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{{short description|1862 naval battle in the American Civil War, the first between ironclads}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict    = Battle of Hampton Roads
|image       = File:Battle of Hampton Roads 3g01752u.jpg
|image_size  = 300px
|caption     = ''Battle of Hampton Roads'' by [[Kurz and Allison]]
|date        = {{Start date|1862|3|8}} –  {{End date|1862|3|9}}
|place       = Off [[Sewell's Point]], [[Hampton Roads]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|36|59|0|N|76|19|11|W|display=inline,title}}
|result      = Inconclusive
|combatant1  = [[United States]] (Union)
|combatant2  = [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]]
|commander1  = [[John Marston (sailor)|John Marston]] <br> [[John L. Worden|John Worden]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150304075548/http://www.nps.gov/abpp/battles/va008.htm Battle Summary: Hampton Roads]</ref>
|commander2  = [[Franklin Buchanan]] <br> [[Catesby ap Roger Jones|Catesby Jones]]
|strength1   = 1 [[ironclad]] ([[USS Monitor|''Monitor'']])<br> 5 [[frigate]]s <br> 6 auxiliary boats <br> 2 forts <br> 1 [[shore battery]]
|strength2   = 1 [[ironclad]] ([[CSS Virginia|''Virginia'']])<br> 2 wooden warships <br> 1 [[gunboat]] <br> 2 [[Ship's tender|tender]]s <br> 1 shore battery
|casualties1 = 261 killed <br> 108 wounded <br> 2 frigates sunk <br> 2 frigates damaged <br> 1 ironclad damaged <br> 3 auxiliary boats damaged
|casualties2 = 7 killed <br> 17 wounded <br> 1 ironclad damaged <br> 1 gunboat damaged
|campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Peninsula Campaign}}
|partof      = the [[American Civil War]]
}}

The '''Battle of Hampton Roads''', also referred to as the '''Battle of the ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimack''''' or the '''Battle of Ironclads''', was a [[naval battle]] during the [[American Civil War]].

The battle was fought over two days, March 8 and 9, 1862, in [[Hampton Roads]], a [[roadstead]] in Virginia where the [[Elizabeth River (Virginia)|Elizabeth]] and [[Nansemond River|Nansemond]] rivers meet the [[James River]] just before it flows into [[Chesapeake Bay]] by the city of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]]. The battle was a part of the effort of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] to break the [[United States Navy|Union]] blockade, which had cut off Virginia's largest cities and major industrial centers, Norfolk and [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], from international trade.<ref name=":0">Musicant 1995, pp. 134–178; Anderson 1962, pp. 71–77; Tucker 2006, p. 151.</ref><ref name=DeMeissner>{{cite book|last=de Meissner|first=Sophie Radford|title=Old Naval Days|url=https://archive.org/details/oldnavaldayssket00meisrich|year=1920|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldnavaldayssket00meisrich/page/244 244]–251}}</ref> At least one historian has argued that, rather than trying to break the blockade, the Confederacy was simply trying to take complete control of Hampton Roads in order to protect Norfolk and Richmond.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Still Jr. |first1=William N. |title=Confederate Naval Strategy: The Ironclad |journal=The Journal of Southern History |date=August 1961 |volume=27 |issue=3 |page=335 |doi=10.2307/2205212 |jstor=2205212 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2205212 |access-date=5 August 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This battle was significant in that it was the first combat between [[ironclad warship]]s, the {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}. The Confederate fleet consisted of the ironclad ram ''Virginia'' (built from remnants of the burned steam frigate {{USS|Merrimack|1855|6}}) and several supporting vessels. On the first day of battle, they were opposed by several conventional, wooden-hulled ships of the Union Navy.

On that day, ''Virginia'' was able to destroy two ships of the Union flotilla, {{USS|Congress|1841|6}} and {{USS|Cumberland|1842|6}}, and was about to attack a third, {{USS|Minnesota|1855|6}}, which had run aground. However, the action was halted by darkness and falling tide, so ''Virginia'' retired to take care of her few wounded—which included her captain, Flag Officer [[Franklin Buchanan]]—and repair her minimal battle damage.<ref>Anderson 1962, pp. 71–75.</ref>

Determined to complete the destruction of ''Minnesota'', [[Catesby ap Roger Jones]], acting as captain in Buchanan's absence, returned the ship to the fray the next morning, March 9. During the night, however, the ironclad ''Monitor'' had arrived and had taken a position to defend ''Minnesota''. When ''Virginia'' approached, ''Monitor'' intercepted her. The two ironclads fought for about three hours, with neither able to inflict significant damage on the other. The duel ended indecisively, ''Virginia'' returning to her home at the [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard|Gosport Navy Yard]] for repairs and strengthening, and ''Monitor'' to her station defending ''Minnesota''. The ships did not fight again, and the blockade remained in place.<ref>Anderson 1962, pp. 75–77.</ref>

The battle received worldwide attention, having immediate effects on navies around the world. The preeminent naval powers, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]] and [[Second French Empire|France]], halted further construction of wooden-hulled ships, and others followed suit. Although Britain and France had been engaged in an iron-clad arms race since the 1830s, the Battle of Hampton Roads signaled a new age of naval warfare had arrived for the whole world.<ref name='Deogracias'>Deogracias, Alan J. "The Battle of Hampton Roads: A Revolution in Military Affairs." U.S. Army Command, 6 June 2003.
{{Small|Appears to be a military student's Master's Thesis submission.}}</ref> A new type of warship, [[Monitor (warship)|monitor]], was produced on the principle of the original. The use of a small number of very heavy guns, mounted so that they could fire in all directions, was first demonstrated by ''Monitor'' but soon became standard in warships of all types. Shipbuilders also incorporated rams into the designs of warship hulls for the rest of the century.<ref>Tucker 2006, p. 175; Luraghi 1996, p. 148.</ref>

== Background ==

=== Military situation ===
{{Main|Peninsula Campaign}}
{{further|Eastern Theater of the American Civil War|American Civil War}}

=== The blockade at Norfolk ===
[[File:Battle of Hampton Roads Map.png|left|thumb|alt=Contemporary map of Battle of Hampton Roads; from Century Magazine, March 1885|Map of events of the Battle of Hampton Roads]]

On April 19, 1861, shortly after the outbreak of hostilities at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Charleston Harbor]], US President [[Abraham Lincoln]] proclaimed a [[Union blockade|blockade]] of ports in the seceded states. On April 27, after Virginia and North Carolina had also passed ordinances of secession, the blockade was extended to include their ports also.<ref>''Civil War naval chronology'', pp. I-9, I-12.</ref> Even before the extension, local troops had seized the Norfolk area and threatened the [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard|Gosport Navy Yard]] in Portsmouth. The commandant there, [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[Charles S. McCauley]], though loyal to the Union, was immobilized by advice he received from his subordinate officers, most of whom were in favor of secession. Although he had orders from (Union) [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] [[Gideon Welles]] to move his ships to Northern ports, he refused to act until April 20, when he gave orders to scuttle the ships in the yard and destroy its facilities.

