View source for Battle of Largs

{{Short description|1263 battle of the Scottish-Norwegian War}}
{{lead too long|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Largs
| image             = Battle of Largs (detail), 1263.JPG
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = Detail from [[William Hole (artist)|William Hole]]'s [[mural]] of the Battle of Largs, in the [[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]]
| partof            = the [[Scottish–Norwegian War]]
| date              = 2 October 1263
| place             = [[Largs]], [[North Ayrshire]], Scotland
| coordinates       = {{coord|55.7926|N|4.8679|W|type:event_region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(NS203592)|display=inline,title}}<!-- Note: WGS84 lat/long, converted from OSGB36 grid ref -->
| result            = Indecisive, see [[Battle of Largs#Aftermath|Aftermath]]
| combatant2        = {{flagicon|Medieval Norway}} [[Kingdom of Norway (872-1397)|Norway]]
| combatant1        = [[File:Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland.svg|20px]] [[Kingdom of Scotland]]
| commander2        = [[Haakon IV of Norway|King Haakon IV]]
| commander1        = [[Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland|Alexander of Dundonald]]
| strength2         = 
| strength1         = 
| casualties2       = 
| casualties1       = 
| map_type          = Scotland#Northern and Central Europe
| map_relief        = 1
}}

The '''Battle of Largs''' (2 October 1263) was a battle between the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)|Norway]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], on the [[Firth of Clyde]] near [[Largs]], Scotland. The conflict formed part of the [[Scottish–Norwegian War|Norwegian expedition against Scotland]] in 1263, in which [[Haakon IV of Norway|Haakon Haakonsson, King of Norway]] attempted to reassert Norwegian sovereignty over the western seaboard of Scotland.<ref>2012:  Edinburgh University Press, ''Acts of Alexander III King of Scots 1249 –1286 (Regesta Regnum Scottorum IV''),  Grant and Cynthia Neville</ref> Victory was achieved by the Scots with a crafty three-tiered strategy on the part of the young Scottish king, Alexander III: plodding diplomacy forced the campaign to bad weather months and a ferocious storm ravaged the Norwegian fleet, stripping it of many vessels and supplies and making the forces on the Scottish coast vulnerable to an attack that forced the Norwegians into a hasty retreat that was to end their 500-year history of invasion, and leaving Scotland to consolidate its resources into building the nation.

Since the beginning of the 12th century, Largs in the north Ayrshire area of Scotland had lain at the periphery of the Norwegian realm, ruled by [[magnate]]s who recognised the overlordship of the [[kings of Norway]]. In the mid-13th century, two Scottish kings, [[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]] and his son [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]], attempted to incorporate the region into their own realm. Following Alexander III's early, failed attempts to purchase the islands from the Norwegian king, the Scots launched military operations to end the issue altogether by asserting royal sovereignty over all of western Scotland. Haakon responded to the Scottish aggression by leading a massive Norwegian fleet, thought to number in the thousands of vessels, that reached the [[Hebrides]] in the summer of 1263. Realizing that the Scots were tremendously outnumbered by an experienced and mobile enemy, Alexander III sought a protracted diplomatic intervention that would buy time to acquire more troops and possibly force the Norwegians into the stormy autumn and winter months where an invasion could be stalled due to weather. By late September, Haakon's fleet occupied the Firth of Clyde and the temperate days — such as they are on the western coast of Scotland — were almost at an end. When negotiations between the kingdoms broke down, Haakon brought the bulk of his fleet to anchor off [[the Cumbraes]], poised to invade Scotland at a site of his choosing.

On the night of 1 October, during a bout of stormy weather, several Norwegian vessels were driven aground on the [[Ayrshire]] coast, near present-day [[Largs]]. On 2 October, while the Norwegians were salvaging their vessels, the main Scottish army arrived on the scene. Composed of infantry and cavalry, the Scottish force was commanded by [[Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland|Alexander of Dundonald, Steward of Scotland]]. The Norwegians were gathered in two groups: the larger main force on the beach and a small contingent atop a nearby mound. The advance of the Scots threatened to divide the Norwegian forces, so the contingent on the mound ran to rejoin their comrades on the beach below. Seeing them running from the mound, the Norwegians on the beach believed they were retreating and fled back towards the ships. There was fierce fighting on the beach, and the Scots took up a position on the mound formerly held by the Norwegians. Late in the day, the Norwegians recaptured the mound after several hours of skirmishing. The Scots withdrew from the scene and the Norwegians reboarded their ships. They returned the next morning to collect their dead. With the weather deteriorating, Haakon's fleet sailed to Orkney to overwinter.

The battle is commemorated in Largs by an early 20th-century monument, and festivities held there annually since the 1980s.

