Holman Hunt]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

== See also ==
* [[List of basil cultivars]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://libguides.nybg.org/basil/ Basil: Knowing and Growing] New York Botanical Garden

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Transient receptor potential channel modulators}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q38859}}
{{Authority control}}
{{sister bar|auto=yes|commons=Category:Ocimum basilicum|wikt=basil}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Flora of tropical Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of the Mediterranean basin]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Insect repellents]]
[[Category:Mediterranean cuisine]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Ocimum]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]