At least nine ships were burned, among them the screw frigate {{USS|Merrimack|1855|6}}.<ref name=NYTimes>{{cite news |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=24 April 1861 |title=BURNING OF GOSPORT NAVY-YARD; Eleven Vessels Scuttled and Burned, The Steam Tug ''Yankee'' Tows the ''Cumberland'' to Sea, Norfolk Not on Fire. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1861/04/24/archives/burning-of-gosport-navyyard-eleven-vessels-scuttled-and-burned-the.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York City |access-date=2 August 2022 |quote=The Government vessels had been scuttled in the afternoon before the ''Pawnee'' arrived, to prevent their being seized by the Secessionists... The following are the names of the vessels which were destroyed: ''Pennsylvania'', 74 gun-ship; steam-frigate ''Merrimac'', 44 guns; sloop-of-war ''Germantown'', 22 guns; sloop ''Plymouth'', 22 guns; frigate ''Raritan'', 45 guns; frigate ''Columbia'', 44 guns; ''Delaware'', 74 gun-ship; ''Columbus'', 74 gun-ship; ''United States'', in ordinary; brig ''Dolphin'', 8 guns; and the powder-boat. [Missing: [[List of ships of the line of the United States Navy|''New York'']], 74 gun-ship, known to have been ''on the stocks'' at the [[Norfolk Navy Yard|Gosport Navy Yard]] near Norfolk and destroyed at this time.]}}</ref> ''Merrimack'' burned only to the waterline, however, and her engines were more or less intact. The destruction of the navy yard was mostly ineffective; in particular, [[Drydock Number One, Norfolk Naval Shipyard|the large drydock there]] was relatively undamaged and soon could be restored.<ref>Musicant 1995, pp. 26–40.</ref> Without firing a shot, the advocates of secession had gained for the South its largest navy yard, as well as the hull and engines of what would be in time its most famous warship. They had also seized more than a thousand heavy guns, plus gun carriages and large quantities of gunpowder.<ref>Luraghi 1996, pp. 34–35, 42.</ref>

With Norfolk and its navy yard in Portsmouth, the Confederacy controlled the southern side of Hampton Roads. To prevent Union warships from attacking the yard, the Confederates set up batteries at Sewell's Point and Craney Island, at the juncture of the [[Elizabeth River (Virginia)|Elizabeth River]] with the James. (See map.)<ref>ORA I, v. 2, pp. 782–783.</ref> The Union retained possession of [[Fort Monroe]], at [[Old Point Comfort]] on the [[Virginia Peninsula]].<ref>Fort Monroe was one of three major forts in seceded states that were still held by the Union; the others were [[Fort Zachary Taylor]] and [[Fort Pickens]], both in Florida.</ref> They also held a small man-made island known as the [[Rip Raps]], on the far side of the channel opposite Fort Monroe, and on this island they completed another fort, named [[Fort Wool]].<ref>The fort was named Fort Calhoun when construction was started before the outbreak of the war. It was completed only after the war started, and was then renamed for the general who directed the defense of the region. Browning, ''From Cape Charles to Cape Fear'', p. 41.</ref> With Fort Monroe went control of the lower Peninsula as far as [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]].<ref>Joseph B. Carr, "Operations of 1861 about Fort Monroe," ''Battles and leaders'', v. 2, pp. 144–152.</ref>

Forts Monroe and Wool gave the Union forces control of the entrance to Hampton Roads. The blockade, initiated on April 30, 1861, cut off Norfolk and Richmond from the sea almost completely.<ref>Wise 1988, p. 25.</ref> To further the blockade, the Union Navy stationed some of its most powerful warships in the roadstead. There, they were under the shelter of the shore-based guns of Fort Monroe and the batteries at [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]] and Newport News and out of the range of the guns at Sewell's Point and Craney Island. For most of the first year of the war, the Confederacy could do little to oppose or dislodge them.<ref>Davis 1975, pp. 69, 71.</ref>

=== Birth of the ironclads ===
When steam propulsion began to be applied to warships, naval constructors renewed their interest in armor for their vessels. Experiments had been tried with armor during the [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856), just prior to the American Civil War,<ref>Gibbon 1983, p. 13.</ref> and the British and French navies had each built armored ships and were planning to build others. In 1860 the French Navy commissioned {{Ship|French battleship|La Gloire||2}}, the world's first ocean-going ironclad warship. Great Britain followed a year later with {{HMS|Warrior|1860|6}}, the world's first armor-plated iron-hulled warship.<ref>Gibbon 1983, pp. 28–31.</ref><ref>Contemplation of armor was not confined to Europe. The United States had spent a lot of money supporting the development of the [[Stevens Battery]], with nothing to show for it. (Davis, ''Duel between the first two ironclads'', p. 5.) Also, a river boatman at New Orleans, [[John A. Stevenson]], early in the war had converted a tugboat into an armored vessel. As {{ship|CSS|Manassas}}, she was actually the first armored vessel to go into combat in the war. (Still, ''Iron afloat'', pp. 46–51.)</ref> The use of armor remained controversial, however, and the United States Navy was generally reluctant to embrace the new technology.<ref>Anderson 1962, p. 67.</ref>

==== CSS ''Virginia'' ====
{{Main|CSS Virginia}}
[[File:CSS Virginia, wash drawing by Clary Ray (Photo - NH 57830).jpg|thumb|alt=wash drawing of CSS Virginia by Clary Ray (1898)|CSS ''Virginia'' (ex-USS ''Merrimack'')]]

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Confederate [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[Stephen R. Mallory]] was an early enthusiast for the advantages of armor. As he looked upon it, the Confederacy could not match the industrial North in numbers of ships at sea, so they would have to compete by building vessels that individually outclassed those of the Union. Armor would provide the edge.<ref>Still 1985, p. 10.</ref> Mallory gathered about himself a group of men who could put his vision into practice, among them [[John M. Brooke]], [[John L. Porter]], and [[William P. Williamson]].<ref>After the war, Brooke and Porter engaged in an unseemly fight for recognition as the originator of the ''Virginia'' design. In the wake of the controversy, the contributions of the engineer Williamson have often been overlooked. Still 1985, pp. 11–13; Davis 1975, p. 141.</ref>

When Mallory's men searched the South for factories that could build engines to drive the heavy ships that he wanted, they found no place to do it immediately. At the best facility, the [[Tredegar Iron Works]] in Richmond, building engines from scratch would take at least a year. Upon learning this, Williamson suggested taking the engines from the hulk of ''Merrimack'', recently raised from the bed of the Elizabeth River.<ref>This is a more telling comment on the handicaps faced by the South than it may appear. The reason that ''Merrimack'' was in the Gosport yard was to repair her notably balky engines.</ref> His colleagues promptly accepted his suggestion and expanded it, proposing that the design of their projected ironclad be adapted to the hull. Porter produced the revised plans, which were submitted to Mallory for approval.

On July 11, 1861, the new design was accepted, and work began almost immediately.<ref>Still 1985, p. 15.</ref> The burned-out hull was towed into the [[Drydock|graving dock]] that the Union Navy had failed to destroy. During the subsequent conversion process, the plans developed further, incorporating an iron ram fitted to the prow. The re-modeled ship's offense, in addition to the ram, consisted of 10 guns: six {{convert|9|in|mm|abbr=on}} smooth-bore [[Dahlgren gun|Dahlgrens]], two {{convert|6.4|in|mm|abbr=on}} and two {{convert|7|in|mm|abbr=on}} [[Brooke rifle]]s.<ref>Still 1985, p. 22.</ref> Trials showed that these rifles firing solid shot would pierce up to eight inches of armor plating.