== Context ==
[[File:Norwegian realm map, 1263.png|thumb|left|The Norwegian realm in 1263, at about the time of the Battle of Largs]]
{{Further|Scandinavian Scotland|Kingdom of the Isles|Scottish–Norwegian War}}

[[Viking]] depredations have been recorded in the British Isles since the late 8th century,<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 25.</ref> and [[Scandinavian Scotland|Scandinavian settlement]] on Scotland's western-seaboard may have begun before the turn of the 9th century.<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 27.</ref> Claims to this region by Norwegian kings date to the turn of the 12th century, when [[Magnus Barefoot|Magnus Olafsson, King of Norway]] (d. 1103) established himself in the [[Hebrides]] and the [[Isle of Man]] (Mann). Direct Norwegian control ended with Magnus' death, after which the Hebrides and Mann,<ref name="W2-101-C7-556558">[[#B5|Woolf 2004]]: p. 101. See also: [[#C7|Crawford 2001]]: pp. 556–558.</ref> known to the Norwegians as the "[[Kingdom of the Isles|Southern Isles]]",<ref>[[#W1|Williams 2007]]: pp. 130–132 ''fn 8''.</ref> were controlled by local dynasties for over a century and a half.<ref name="W2-101-C7-556558"/> In the first half of the 13th century, the seaboard was controlled by two main power blocks: one consisting of the Mann, [[Lewis and Harris]], and [[Skye]]—controlled by the patrilineal descendants of [[Godred Crovan]] (d. 1095); the other consisting of mainland territories in [[Argyll]], and the islands of [[Islay]], [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], [[Isle of Mull|Mull]], and possibly [[Uist]]—controlled by the descendants of [[Somerled]] (d. 1164).<ref name="Alexander pp. 17"/> As part of the far-flung, early 13th century [[Kingdom of Norway|Norwegian realm]], these [[List of rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles|island rulers]] recognised the overlordship of [[Haakon IV of Norway|Haakon Haakonarson, King of Norway]] (d. 1263).<ref>[[#B5|Beuermann 2007]]: pp. 99–123.</ref>

The first half of the 13th century was a period of consolidation for both Scottish and Norwegian kings.<ref>[[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: p. 124.</ref> The Norwegians, under Haakon, overcame a period of internal strife, from 1161 to 1208,<ref>[[#B2|Barrow 1981]]: p. 101.</ref> and oversaw the submission of the [[Faroe Islands]], the [[History of Greenland#Norse settlement|Greenland settlements]], and [[Iceland]], in the mid 13th century.<ref>[[#P2|Power 2005]]: p. 50.</ref> The Scots, under [[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II, King of Scots]] (d. 1249), extended royal authority into the northern [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]], [[Argyll]], and [[Galloway]].<ref name="Stringer 2004">[[#S4|Stringer 2004]].</ref> The king also wanted to incorporate the western seaboard into the [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scottish realm]].<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 253–254. See also: [[#S4|Stringer 2004]]. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref> In 1230, Scottish aggression against the Isles and interference forced the Norwegian king to pacify the region. In 1249, after attempting to purchase the Isles from Haakon, Alexander II launched a campaign of his own, deep into Argyll and into the [[Hebrides]]. Unfortunately for the Scots, their king died suddenly on the verge of conquest.<ref>[[#S|Stringer 2004]].</ref> Since his son and successor, [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] (d. 1286), was only a boy at the time, the Scottish realm suffered through a lengthy and troubled minority.<ref>[[#R3|Reid 2004]]. See also: [[#S|Stringer 2004]].</ref> In consequence, it wasn't until the 1260s that the king looked west and attempted to finish what his father had so nearly accomplished.<ref name="Stringer 2004"/>

In 1262, a year after another unsuccessful attempt to purchase the Isles, Scottish forces launched an attack upon Skye. Haakon's response to the invasion was to mastermind a massive military expedition of his own.<ref>[[#R|Reid 2004]]. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref> Described by the [[Icelandic Annals]] as the largest force to have ever set sail from Norway,<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 107. See also: [[#A|Anderson 1922]]: p. 607.</ref> the fleet reached the Isles in the summer of 1263.<ref name="Alexander pp. 17"/> After receiving only a lukewarm reception from his vassals in the region, Haakon's forces reached the [[Firth of Clyde]], after his men had secured several castles, and undertook raids into the surrounding mainland. With the Norwegian fleet anchored off [[Isle of Arran|Arran]], the Norwegians and Scottish embassies fiercely debated the sovereignty of the [[Islands of the Clyde]]. When talks broke down, Haakon dispatched a fleet of Islesmen to raid into [[Loch Lomond]], and to ravage [[The Lennox|Lennox]]. Meanwhile, the main Norwegian fleet repositioned itself between [[the Cumbraes]] and the [[Ayrshire]] coast.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 257–258. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref>

== Actions ==
[[File:Battle of Largs (Viking ships detail), 1263.JPG|thumb|upright|Haakon's ships depicted on William Hole's mural in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery]]
{{multiple image
| footer   = Left: a 14th-century [[Folio (printing)|folio]] containing part of ''[[Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar]]''. Right: a folio from the earliest manuscript form of the ''[[Chronicle of Melrose]]''.
| image1   =AM_47_fol_(E)_-_Eirspennill,_139v_cropped.jpg
| caption1 = 
| width1   = {{#expr: (150 * 780 / 1027) round 0}}
| image2   = Chronicle of Melrose, 55r cropped.jpg
| caption2 = 
| width2   = {{#expr: (150 * 572 / 689) round 0}}
}}

The main Norwegian source for the battle is ''[[Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar|Hakonar saga Hakonarsonar]]'',<ref name="Alexander pp. 17">[[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref> a contemporary account of the life of [[Haakon IV of Norway|Hakon Haakonarson, King of Norway]] (d. 1263), composed by the [[Iceland]]ic historian [[Sturla Þórðarson|Sturla Thordarson]] (d. 1284).<ref>[[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 103–104, 106.</ref> Although the saga describes the events purely from the Norwegian perspective, its narrative of the battle appears to have been drawn from eyewitness accounts, and it is the most detailed source available for the Scottish–Norwegian conflict, given that many contemporary Scottish archival holdings are lost to history.<ref name="Alexander pp. 17"/> A contemporary Scottish perspective of the events is preserved in a brief entry in the ''[[Chronicle of Melrose]]''. First penned at [[Melrose Abbey]] in the last quarter of the 12th century, the chronicle was further extended and supplemented from time to time into the late 13th century. It is an important historical source for the mediaeval Scottish realm. Clan and remaining royal records of property and titles subsequent to the event are also informative.<ref>[[#D2|Doherty 2011]]: p. 101.</ref>

While lying off the Cumbraes, on the night of 30 September, Haakon's fleet was battered by stormy weather. During the night, the saga records that a merchantman dragged its anchor and was driven aground. The following morning, it and four other vessels were floated off by the rising tide but carried by the current towards the Scottish mainland where they [[ship grounding|ran aground]] again. The crews of the beached vessels were soon harassed by a small force of Scots armed with [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]s. After the Norwegians had suffered some casualties, Haakon sent reinforcements ashore, and the Scots fled the area. Haakon's reinforcements remained ashore for the night, and the Norwegian king himself came ashore to oversee the salvage operation the next morning.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 258–259. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 626–628.</ref>

According to the saga, the main Scottish force, consisting of heavily armoured [[Horses in warfare#The Middle Ages|cavalry]] and [[Infantry in the Middle Ages|infantry]], arrived on 2 October. The saga numbers the mounted troops at about 500 and states that they rode high-quality horses protected by [[mail (armour)|mail]].<ref name="Scottish Army">[[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 139. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 628–630.</ref> The use of a substantial force of mounted [[knight]]s or sergeants appears to be corroborated in contemporary records of payments made to troops.<ref name="B1-139141142">[[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: pp. 139, 141–142.</ref> For example, [[Walter Bailloch|Walter Stewart, Earl of Menteith]] had to maintain 120 sergeants—which could include knights, mounted [[men-at-arms]], [[Archery|archer]]s, or other footsoldiers—at [[Ayr Castle]] for three weeks.<ref>[[#B4|Brown 2004]]: p. 57. See also: [[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: pp. 139, 141–142.</ref> Although surviving records fail to mention the number of knights assembled at [[Ayr]], the record of wages suggests that it was "more than a mere handful".<ref name="B1-139141142"/> According to the saga, the Scottish infantry were armed with bows and "Irish axes",<ref name="Scottish Army"/> and since at one point the Scots are said to have thrown stones at the Norwegians,<ref>[[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 139. See also: See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: p. 630.</ref> the Scottish army must have also included [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]]. The Latin ''Chronicle of Melrose'' simply describes the Scottish infantry as ''pedisequi patrie'' (the "foot-sloggers of the locality").<ref>[[#D1|Duncan 1996]]: pp. 379, 579–580. See also: [[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 139. See also: [[#S1|Stevenson 1835]]: p. 190.</ref> If this description refers to the men of the surrounding countryside, the Scottish infantry would have been made up of men from the '[[Common Army of Scotland|common army]]', drawn only from [[Strathgryffe]], [[Cunninghame]] and [[Kyle, Ayrshire|Kyle]]. These levies would have been [[muster (military)|muster]]ed by the [[Sheriff of Ayr]], the [[Sheriff of Lanark]], and the local [[magnate]]s.<ref>[[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 138.</ref> At the time of Largs, the Scottish king thus had at his disposal men from the 'common army' (lesser men who owed service to their king), the feudal host (greater men who owed military service for their lands), and also paid troops.<ref>[[#B4|Brown 2004]]: p. 57.</ref>