The Tredegar Iron works could produce both solid shot and shell, and since it was believed that ''Virginia'' would face only wooden ships, she was given only the explosive shell.<ref name="Nelson, Reign of Iron, 2004">Nelson, ''Reign of Iron'', 2004</ref> The armor plating, originally meant to be {{convert|1|in|mm|abbr=on}} thick, was replaced by double plates, each {{convert|2|in|mm|abbr=on}} thick, backed by {{convert|24|in|cm|abbr=on}} of iron and pine. The armor was pierced for 14 gunports: four on each broadside, three forward, and three aft.<ref>Anderson 1962, pp. 36, 71.</ref> The revisions, together with the usual problems associated with the transportation system of the South, resulted in delays that pushed out the launch date until February 3, 1862, and she was not commissioned until February 17, bearing the name {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}.<ref>Still 1985, pp. 19–23.</ref>

==== USS ''Monitor'' ====
{{Main|USS Monitor}}
[[File:USS Monitor at sea.jpg|thumb|alt=Print: USS Monitor at sea|USS ''Monitor'']]

Intelligence that the Confederates were working to develop an ironclad caused consternation for the Union, but Secretary of the Navy [[Gideon Welles]] waited for Congress to meet to request permission to consider building armored vessels; Congress gave this permission on August 3, 1861. Welles appointed a commission, which became known as the [[Ironclad Board]], of three senior naval officers to choose among the designs that were submitted for consideration. The three men were Captains Joseph Smith,<ref>Smith's son, Joseph Smith, Jr., who was also a naval officer, would be killed at Hampton Roads.</ref> [[Hiram Paulding]], and [[Commander (United States)|Commander]] [[Charles Henry Davis]].<ref>Anderson 1962, pp. 67–68.</ref> The board considered seventeen designs, and chose to support three. The first of the three to be completed, even though she was by far the most radical in design, was Swedish engineer and inventor [[John Ericsson]]'s {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}}.<ref>The other two ships were the rather conventional {{USS|New Ironsides||2}} and the experimental {{USS|Galena|1862|2}}. Anderson 1962, p. 68.</ref>

Ericsson's ''Monitor'', which was built at Ericsson's yard on the East River in [[Greenpoint, Brooklyn]], incorporated new and striking design features, the most significant of which were her armor and armament. Instead of the large numbers of guns of rather small bore that had characterized warships in the past, Ericsson opted for only two guns of large caliber; he wanted to use {{convert|15|in|mm|abbr=on}} guns, but had to settle for {{convert|11|in|mm|abbr=on}} Dahlgren guns when the larger size were unavailable.<ref>Davis 1975, p. 51.</ref> These were mounted in a cylindrical turret, {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=on}} in diameter, {{convert|9|ft|m|abbr=on}} high, covered with iron {{convert|8|in|mm|abbr=on}} thick. The whole rotated on a central spindle, and was moved by a steam engine that could be controlled by one man.  Ericsson was afraid that using the full 30 pounds of black powder to fire the huge cannon would raise the risk of an explosion in the turret.  He demanded that a charge of 15 pounds be used to lessen this possibility.

As with ''Virginia'', trials found that a full charge would pierce armor plate, a finding that would have affected the outcome of the battle.<ref name="Nelson, Reign of Iron, 2004" /> A serious flaw in the design was the pilot house from which the ship would be [[wikt:conn|conned]], a small structure forward of the turret on the main deck. Its presence meant that the guns could not fire directly forward, and it was isolated from other activities on the ship. Despite the late start and the novelty of construction, ''Monitor'' was actually completed a few days before her counterpart ''Virginia'', but the Confederates activated ''Virginia'' first.<ref>Davis 1975, pp. 17–19.</ref>

== Battle ==

=== Command ===
{{further|Hampton Roads order of battle}}
The Confederate chain of command was [[:wikt:anomaly|anomalous]]. [[Lieutenant]] [[Catesby ap Roger Jones]] had directed much of the conversion of ''Merrimack'' to ''Virginia'', and he was disappointed when he was not named her captain.<ref>Still, ''Iron afloat'', p. 23.</ref> Jones was retained aboard ''Virginia'', but only as her executive officer. Ordinarily, the ship would have been led by a captain of the Confederate States Navy, to be determined by the rigid seniority system that was in place. Secretary Mallory wanted the aggressive [[Franklin Buchanan]], but at least two other captains had greater seniority and had applied for the post. Mallory evaded the issue by appointing Buchanan, head of the Office of Orders and Detail, flag officer in charge of the defenses of Norfolk and the James River. As such, he could control the movements of ''Virginia''. Technically, therefore, the ship went into the battle without a captain.<ref>Still, ''Iron afloat'', p. 24.</ref>

On the Union side, command of the [[Union blockade#North Atlantic Blockading Squadron|North Atlantic Blockading Squadron]] was held by [[Flag officer#United States|Flag Officer]] [[Louis M. Goldsborough]]. He had devised a plan for his frigates to engage ''Virginia'', hoping to trap her in their crossfire.<ref>Davis, ''Duel of the first ironclads'', p. 72</ref> In the event, his plan broke down completely when four of the ships ran aground (one of them intentionally) in the confined waters of the [[roadstead]]. On the day of battle, Goldsborough was absent with the ships cooperating with the [[Burnside Expedition]] in North Carolina.<ref>Browning, ''From Cape Charles to Cape Fear'', pp. 42, 45.</ref> In his absence, leadership fell to his second in command, Captain [[John Marston (sailor)|John Marston]] of {{USS|Roanoke|1855|6}}. As ''Roanoke'' was one of the ships that ran aground, Marston was unable to materially influence the battle, and his participation is often disregarded. Most accounts emphasize the contribution of the captain of ''Monitor'', [[John Lorimer Worden|John L. Worden]], to the neglect of others.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 72. Browning, ''From Cape Charles to Cape Fear'', p. 45, does not name Marston at all.</ref> Marston did, however, disregard orders from Secretary of War [[Gideon Welles]] to send the ''Monitor'' back to Washington, D.C., ahead of the battle, ensuring that it would be present to confront the ''Merrimack''.<ref name="CRFP">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pq8yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1104|title=Colonial and Revolutionary Families of Pennsylvania: Genealogical and Personal Memoirs|first1=John Woolf|last1=Jordan|first2=Wilfred|last2=Jordan|date=December 18, 1911|publisher=Lewis Historical Publishing Company|page=1104-05|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Tucker">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZX3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1202|title=American Civil War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [6 volumes]|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|date=September 30, 2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|pages=1202–03|isbn=978-1-85109-682-4 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

[[File:Cumberland rammed by Merrimac.png|thumb|alt=Print: Cumberland rammed by Virginia|Sinking of ''Cumberland'' by the ironclad ''Virginia'']]

=== March 8: ''Virginia'' wreaks havoc on wooden Union warships ===
The battle began when the large and unwieldy CSS ''Virginia'' steamed into Hampton Roads on the morning of March 8, 1862. Captain Buchanan intended to attack as soon as possible.<ref>Still, ''Iron afloat'', p. 26.</ref> ''Virginia'' was accompanied from her moorings on the Elizabeth River by {{ship|CSS|Raleigh|1861|2}} and {{ship|CSS|Beaufort||2}}, and was joined at Hampton Roads by the James River Squadron, {{ship|CSS|Patrick Henry||2}}, {{ship|CSS|Jamestown||2}}, and {{ship|CSS|Teaser||2}}. When they were passing the Union batteries at Newport News, ''Patrick Henry'' was temporarily disabled by a shot in her boiler that killed four of her crew. After repairs, she returned and rejoined the others.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 97. ORN I, v. 7, p. 44.</ref>