[[File:Battle of Largs (map 02).png|thumb|left|Area of conflict]]

The evidence suggests that the main Scottish force arrived from the south, rather than from the east or the north. For example, Alexander III is recorded to have been south at Ayr in September,<ref name="Forte pp. 259">[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 259–260. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref> and the power centre of [[Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland|Alexander of Dundonald, Steward of Scotland]] (d. 1282), who is thought to have commanded the Scottish forces at the battle,<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 259–260. See also: [[#B3|Barrow 2004]]. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#Y1|Young 1990]]: p. 15.</ref> was also located to the south. Furthermore, at the time of the battle, the Sheriff of Ayr was probably a member of the [[Clan Stewart|steward's family]]<ref name="Forte pp. 259"/>—probably his younger brother, the Earl of Menteith.<ref>[[#B4|Brown 2004]]: pp. 56–57. See also: [[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 138. See also: [[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: p. 121.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Walter was certainly sheriff by 1264, and probably held the position earlier.<ref>[[#Y1|Young 1990]]: pp. 10, 15.</ref>|group=note}} If the Scots had indeed arrived from the south, then they would have also assembled at a mustering site to the south, possibly somewhere near Ayr.<ref name="Forte pp. 259"/> The saga indicates that the Norwegians were divided into two groups. The smaller force numbered 200 men, was stationed on a mound, somewhat inland from the beach, under the command of a Norwegian nobleman [[Ogmund Crouchdance]]. The main Norwegian force, numbering about 700 to 800 men (including Haakon himself), was stationed on the beach below.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: p. 259. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref> These two detachments were likely only a fraction of the total number of forces at Haakon's disposal. The numbers that the saga allows for either side may be exaggerated. A more likely number may be only about one hundred or several hundred men per side with the number of knights present may have been closer to 50 than the saga's 500.<ref>[[#D1|Duncan 1996]]: pp. 579–580, 580 ''fn 20''.</ref> The forces which Haakon had mustered in Norway formed part of his realm's [[leidang]],<ref>[[#D3|Derry 2000]]: p. 49.</ref> a naval levy in which districts contributed men, ships, and provisions for military service.<ref>[[#D3|Derry 2000]]: p. 25.</ref>
[[File:Alexander III, King of Scots (seal).png|thumb|Alexander III's [[seal (emblem)|seal]] illustrates the armament of a contemporary mounted knight.]]
As the Scots advanced towards the Norwegians, the saga indicates that Ogmund withdrew his troops from the mound to avoid being cut off from his comrades on the beach below.<ref name="Battle">[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: p. 260. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 630–632.</ref> If the Scots had indeed marched northwards, their advance would have threatened to drive a wedge between the Norwegians on the mound and those on the beach.<ref name="Forte p. 260">[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: p. 260. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref> Once the Scottish [[vanguard]] came into contact with Ogmund's men, the saga indicates that his orderly withdrawal disintegrated into a chaotic scramble. On the beach below, Haakon followed the advice of his men and retired to the safety of his ships. To the men on the beach, the rapid descent of Ogmund's men towards them looked like an all-out retreat; they turned and fled. The Norwegian army was thus [[rout]]ed, and in the mad dash back to their ships they suffered substantial casualties.<ref name="Battle"/> Some of the Norwegians may have used the beached vessels as makeshift fortifications,<ref name="Forte p. 260"/> since the saga notes that a group of them made a bold stand by their ships, out-numbered ten to one, in a fierce engagement in which a particularly valiant Scottish knight was slain.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: p. 260. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 139. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 630–632.</ref>{{#tag:ref|The saga identifies the knight as Perus. Although it is possible that this name could refer to ''Fergus'', a name borne by the family of [[Ardrossan]], it is more likely that it refers to ''Peter'' or ''Piers'',<ref name="B1-139">[[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 139.</ref> perhaps Piers de Curry.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: p. 260. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 139. See also: [[#B2|Barrow 1981]]: p. 118.</ref> The 15th-century Scottish chronicler [[Walter Bower]] identified the slain knight as such, and adding credibility to Bower's account is the fact that a like-named early 13th-century man, possibly an ancestor of the slain knight, is known to have been a [[vassal]] and tenant of the [[Steward of Scotland]] in the parish of [[Mauchline]].<ref name="B1-139"/>|group=note}} This entry confirms that at least some of the Scottish knights present were able to engage their foes on horseback.<ref name="B1-139"/> The supplies and usable ships lost on the beach were consequential in Haakom's decision to retreat from the area.