At this time, the Union Navy had five warships in the roadstead, in addition to several support vessels. The [[sloop-of-war]] {{USS|Cumberland|1842|2}} and frigate {{USS|Congress|1841|2}} were anchored in the channel near Newport News. The sail frigate {{USS|St. Lawrence|1848|2}} and the steam frigates {{USS|Roanoke|1855|2}} and {{USS|Minnesota|1855|2}}<ref>''Minnesota'' and ''Merrimack'', upon whose hull ''Virginia'' was built, were sisters.</ref> were near Fort Monroe, along with the [[storeship]] {{USS|Brandywine|1825|2}}.<ref name="thisweekinthecivilwar.com">{{Cite web |url=http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=1028%2F |title=On this Date in Civil War History – March 8–9, 1862 – Battle of Hampton Roads |access-date=March 8, 2012 |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402145236/http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=1028%2F |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The latter three got under way as soon as they saw ''Virginia'' approaching, but all soon ran aground. ''St. Lawrence'' and ''Roanoke'' took no further important part in the battle.<ref name="DavisDuelbetween">Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 98.</ref>

''Virginia'' headed directly for the Union squadron. The battle opened when Union tug ''Zouave'' fired on the advancing enemy, and ''Beaufort'' replied. This preliminary skirmishing had no effect.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', pp. 86–87.</ref> ''Virginia'' did not open fire until she was within easy range of ''Cumberland''. Return fire from ''Cumberland'' and ''Congress'' bounced off the iron plates without penetrating, although later some of ''Cumberland''{{'}}s gunfire lightly damaged ''Virginia''.

''Virginia'' rammed ''Cumberland'' below the waterline and she sank rapidly, "gallantly fighting her guns as long as they were above water," according to Buchanan.<ref>ORN I, v. 7, p. 44.</ref> She took 121 seamen down with her; those wounded brought the casualty total to nearly 150.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 109</ref>

Ramming ''Cumberland'' nearly resulted in the sinking of ''Virginia'' as well. ''Virginia''{{'}}s bow ram got stuck in the enemy ship's hull, and as ''Cumberland'' listed and began to go down, she almost pulled ''Virginia'' under with her. At the time the vessels were locked, one of ''Cumberland's'' anchors was hanging directly above the foredeck of ''Virginia''. Had it come loose, the two ships might have gone down together. ''Virginia'' broke free, however, her ram breaking off as she backed away.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', pp. 90–92.</ref><ref>Nelson, ''Reign of iron: the story of the first battling ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack'', pp. 229–230</ref>

[[File:The Virginia drives the Congress from her anchorage.jpg|thumb|left|''Virginia'' drives ''Congress'' away from her anchorage]]
Buchanan next turned ''Virginia'' on ''Congress''. Seeing what had happened to ''Cumberland'', Lieutenant [[Joseph B. Smith]], captain of ''Congress'', ordered his ship grounded in shallow water. By this time, the [[James River Squadron]], commanded by [[John Randolph Tucker (naval officer)|John Randolph Tucker]], had arrived and joined ''Virginia'' in the attack on ''Congress''. After an hour of unequal combat, the badly damaged ''Congress'' surrendered.<ref>Smith, captain of ''Congress'', had been killed by a shot that blew off his head, so the decision to surrender was made by her executive officer, [[Austin Pendergrast]]. See Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 100.</ref> While the surviving crewmen of ''Congress'' were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on ''Virginia''. In retaliation, Buchanan ordered ''Congress'' fired upon with [[Heated shot|hot shot]], cannonballs heated red-hot. ''Congress'' caught fire and burned throughout the rest of the day. Near midnight, the flames reached her magazine and she exploded and sank, stern first.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', pp. 98–104.</ref> Personnel losses included 110 killed or missing and presumed drowned. Another 26 were wounded, of whom ten died within days.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 109.</ref>

Although she had not suffered anything like the damage she had inflicted, ''Virginia'' was not completely unscathed. Shots from ''Cumberland'', ''Congress'', and Union troops ashore had riddled her smokestack, reducing her already low speed. Two of her guns were disabled and several armor plates had been loosened. Two of her crew were killed, and more were wounded. One of the wounded was Captain Buchanan, who stood out into the open top of the Virginia, thinking it was perfectly safe, which led to him having his left thigh pierced by a rifle shot.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', pp. 103, 105.</ref>

Meanwhile, the [[James River Squadron]] had turned its attention to ''Minnesota'', which had left [[Fort Monroe]] to join in the battle and had run aground.<ref name="DavisDuelbetween" /> After ''Virginia'' had dealt with the surrender of ''Congress'', she joined the James River Squadron despite her damage. Because of her deep draft and the falling tide, however, ''Virginia'' was unable to get close enough to be effective, and darkness prevented the rest of the squadron from aiming their guns to any effect. The attack was therefore suspended. ''Virginia'' left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the task. She retreated into the safety of Confederate-controlled waters off Sewell's Point for the night,<ref>Still, ''Iron afloat'', p. 32.</ref> but had killed 250 enemy sailors and had lost two. The Union had lost two ships and three were aground.{{r|malanowski20120308}}

The United States Navy's greatest defeat (which would remain so until [[World War II]]) caused panic in Washington. As Lincoln's Cabinet met to discuss the disaster, the frightened [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[Edwin Stanton]] told the others that ''Virginia'' might attack East coast cities, and even shell the [[White House]] before the meeting ended. Welles assured his colleagues that they were safe as the ship could not traverse the Potomac River. He added that the Union also had an ironclad, and that it was heading to meet ''Virginia''.<ref name="malanowski20120308">{{cite news | url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/the-duel/ | title=The Duel | work=The New York Times | date=March 8, 2012 | access-date=March 13, 2012 | author=Malanowski, James}}</ref>

=== March 9: ''Monitor'' engages ''Virginia'' ===
[[File:TerrificCombatBetweenMonitor&Merrimac2.png|thumb|alt=Print: Terrific Combat between Monitor and Merrimac; Currier and Ives, publisher.|''Ironclads engaged in terrific combat'' by [[Currier and Ives]]]]

Both sides used the respite to prepare for the next day. ''Virginia'' put her wounded ashore and underwent temporary repairs. Captain Buchanan was among the wounded, so command on the second day fell to his executive officer, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones. Jones proved to be no less aggressive than the man he replaced. While ''Virginia'' was being prepared for renewal of the battle, and while ''Congress'' was still ablaze, ''Monitor'', commanded by Lieutenant John L. Worden, arrived in Hampton Roads. The Union ironclad had been rushed to Hampton Roads in hopes of protecting the Union fleet and preventing ''Virginia'' from threatening Union cities. Captain Worden was informed that his primary task was to protect ''Minnesota'', so ''Monitor'' took up a position near the grounded ''Minnesota'' and waited.<ref>ORN I, v. 7, p. 25.</ref> "All on board felt we had a friend that would stand by us in our hour of trial," wrote Captain Gershom Jacques Van Brunt, ''Minnesota''{{'}}s commander, in his official report the day after the engagement.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web |url=http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=1021%2F |title=The Monitor, The Merrimack...The U.S.S. Minnesota? |access-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-date=June 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622050954/http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=1021%2F |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