According to the saga, the Scots then withdrew from the beach and consolidated atop the mound abandoned by Ogmund's men, who had been beaten back by a detachment of men under Sir Robert Boyd (father of William Wallace's second in command). Minor skirmishing followed in which both sides attacked each other with arrows and stones. Before nightfall, the saga maintains that the Norwegians made one last determined assault, and forced the Scots from the mound, before making an orderly withdrawal to their ships. On the morning of 3 October, the Norwegians returned ashore to collect their dead and burn their beached vessels.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: p. 260. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 633–634.</ref> For several days, Haakon's forces laid off the coast of Arran. After rendezvousing with the returning fleet that had plundered Lennox, Haakon's entire forces made for the Hebrides. At [[Isle of Mull|Mull]] he rewarded a number of his Norse-Gaelic vassals with grants of lands. By the end of October, the Norwegian fleet reached [[Orkney]].<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 114. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 634–639.</ref> In mid December, the Norwegian king fell ill and died at the [[Bishop's Palace, Kirkwall|Bishop's Palace]], and was temporarily buried in nearby [[St Magnus Cathedral]].<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 261, 262 ''caption''. See also: [[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 114. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: pp. 639–642.</ref>

== Aftermath ==
[[File:Haylie Chambered Tomb - geograph.org.uk - 947353.jpg|thumb|This [[Neolithic British Isles|Neolithic]] [[chambered cairn]] near Largs is sometimes known as "Haco's Tomb".<ref>{{citation |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/41155/details/margaret+s+law+haco+s+tomb+haylie/ |title=Margaret's Law, Haco's Tomb, Haylie |publisher=[[Canmore (database)|CANMORE]] |access-date=16 May 2012 }}</ref> Local tombs, such as this, were once believed to have been erected as grave markers for warriors slain during the battle.<ref>[[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 19 ''caption'', 21.</ref>]]

The saga described the Norwegian campaign as a triumph. In reality, it had not achieved anything,<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 260–261. See also: [[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 115. See also: [[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 104, 122. See also: [[#B2|Barrow 1981]]: pp. 118–119. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: p. 635.</ref> though the expedition was not lost at Largs. Haakon simply retreated to Orkney to overwinter with his forces. He unexpectedly fell ill and died there before he had the chance to resume operations. The campaign had started too late, and the Scottish king had successfully prolonged negotiations to his own advantage. As the summer turned to autumn, and the royal envoys parleyed back and forth, [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] had further strengthened his forces in the defence of his realm and left Haakon's fleet to the mercy of the deteriorating weather.<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 115.</ref> In the end, the Scottish realm had successfully defended itself from Norwegian might, and many of Haakon's Norse-Gaelic vassals had been reluctant to support the Norwegian cause.<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: p. 115. See also: [[#B2|Barrow 1981]]: pp. 118–119.</ref> Within months of the abortive campaign, embassies were sent from Norway to discuss terms of peace. Meanwhile, Alexander III seized the initiative and made ready to punish the magnates who had supported Haakon, with at least three Scottish expeditions prepared against lords who had aided Haakon, the earls of [[Earl of Buchan|Buchan]], [[Earl of Mar|Mar]] and [[Alan Durward]] led an army to the Hebrides with Alexander III himself making ready a fleet to sail against [[Isle of Man|Mann]] until the agreement of [[Magnús Óláfsson|King Magnus]] of Mann and the Isles to become Alexander’s vassal which symbolised the collapse of Norse lordship in the Isles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Michael |title=The New Edinburgh History of Scotland, Volume 4 ''The Wars of Scotland 1214 - 1371'' |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |date=2004-04-30 |isbn=9780748612383 |pages=83–84}}</ref> By the end of the year the Hebrideans and Manx were forced to submit to the Scots.<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: pp. 115–116. See also: [[#D1|Duncan 1996]]: pp. 580–581.</ref> In 1266, almost three years after the battle, terms of peace were finally agreed upon between the Scottish and Norwegian kings. On 2 July 1266, with the conclusion of the [[Treaty of Perth]], the Hebrides and Mann were leased to the King of Scots, in return for an annual payment. As it happened, Norwegian rule over the Hebrides would never return, with the Kingdom of Scotland eventually discontinuing their payments to the Norwegian crown.<ref>[[#M4|McDonald 1997]]: pp. 120–121.</ref> The treaty also entailed Scottish acceptance of Norwegian rule over [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The last battle of the Vikings |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-20697117 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] Scotland |date=14 December 2012 |access-date=4 March 2013}}</ref>