The next morning, at dawn on March 9, 1862, ''Virginia'' left her anchorage at Sewell's Point and moved to attack ''Minnesota'', still aground. She was followed by the three ships of the James River Squadron.<ref>Still, ''Iron afloat'', p. 33.</ref> They found their course blocked, however, by the newly arrived ''Monitor''. At first, Jones believed the strange craft—which one Confederate sailor mocked as "a cheese on a raft"—to be a boiler being towed from the ''Minnesota'', not realizing the nature of his opponent. Soon, however, it was apparent that he had no choice but to fight her.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 121.</ref>{{r|malanowski20120308}} The first shot of the engagement was fired at ''Monitor'' by ''Virginia''. The shot flew past ''Monitor'' and struck ''Minnesota'', which answered with a broadside; this began what would be a lengthy engagement. "Again, all hands were called to quarters, and when she approached within a mile of us I opened upon her with my stern guns and made a signal to the ''Monitor'' to attack the enemy," Van Brunt added.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

[[File:MonitorMerrimac.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Print: Battle Between the Monitor and Merrimac|The heart of battle, from an 1871 wood engraving published by A.S. Barnes & Co.]] After fighting for hours, mostly at close range, neither could overcome the other. The armor of both ships proved adequate. In part, this was because each was handicapped in her offensive capabilities. Buchanan, in ''Virginia'', had not expected to fight another armored vessel, so his guns were supplied only with shell rather than armor-piercing shot.<ref>Musicant, ''Divided waters'', p. 171.</ref> ''Monitor''{{'}}s guns were used with the standard service charge of only {{convert|15|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of powder, which did not give the projectile sufficient momentum to penetrate her opponent's armor. Tests conducted after the battle showed that the [[Dahlgren gun]]s could be operated safely and efficiently with charges of as much as {{convert|30|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>Schneller, "A state of war is a most unfavorable period for experiments." retrieved August 24, 2009.{{cite web|url=http://www.ijnhonline.org/volume2_number3_Dec03/article_schneller_dahlgren_dec03.htm#_edn73 |title=Article_schneller_dahlgren_dec03 |access-date=2009-08-24 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008145234/http://ijnhonline.org/volume2_number3_Dec03/article_schneller_dahlgren_dec03.htm |archive-date=October 8, 2010 |df=mdy }}</ref> However, despite this, as the two ironclads circled each other during the fight, ''Monitor'' was about to penetrate ''Virginia'''s armor, but a misfiring of her weapons caused her to lose the advantage. At 10 AM that morning, ''Virginia'' grounded. ''Monitor'' opened fire on her vulnerable adversary, yet ''Virginia'' was able to scrape off the shore and rejoin the fight.<ref name=":0" />

Later during the battle, Acting Master [[Louis N. Stodder]] and officers [[Alban C. Stimers|Stimers]] and Truscott were inside the [[gun turret]], discussing the course of action. Stodder was leaning against the turret's inside wall when it took a direct hit.<ref name=Holzer13>[[#Holzer|Holzer, 2013]], p. 13</ref> Stodder was knocked unconscious and taken below, where it took him an hour to regain consciousness. Stodder thus became the first man injured during the battle. He was replaced by Stimers.<ref>[[#Aldrich|Chriswell, 2013]], article</ref><ref>[[#Maclay|Maclay, 1894]], p.313</ref><ref>[[#Green|Lt. Green, letter, 1862]]</ref>

The battle finally ceased when a shell from ''Virginia'' struck the pilot house of ''Monitor'' and exploded, driving fragments of paint and iron through the viewing slits into Worden's eyes and temporarily blinding him.<ref name="thisweekinthecivilwar.com" /> As no one else could see to command the ship, ''Monitor'' was forced to draw off. The executive officer, Lieutenant [[Samuel Greene (naval officer)|Samuel Dana Greene]], took over, and ''Monitor'' returned to the fight. In the period of command confusion, however, the crew of ''Virginia'' believed that their opponent had withdrawn. Although ''Minnesota'' was still aground, the falling tide meant that she was out of reach. Furthermore, ''Virginia'' had suffered enough damage to require extensive repair. Convinced that his ship had won the day, Jones ordered her back to Norfolk. At about this time, ''Monitor'' returned, only to discover her opponent apparently giving up the fight. Convinced that ''Virginia'' was quitting, with orders only to protect ''Minnesota'' and not to risk his ship unnecessarily, Greene did not pursue. Thus, each side misinterpreted the moves of the other, and as a result each claimed victory.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', pp. 121–134.</ref>

[[File:Ironclads battle 7.jpg|thumb|alt=Print: First Battle of Iron Ships of War, lithograph by Henry Bill (1862)|''First Battle of Iron Ships of War'' by Henry Bill. Shown are USS ''Monitor'', CSS ''Virginia'', {{USS|Cumberland|1842|6}}, {{ship|CSS|Jamestown}}, {{USS|Congress|1841|6}}, and {{USS|Minnesota|1855|6}}]]
Confederate Secretary of the Navy [[Stephen Mallory]] wrote to Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis|Davis]] of the action:<ref>ORN I, v. 7, p. 43.</ref>

<blockquote>The conduct of the Officers and men of the squadron ... reflects unfading honor upon themselves and upon the Navy. The report will be read with deep interest, and its details will not fail to rouse the ardor and nerve the arms of our gallant seamen.
It will be remembered that the ''Virginia'' was a novelty in naval architecture, wholly unlike any ship that ever floated; that her heaviest guns were equal novelties in ordnance; that her motive power and obedience to her helm were untried, and her officers and crew strangers, comparatively, to the ship and to each other; and yet, under all these disadvantages, the dashing courage and consummate professional ability of Flag Officer Buchanan and his associates achieved the most remarkable victory which naval annals record.</blockquote>

In Washington, belief that ''Monitor'' had vanquished ''Virginia'' was so strong that Worden and his men were awarded the thanks of Congress:<ref>ORN I, v. 7, p. 39.</ref>

<blockquote> Resolved ... That the thanks of Congress and the American people are due and are hereby tendered to Lieutenant J. L. Worden, of the United States Navy, and to the officers and men of the ironclad gunboat ''Monitor'', under his command, for the skill and gallantry exhibited by them in the remarkable battle between the ''Monitor'' and the rebel ironclad steamer ''Merrimack''.</blockquote>

During the two-day engagement, USS ''Minnesota'' shot off 78 rounds of 10-inch solid shot; 67 rounds of 10-inch shells with 15-second fuse; 169 rounds of 9-inch solid shot; 180 9-inch shells with 15-second fuse; 35 8-inch shells with 15-second fuse and 5,567.5 pounds of service powder. Three crew members, Alexander Winslow, Henry Smith and Dennis Harrington were killed during the battle and 16 were wounded.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> One of ''Monitor''{{'}}s crew, Quartermaster [[Peter Williams (Medal of Honor)|Peter Williams]], was awarded the [[Medal of Honor]] for his actions during the battle.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Quarstein |first = John V. |title = The Monitor Boys: The Crew of the Union's First Ironclad |publisher = The History Press |date = 2011 |location = Charleston, SC |page = 181 |isbn = 978-1-59629-455-4 }}</ref>

=== Spring 1862—a standoff at Hampton Roads ===
''Virginia'' remained in drydock for almost a month, getting repairs for battle damage as well as minor modifications to improve her performance. On April 4, she was able to leave drydock. Buchanan, still recovering from his wound, had hoped that Catesby Jones would be picked to succeed him, and most observers believed that Jones's performance during the battle was outstanding. The [[seniority]] system for promotion in the Navy scuttled his chances, however, and the post went to the 67-year-old Commodore [[Josiah Tattnall III]].<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 142.</ref> ''Monitor'', not severely damaged, remained on duty. Like his antagonist Jones, Greene was deemed too young to remain as captain; the day after the battle, he was replaced with Lieutenant [[Thomas Oliver Selfridge Jr.]] Two days later, Selfridge was in turn relieved by Lieutenant [[William Nicholson Jeffers]].<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', p. 147.</ref>

By late March, the Union blockade fleet had been augmented by hastily refitted civilian ships, including the powerful [[USS Vanderbilt (1862)|SS ''Vanderbilt'']],<ref>T.J. Stiles,''The First Tycoon: The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt'' (2009), pp. 345–348</ref> {{SS|Arago|1855|6}}, SS ''Illinois'', and SS ''Ericsson''. These had been outfitted with rams and some iron plating. By late April, the new ironclads [[USS Naugatuck (1844)|USRC ''E. A. Stevens'']] and {{USS|Galena|1862|6}} had also joined the blockade.

Each side considered how best to eliminate the threat posed by its opponent, and after ''Virginia'' returned each side tried to goad the other into attacking under unfavorable circumstances. Both captains declined the opportunity to fight in waters not of their own choosing; Jeffers in particular was under positive orders not to risk his ship.<ref>Anderson, ''By sea and by river'', p. 77.</ref> Consequently, each vessel spent the next month in what amounted to posturing.<ref>One common myth is that, not only did the two ships not fight each other, neither ship ever fought again after March 9; in fact, although ''Virginia'' indeed never fought again, ''Monitor'' would see further combat at [[Battle of Drewry's Bluff|Drewry's Bluff]] on May 15 and provided further gunfire support to Union forces in the [[Peninsula campaign]] until late August.</ref>

=== Destruction of the combatants ===
[[File:Destruction of Merrimac, May 11, 1862.png|left|thumb|alt=Print: Destruction of the Rebel Monster "Merrimac" off Crany Island; published by Currier and Ives|''Destruction of the rebel monster ''Merrimac'' off Craney Island, May 11, 1862'', by [[Currier and Ives]]]]

The end came first for ''Virginia''. Because the blockade was unbroken, Norfolk was of little strategic use to the Confederacy, and preliminary plans were laid to move the ship up the James River to the vicinity of Richmond. Before adequate preparations could be made, the Confederate Army under Major General [[Benjamin Huger (general)|Benjamin Huger]] abandoned the city on May 9, without consulting anyone from the Navy. ''Virginia''{{'}}s draft was too great to permit her to pass up the river, which had a depth of only {{convert|18|ft|m|abbr=on}}, and then only under favorable circumstances. She was trapped and could only be captured or sunk by the Union Navy. Rather than allow either, Tatnall decided to destroy his own ship. He had her towed down to Craney Island in Portsmouth, where the gang were taken ashore, and then she was set afire. She burned through the rest of the day and most of the following night; shortly before dawn, the flames reached her magazine, and she blew up.<ref>Luraghi, ''A history of the Confederate Navy'', pp. 164–167.</ref>

[[File:USS Monitor - H58758.jpg|thumb|right|Engraving of ''Monitor'' sinking]]

''Monitor'' likewise did not survive the year. She was ordered to [[Beaufort, North Carolina]], on Christmas Day, to take part in the blockade there. While she was being towed down the coast (under command of her fourth captain, Commander [[John P. Bankhead]]), the wind increased and with it the waves; with no high sides, the ''Monitor'' took on water. Soon the water in the hold gained on the pumps, and then put out the fires in her engines. The order was given to abandon ship; most men aboard were rescued by {{USS|Rhode Island|1860|6}}, but 16 went down with her when she sank in the early hours of December 31, 1862.<ref>Davis, ''Duel between the first ironclads'', pp. 160–164.</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The victory claims that were made by both sides in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Hampton Roads were based on misinterpretations of the opponent's behavior and have been dismissed by present-day historians. They agree that the result of the ''Monitor''–''Virginia'' encounter was not a victory for either side. As the combat between ironclads was the primary significance of the battle, the general verdict is that the overall result was a draw.<ref>Simson, ''Naval strategies of the Civil War'', p. 86.</ref> All would acknowledge that the Southern fleet inflicted far more damage than it received, which would ordinarily imply that they had gained a tactical victory. Compared to other Civil War battles, the loss of men and ships for the Union Navy would be considered a clear defeat. On the other hand, the blockade was not seriously threatened, so the entire battle can be regarded as an assault that ultimately failed.<ref>Browning, ''From Cape Charles to Cape Fear'', p. 45. Tucker, ''Blue and gray navies'', p. 175.</ref>

However, initially after the Battle of Hampton Roads, both the Confederate and Union media claimed victory for their own sides. A headline in a Boston newspaper the day after the battle read "The Merrimac Driven back by the Steamer!", implying a Union victory, while Confederate media focused on their original success against wooden Union ships. Despite the battle ending in a stalemate, it was seen by both sides as an opportunity to raise war-time morale, especially since the ironclad ships were an exciting naval innovation that intrigued citizens.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

Evaluation of the strategic results is likewise disputed. The blockade was maintained, even strengthened, and ''Virginia'' was bottled up in Hampton Roads.  Because a decisive Confederate weapon was negated, some have concluded that the Union could claim a strategic victory.<ref>Musicant, ''Divided waters'', p. 176.</ref> Confederate advocates can counter, however, by arguing that ''Virginia'' had a military significance larger than the blockade, which was only a small part of the war in [[Tidewater region of Virginia|Tidewater Virginia]]. Her mere presence was sufficient to close the James River to Federal incursions. She also imposed other constraints on the [[Peninsula Campaign]] then being mounted by the [[Union Army]] under General [[George B. McClellan]], who worried that she could interfere with his positions on the York River.  Although his fears were baseless, they continued to affect the movements of his army until ''Virginia'' was destroyed.<ref>Browning, ''From Cape Charles to Cape Fear'', pp. 45–52. Simson, ''Naval strategies of the Civil War'', p. 87.</ref>

== Impact upon naval warfare ==
Both days of the battle attracted attention from almost all the world's navies. USS ''Monitor'' became the prototype for the [[monitor warship type]].  She thus became the first of two ships whose names were applied to entire classes of their successors, the other being {{HMS|Dreadnought|1906|6}}.  Many more were built, including [[river monitor]]s, and they played key roles in Civil War battles on the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] and James rivers.

The US immediately started the construction of ten more monitors based on Ericsson's original larger plan, known as the {{sclass|Passaic|monitor|1}}s. More than 20 additional monitors were built by the Union by the end of the war.<ref>Gardiner & Chesneau 1979, pp. 119–123</ref> However, while the design proved exceptionally well-suited for river combat, the low profile and heavy turret caused poor seaworthiness in rough waters. Russia, fearing that the American Civil War would spill into [[Russian Alaska]], launched [[Uragan-class monitor|ten sister ships]], as soon as Ericsson's plans reached St. Petersburg.  What followed has been described as ''"Monitor mania"''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=G. Smirnov, V. Smirnov |year=1984 |script-title=ru:БРОНЯ, БАШНИ И ТАРА |journal=Моделист-Конструктор |issue=1 |pages=31–32 |location=Moscow |url=http://mkmagazin.almanacwhf.ru/mor_col/mc_bo/mc_bo_06.htm |language=ru |access-date=February 10, 2009 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123070651/http://mkmagazin.almanacwhf.ru/mor_col/mc_bo/mc_bo_06.htm |archive-date=January 23, 2009 }}</ref> The revolving turret later inspired similar designs for future warships, which eventually became the modern [[battleship]].