== Ramifications ==

The battle of Largs has been characterized by later historians as a great Scottish victory, but its strategic ramifications far outstripped its tactical cost as it involved only a small part of the Norwegian fleet. With his fleet and forces strewn about the Hebrides, Haakon may have intended to continue to campaign after spending the winter in Orkney and reconcentrating his forces, but he was taken ill in the dismal climate and died there. His illness is thought to have been caused in part by the stresses he endured in the long campaign and the difficult, damp environment of the Orkney Islands. The protracted diplomacy that had slowed his invasion had ultimately helped seal his own fate as well. With Haakon's death, his successor, [[Magnus VI of Norway|Magnus Haakonarson, King of Norway]], signed the [[Treaty of Perth]] three years after the battle, leasing Scotland's western seaboard to Alexander III in return for a yearly payment. This lease became permanent, but the Kingdom of Scotland eventually stopped paying the Norwegian crown for the islands when Norway became distracted by civil wars.

Although the Battle of Largs' contemporary records were largely lost to history with the loss of the Scottish archives in the wars of independence, it is for historians today to judge it by its ultimate, easily understood consequence: the end of a multi-century era of Norse invasion. The Battle greatly influenced clan history, especially that of the [[Clan Boyd|Boyds]], [[Clan Cunningham|Cunninghams]], and [[Clan Muir|Muirs]], all of which point directly to participation in this battle as key to the grant of lands in Ayrshire. In the case of the Boyd family, its motto "Confido" (I Trust) was a direct quote from Alexander III at Largs.<ref>James MacKay, William Wallace, Brave Heart, Mainstream Publishing:  Edinburgh 1995</ref> Alexander III depended on Boyd's detachment to keep the Norwegians off Gold Berry Hill and enveloped on the beach. The name "Gold Berry" was placed under their early heraldic devices.

== Historiography ==

The significance of the Battle was understood in Scotland at the time as it led to years of consolidation of royal authority. Unfortunately, many original sources and manuscripts were lost during the many years of fighting with the English, especially Edward I (see Jonathan Donald: 2019, Scotland, LE School of History, University of St Andrews, ''Alexander III, 1249–1286: First Among Equals''). See also [[ref=S1/2|Acts of Alexander III King of Scots 1249 -1286]] See also:<ref>[[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp.&nbsp;17–22.</ref> The ''Chronicle of Melrose'' offers only a brief description, and does not record its location. It ascribes the campaign's failure more to the power of God than to that of the Scots.<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 263–264. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#B1|Barrow 1990]]: p. 138. See also: [[#S1|Stevenson 1835]]: p. 190.</ref> The battle is not recorded at all within the ''[[Chronicle of Mann]]'',<ref>[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 263–264. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: [[#A1|Anderson 1922]]: p. 608.</ref> or any Irish source, and English sources show a similar lack of interest. But by the 14th and 15th centuries, the battle was being portrayed as part of an epic struggle between an invading force of Norwegians and an idealised Scottish king defending his realm.<ref name="Historiography">[[#F1|Forte; Oram; Pedersen 2005]]: pp. 263–264. See also: [[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22.</ref>{{#tag:ref|[[John of Fordun]] briefly described the storm which drove the Norwegians ashore as an act of God.<ref>[[#R2|Reid 1990]]: p. 188. See also: [[#S2|Skene 1872a]]: pp. 299–230. See also: [[#S3|Skene 1872b]]: p. 295.</ref> About half a century later, [[Andrew of Wyntoun]] depicted the battle as a hard-fought and well-earned Scottish victory.<ref>[[#R2|Reid 1990]]: p. 191. See also: [[#L1|Laing 1872]]: pp. 255–257.</ref> Walter Bower declared that [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Saint Margaret]] miraculously intervened to defend the Scots against the Norwegians.<ref>[[#B6|Boardman 2002]]: p. 66. See also: [[#R2|Reid 1990]]: p. 192.</ref>|group=note}} By the 17th century, the battle had lost its attributed significance, but in the 19th century it was rediscovered by [[antiquarian]]s and historians who transformed it into a conflict of international importance.<ref name="Historiography"/> Although the battle's upsurge in popularity at this time may be due to the tapping of Largs' tourism potential, it was also influenced by the general heightening of interest in Scotland's [[History of Scotland|history]] and [[culture of Scotland|culture]]. The battle became associated with Scotland's [[military history of Scotland|proud military past]] and linked to the great mediaeval victories of national heroes such as [[William Wallace|Wallace]] and [[Robert the Bruce|Bruce]].<ref>[[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–18.</ref> Most modern [[Academic staff|academics]] do not subscribe to such a view, though they regard the battle as a significant part of the failed Norwegian campaign.<ref name="Historiography"/> But even today, to the locals of Largs, the battle represents a glorious Scottish victory over invading Vikings.<ref>[[#M3|Magnusson 2003]]: p. 100. See also: {{citation |url=http://www.largsonline.co.uk/lvf.html |title=Largs Viking Festival 29th August to 5th September 2009 |work=LargsOnline.co.uk |access-date=24 May 2012 |quote=The Largs Viking Festival takes place every August/September in Largs, to commemorate the 1263 Battle of Largs when the Vikings were defeated for the final time on the shore of Largs}}. See also: {{citation |url=http://www.largsvikingfestival.com/ |title=Largs Viking Festival |access-date=1 February 2013 |work=Largs Viking Festival 2013 |quote=Our Festival takes place every year and draws crowds from near and far to celebrate the Viking heritage in Largs, notably the Battle of Largs of 1263 which was the scene of the last Viking invasion in the UK and led to the Treaty of Perth in 1266 when Norway ceded all claim to the Western Isles.}}</ref>

== Commemoration ==
[[File:Largs Pencil monument.jpg|thumb|upright|The Pencil stands about {{convert|1|mi}} south of [[Largs]], along a shoreline footpath.<ref name="scotsman-raiders"/> ]]

On 12 July 1912, the battle was commemorated at Largs with the unveiling of a newly built stone tower.<ref name="M3-99100">[[#M3|Magnusson 2003]]: pp. 99–100.</ref> Popularly known as "The Pencil",<ref>[[#M3|Magnusson 2003]]: pp. 99–100. See also: {{citation |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/207378/details/largs+battle+of+largs+monument/ |title=Largs, Battle of Largs Monument |publisher=[[Canmore (database)|Canmore]] |access-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> this {{convert|70|ft}} tall,<ref>[[#M3|Magnusson 2003]]: pp. 99–100. See also: {{citation |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/raiders_of_the_norse_largs_1_1093725 |title=Raiders of the Norse Largs |date=31 August 2005 |publisher=[[The Scotsman]] |access-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> pencil-shaped, conical-roofed tower is built out of [[ashlar]] blocks of [[whinstone]].<ref name="listed">{{harv|Historic Environment Scotland|LB37177}}</ref> Constructed by architect James Sandyford Kay<ref>[[#C1|Close 1992]]: p. 82. See also: {{harv|Historic Environment Scotland|LB37177}}</ref> at the cost of nearly {{currency|300|UK}},<ref name="M3-99100"/> the tower was modelled after mediaeval [[Irish round tower|round tower]]s at [[Abernethy, Perth and Kinross|Abernethy]] and [[Brechin]],<ref>[[#M3|Magnusson 2003]]: pp. 99–100. See also: {{harv|Historic Environment Scotland|LB37177}}</ref> which were thought (erroneously) to have been built as redoubts against Viking marauders.<ref name="M3-99100"/>{{#tag:ref|The door of the monument is a replica of that on the tower at Brechin.<ref name="listed"/> Not long after The Pencil was built, it was locally supposed that Viking warriors had once used the Largs tower to store their weapons.<ref name="M3-99100"/>|group=note}} The Pencil has been protected as a [[listed building]] since 1971,<ref name="listed"/> and stands about {{convert|1|mi}} south of Largs,<ref name="scotsman-raiders">{{citation |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/raiders_of_the_norse_largs_1_1093725 |title=Raiders of the Norse Largs |date=31 August 2005 |publisher=[[The Scotsman]] |access-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> at {{gbmapping|NS 20762 57679}},<ref>{{citation |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/207378/details/largs+battle+of+largs+monument/ |title=Largs, Battle of Largs Monument |publisher=[[Canmore (database)|Canmore]] |access-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> overlooking the local [[marina]].<ref name="M3-99100"/>

Although the monument marks the traditional battle site, it stands nowhere near the probable battle site. Its erroneous placement appears to be due to the discovery of prehistoric burials, consisting of both [[chambered tomb]]s and [[cist]] burials. Nearby [[Bronze Age]] [[standing stones]] may have been interpreted as memorials to slain warriors, as was a nearby [[Neolithic British Isles|Neolithic]] tomb. The location of this tomb has led to the erroneous association between the battle and the two parks situated at {{gbmapping|NS 209587}} and {{gbmapping|NS 207587}}. The [[Ordnance Survey]] also locates the battle too far south, at {{gbmapping|NS 207587}}.<ref name="Alexander pp. 17"/>{{#tag:ref|In the mid 19th century, a [[standing stone]] at Craigenmour, on [[Great Cumbrae]], was said to have been a memorial raised for Norwegians killed at the battle. Today the stone is locally known as the "Druid's stone".<ref>{{citation |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/40618/details/great+cumbrae+island+craigengour/ |title=Great Cumbrae Island, Craigenmour |publisher=[[Canmore (database)|Canmore]] |access-date=23 June 2012 }}</ref>|group=note}}