[[File:USS Monitor after Battle of Hampton Roads.png|thumb|alt=Photograph of USS Monitor after battle|[[Stereoscopy|Stereograph]] of ''Monitor'' after the battle, July 1862]]

The vulnerability of wooden hulls to armored ships was noted particularly in Britain and France, where the wisdom of the planned conversion of the battle fleet to armor was given a powerful demonstration.<ref>Luraghi, ''History of the Confederate Navy'', p. 148.</ref> Another feature that was emulated was not so successful.  Impressed by the ease with which ''Virginia'' had sunk ''Cumberland'', naval architects began to incorporate [[Naval ram|rams]] into their hull designs.

The first purpose-built ram in the modern era was the French armored ram {{ship|French ironclad|Taureau||2}}, whose guns were said to have "the sole function of preparing the way for the ram."<ref>Ropp, Theodore, and Stephen S. Roberts. ''The Development of a Modern Navy: French Naval Policy, 1871–1904''. Naval Institute Press, 1987; p. 13.</ref> The inclusion of rams in warship hull design persisted almost to the outbreak of World War I.<ref>Rose, Lisle Abbott, ''Power at sea: the age of navalism, 1890–1918'' (vol. 1 of a three-volume set). Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-8262-1683-8}}; p. 46.</ref>

== Commemorating the battle: ''Virginia'' ==
The name of the warship that served the Confederacy in the Battle of Hampton Roads has been a continuing source of confusion and some contention. She was originally a screw frigate in the [[United States Navy]] carrying the name {{USS|Merrimack|1855|6}}. All parties continued to use the name after her capture by secessionists while she was being rebuilt as an ironclad.<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m9/merrimack-ii.htm USS ''Merrimack''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625074651/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m9/merrimack-ii.htm |date=June 25, 2008 }} [[DANFS]] at history.navy.mil</ref> When her conversion was almost complete, her name was officially changed to {{ship|CSS|Virginia||2}}.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040805042353/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/cfa10/virginia.htm CSS ''Virginia''] [[DANFS]] record of Confederate ships at history.navy.mil</ref> Despite the official name change, Union accounts persisted in calling ''Merrimack'' by her original name, while Confederate sources used either ''Virginia'' or ''Merrimac(k)''.<ref>For examples of each: Jones, ''A Rebel war clerk's diary'', v. 1, p. 115; Wood, "The first fight of ironclads," ''Battles and leaders'', v. 1, p. 692.</ref> The alliteration of ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimack'' has persuaded most popular accounts to adopt the familiar name, even when it is acknowledged to be technically incorrect.

A [[USS Merrimac (1864)|CSS ''Merrimac'']]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040317035847/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m9/merrimac-i.htm USS ''Merrimac''] [[DANFS]] at history.navy.mil</ref> did actually exist. She was a paddle wheel steamer named for the victor (as most Southerners saw it) at Hampton Roads. She was used for running the blockade until she was captured and taken into Federal service, still named ''Merrimac.'' Her name was a spelling variant of the [[Merrimack River|river]], namesake of USS ''Merrimack''. Both spellings are still in use around the Hampton Roads area.

A small community in [[Montgomery County, Virginia]], near the location where the iron for the Confederate ironclad was forged is now known as [[Merrimac, Virginia|Merrimac]]. Some of the iron mined there and used in the plating on the Confederate ironclad is displayed at the [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]] in [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]]. The anchor of ''Virginia'' sits on the lawn in front of the [[American Civil War Museum]] in [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

== Commemorating the battle: ''Monitor'' ==
After resting undetected on the ocean floor for 111 years, the wreck of ''Monitor'' was located by a team of scientists in 1973. The remains of the ship were found upside down {{convert|16|mi|km|abbr=on}} off [[Cape Hatteras]], on a relatively flat, sandy bottom at a depth of about {{convert|240|ft|m|abbr=on}}. In 1987, the site was declared a [[United States National Marine Sanctuary|National Marine Sanctuary]], the first shipwreck to receive this distinction.<ref>[http://www.monitorcenter.org/preserving/ USS Monitor Center] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501213805/http://www.monitorcenter.org/preserving/ |date=May 1, 2009 }}</ref>

Because of ''Monitor''{{'}}s advanced state of deterioration, timely recovery of remaining significant artifacts and ship components became critical. Numerous fragile artifacts, including the innovative [[gun turret|turret]] and its two Dahlgren guns, an anchor, steam engine, and propeller, have been recovered. They were transported back to [[Hampton Roads]] to the [[Mariners' Museum]] in [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]], [[Virginia]], where they were treated in special tanks to stabilize the metal. It was reported that it would take about ten years for the metal to completely stabilize. The new USS ''Monitor'' Center at the Mariners' Museum officially opened on March 9, 2007, and a full-scale copy of USS ''Monitor'', the original recovered turret, and artifacts and related items are now on display.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

== Commemorating the Battle of Hampton Roads ==
The Battle of Hampton Roads was a significant event in both Naval and Civil War history that has been detailed in many books, televised Civil War documentaries, and in film, to include TNT's 1991 ''[[Ironclads (film)|Ironclads]]''.  In New York City, where the designer of the Monitor, John Ericsson, died in March 1889, a statue was commissioned by the state to commemorate the battle between the Ironclads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/mcgrmcgolrickpark/highlights/11366 |title=Msgr. McGolrick Park Monuments – Monitor Memorial : NYC Parks |publisher=Nycgovparks.org |date=November 6, 1938 |access-date=June 4, 2013}}</ref> The statue features a stylized male nude allegorical figure on water between two iron cleats.  It is located in Msgr McGolrick Park.

In Virginia, the state dedicated the Monitor-Merrimack Overlook at Anderson Park on a jetty that overlooks the site of the battle.  The park contains several historical markers commemorating both ships.  Also, in 1992, Virginia dedicated the $400&nbsp;million, 4.6-mile-long [[Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel]], which is located less than 1 mile from the site of the battle.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

== References in popular culture ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2022}}
* The film ''[[Hearts in Bondage]]'' (Republic Pictures, 1936), directed by Lew Ayres, tells the story of the building of USS ''Monitor'' and the following Battle of Hampton Roads.
* A 1991 made-for-television movie called ''[[Ironclads (film)|Ironclads]]'', produced by [[TNT (U.S. TV network)|TNT]], was made about the battle.
* The album ''[[The Monitor (album)|The Monitor]]'', the second studio album by [[New Jersey]] band [[Titus Andronicus (band)|Titus Andronicus]], ends with a fourteen-minute track that references the battle.
* In [[Canyonlands National Park]], Utah, there are two buttes named after ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimac''. There is a viewpoint with a placard describing the significance of their names.
* Sleater-Kinney recorded an indie rock song referencing the battle, "Ironclad," on the album ''[[All Hands on the Bad One]]'' in 2000.
* The book ''The Virginia'' by Winston Brady, based on the Battle of Hampton Roads, depicts Captain(s) Franklin Buchanan and John Worden as tragic heroes who are injured during the battle as a punishment for their over-confidence created by the powerful, nigh-indestructible ships they commanded.
* In the novel ''[[The Claw of the Conciliator]]'' by [[Gene Wolfe]], set in the Earth's future, the narrator tells a story from a book of myths that conflates the battle with the legend of [[Theseus]] and the Minotaur.
* In the film [[Sahara (2005 film)|''Sahara'']], {{ship|CSS|Texas|1865|6}}, a later ''Columbia''-class ironclad, is used as a plot device.  Two recreations of ''Texas'' were constructed for the film: a scale shooting model and full-sized exterior and interior sets. Their outer appearances did not correspond with what is known about the historical ironclad; instead, ''Texas'' is represented on screen as an amalgam of the original {{ship|CSS|Virginia}} and Porter's original casemate ironclad (co-)design, which he based on his two 150&nbsp;ft. and 180&nbsp;ft. standard designs. The ''Columbia'' class was a variant of the latter and {{ship|CSS|Tennessee|1863|6}}. Both were built with larger and differently shaped casemates.
* The album ''The Navy Blues'' (French: ''[[Les Bleus de la marine]]''), published in 1975 in French and 2009 in English, of the Belgian series of comic books ''The Bluecoats'' (French: ''[[Les Tuniques Bleues]]''), depicts the battle.

== See also ==
{{Portal|American Civil War}}
* [[List of United States Navy ships]]
* [[List of ships of the Confederate States Navy]]
* [[Bibliography of early American naval history#American Civil War|Bibliography of American Civil War naval history]]
* [[Union Navy]]
* [[Confederate States Navy]]

== Notes ==
Abbreviations used in these notes:
: {{anchor|ORA}}ORA (Official records, armies): ''War of the Rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies.''
: {{anchor|ORN}}ORN (Official records, navies): ''Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion.''
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* {{cite book|author=Anderson, Bern|title=By Sea and by River: The Naval History of the Civil War|publisher=Knopf; reprint, Da Capo, n.d.|year=1962|isbn=0-306-80367-4|url=https://archive.org/details/byseabyrivernava0000ande}}
* {{cite book |author=Browning, Robert M. Jr.|title=From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War|publisher=University of Alabama |year=1993 |isbn= 0-8173-5019-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Davis, William C. |title=Duel Between the First Ironclads |publisher=Doubleday |year=1975 |isbn=0-8071-0868-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/duelbetweenfirst0000davi }}
* {{cite book |author=Durkin, Joseph T.|title=Stephen R. Mallory: Confederate Navy chief |publisher=University of North Carolina; reprint, University of South Carolina, 1987|year=1954  |isbn=0-87249-518-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Gardiner | first = Robert | author2 = Chesneau, Roger | title = Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905 | publisher = Mayflower Books | year = 1979 | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/conwaysallworlds0000unse_l2e2 | isbn = 0-8317-0302-4 | url-access = registration }}
* {{cite book |author=Gibbons, Tony|title=The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships: A technical directory of capital ships from 1860 to the present day|publisher=Salamander Books |year=1983 |isbn=0-517-37810-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Luraghi, Raimondo|title=A history of the Confederate Navy|location=Annapolis, Md.|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1996|isbn=1-55750-527-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofconfede0000lura}} (translation by Paolo E. Coletta of ''Marina del Sud: storia della marina confederate nella Guerra Civile Americana, 1861–1865.'' Rizzoli, 1993.)
* {{cite book |last=Hale |first=Nathan |title=Big Bad Ironclad! |publisher=Amulet Books |year=2012 |author-link=Nathan Hale (author)|isbn=978-1-4197-0395-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Maclay |first=Edgar Stanton |title=A history of the United States Navy, from 1775 to 1893 |ref=Maclay |year=1894 |author-link=Edgar Stanton Maclay |publisher=D. Appleton & Company, New York |pages=647 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds02macl }}
* {{cite book |author=Musicant, Ivan |title=Divided Waters: The Naval History of the Civil War |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1995 |isbn=0-06-016482-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/dividedwatersnav0000musi }}
* {{cite book|author=Nelson, James L.|title=Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack|location=New York|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2004|isbn=0-06-052403-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/reignofironstory0000nels}}
* Quarstein, John V., ''C.S.S. Virginia, Mistress of Hampton Roads'', self-published for the Virginia Civil War Battles and Leaders Series; 2000. {{ISBN|1-56190-118-0}}
* {{Scharf-History}}
* {{cite book|author=Simson, Jay W.|title=Naval strategies of the Civil War: Confederate innovations and Federal opportunism|location=Nashville|publisher=Cumberland House|year=2001|isbn=1-58182-195-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Still, William N. Jr.|title=Iron Afloat: The Story of the Confederate Armorclads|publisher=Vanderbilt University |year=1985 |isbn=0-87249-616-3}}
* {{cite book |author=Tucker, Spencer|title=Blue & Gray Navies: the Civil War Afloat |location=Annapolis |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=2006 |isbn=1-59114-882-0}}
* {{cite book |author=United States Department of the Navy, Naval History Department|title=Civil War Naval Chronology, 1861–1865 |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=1971}}
* {{cite book |author=Wise, Stephen R. |title=Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War |publisher=University of South Carolina |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-87249-554-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifelineofconfed0000wise }}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|has=a poem published in ''[[Magazines named Vanity Fair#American 1859–1863|Vanity Fair]]'' on March 29, 1862|The Battle of Hampton Roads|nocat=yes}}
{{Commons category|Battle of Hampton Roads}}
{{EB1911 poster|Hampton Roads}}
* [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/lhbcb.08753 ''A record of events in Norfolk County, Virginia''], online text with an entire chapter on the battle.
* [http://www.multied.com/Navy/cwnavalhistory/ Civil War Naval History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041122113330/http://monitor.nos.noaa.gov/ USS ''Monitor'' National Historical Site]
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041017025755/http://www.havenworks.com/military/uss-monitor/ |title=''Monitor'' in the news |date=2004-10-17}} – Its 'revolutionary' gun turret has been raised from the ocean floor.
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/monitor/ On-line exhibition of the ''Monitor'']
* [http://www.footnote.com/spotlight/13465/the_chicago_tribune_1862_an_account_of/ An original 1862 ''Chicago Tribune'' Article]
* {{webarchive |url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20061003042749/http://cssvirginia.org/ |title=website devoted to CSS ''Virginia'' |date=2006-10-03}}
* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/ironclad.htm Battle of Hampton Road website]
* First Edition Report on the [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1862/monitor-merrimac.htm Battle of the ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimac'']
* [http://www.newsinhistory.com/feature/battle-hampton-roads-historic-first-clash-ironclad-warships Newspaper coverage of the Battle of Hampton Roads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528075422/http://www.newsinhistory.com/feature/battle-hampton-roads-historic-first-clash-ironclad-warships |date=May 28, 2013 }}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117003521/http://www.cr.nps.gov/hps/abpp/Battles/va008.htm |title=National Park Service Battle Summary |date=2011-11-17}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121105062432/http://www.nps.gov/hps/abpp/CWSII/VirginiaBattlefieldProfiles/Hampton%20Roads%20to%20High%20Bridge.pdf CWSAC Report Update]

{{American Civil War |expanded=CTCBS}}
{{Battle of Hampton Roads|state=autocollapse}}

{{good article}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hampton Roads}}
[[Category:Battle of Hampton Roads| ]]
[[Category:1862 in Virginia]]
[[Category:Peninsula campaign]]
[[Category:Battles of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Battles of the American Civil War in Virginia]]
[[Category:Inconclusive battles of the American Civil War]]
[[Category:1862 in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Riverine warfare]]
[[Category:March 1862]]