The probable site of the mound upon which the Norwegians and Scots fought is not commemorated at all.<ref name="Alexander pp. 17"/> Located at {{gbmapping|NS 2073 5932}}.,<ref>{{citation |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/41187/details/largs+green+hill/ |title=Largs, Green Hill |publisher=[[Canmore (database)|Canmore]] |access-date=26 March 2012 }}</ref> and surrounded by a [[housing development]], the mound is crowned by a 19th-century monument known as "The Three Sisters", which may have been erected by astronomer [[Thomas Brisbane]].<ref>[[#A3|Alexander; Neighbour; Oram 2000]]: pp. 17–22. See also: {{citation |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/41187/details/largs+green+hill/ |title=Largs, Green Hill |publisher=[[Canmore (database)|Canmore]] |access-date=20 March 2012 }}</ref> In recent years the battle site has been one of fifty battlefields researched by the [[Centre for Battlefield Archaeology]] and [[Historic Scotland]] for inclusion in the [[Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland|Inventory of Scottish Battlefields]]. The inventory, established in 2009, is intended to protect, preserve, and promote Scotland's most significant battlefields under the [[Scottish Historical Environment Policy]]. The site of the Battle of Largs was one of eleven investigated sites that did not meet the criteria for inclusion.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/news_search_results.htm/news_article.htm?articleid=38250 |title=Scotland's Battlefields Inventory completed |date=20 December 2012 |publisher=[[Historic Scotland]] |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=20 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920232341/http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/news_search_results.htm/news_article.htm?articleid=38250 |url-status=dead }}.</ref>

Each autumn since 1981, the village of Largs has hosted the ''Largs Viking Festival'', founded to celebrate the battle and to encourage [[Tourism in Scotland|tourism]].<ref>[[#R1|Ritchie 1993]]: p. 130.</ref> A [[Historical reenactment|re-enactment]] of the battle, held onsite at The Pencil, forms part of the festivities.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.largsvikingfestival.com/largs-viking-festival-history.html |title=Largs Viking Festival History |publisher=largsvikingfestival.com |access-date=26 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305054359/http://www.largsvikingfestival.com/largs-viking-festival-history.html |archive-date=5 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The battle is the subject of [[John Galt (novelist)|John Galt]]'s (d. 1839) ''The Battle of Largs: a Gothic Poem'', written about 1804. Not regarded as one of Galt's better literary works,<ref>[[#C5|Crawford 2009]]: p. 436. See also: [[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 103, 126–127 ''fn 3''.</ref> this poem was almost certainly based on James Johnstone's (d. 1798) ''The Norwegian Account of Haco's Expedition Against Scotland A.D. MCCLXIII'', published in 1782.<ref>[[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 126–127 ''fn 3''.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Johnstone's work is one of the first (albeit partial) English translations of an [[Icelandic saga]].<ref>[[#C3|Clunies Ross; Collins 2004]]. See also: [[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 126–127 ''fn 3''.</ref> Galt, himself, stated that his poem was inspired by [[John Pinkerton]]'s (d. 1826) controversial ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qcJZODnNKIAC A Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or Goths]'', published in 1787,<ref>[[#C8|Couper 2004]]. See also: [[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 126–127 ''fn 3''.</ref> as well as [[Thomas Percy (bishop of Dromore)|Thomas Percy]]'s (d. 1811) translation of [[Paul Henri Mallet|Paul-Henri Mallet]]'s ''Introduction à l'histoire du Dannemarc'', published in 1770.<ref>[[#P1|Palmer 2004]]. See also: [[#C4|Cowan 1990]]: pp. 126–127 ''fn 3''.</ref>|group=note}} The battle is also commemorated within one of [[William Hole (artist)|William Hole]]'s (d. 1917) massive [[mural]]s, which can be viewed in the [[foyer]] of the [[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]].<ref>[[#C6|Cumming 2004]]. See also: [[#M2|Murphy 2001]]: p. 107.</ref><!-- The Cumming (#C6) reference is only for Hole's death-date. -->

== Notes ==

{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

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{{refend}}

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{{refend}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2022}}
{{Scandinavian Scotland|state=collapsed}}
{{Scottish clan battles|state=collapsed}}
{{Viking}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1263 in Scotland]]
[[Category:Battles involving Scotland|Largs]]
[[Category:Battles involving Norway|Largs]]
[[Category:Battles of the Middle Ages|Largs]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1263]]
[[Category:History of North Ayrshire|Battle of Largs 1263]]
[[Category:Largs]]
[[Category:Scandinavian Scotland]]
[[Category:Scottish–Norwegian War]]
[[Category:Military action involving Scottish islands]]
[[Category:Firth of Clyde]]