View source for Battle of Towton

{{Short description|1461 battle in the Wars of the Roses}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Towton
| width             = 
| partof            = the [[Wars of the Roses]]
| image             = Richard Caton Woodville's The Battle of Towton.jpg
| image_upright = 1.0
| alt               = Armoured men on horses and on foot attack each other with swords and polearms in a river. The ones on the right are seeking to flee the battle while pursued by the mass of men who are charging in from the left.
| caption           = ''The Battle of Towton'', [[Richard Caton Woodville Jr.]] (1922)
| date              = 29 March 1461
| place             = Near [[Towton]], [[Yorkshire]], England
| coordinates       = {{WikidataCoord|Q634629|region:GB_type:event|display=inline,title}}
| result            = Yorkist victory
| combatant1        = [[House of York]]
| combatant2        = [[House of Lancaster]]
| commander1        = {{unbulleted list|{{flagicon image|Royal Arms of England (1399-1603).svg|20px}} [[Edward IV]]|{{flagicon image|Arms of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick.svg|20px}} [[Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick|Earl of Warwick]]|{{flagicon image|Coat of Arms of William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent.svg}} [[William Neville, Earl of Kent|Baron Fauconberg]]|{{flagicon image|Arms of Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk.svg}} [[John Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]] }}
| commander2        = {{unbulleted list|{{flagicon image|Beaufort Arms (France modern).svg}} [[Henry Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset|Duke of Somerset]]|{{flagicon image|Arms of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter.svg}} [[Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter|Duke of Exeter]]|{{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Arms of Northumberland (ancient).svg}} [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]]{{KIA}}}}|{{flagicon image|SIr Andrew Trollope%27s coat of arms.svg}} Sir [[Andrew Trollope]]{{KIA}} }}
| strength3         = 50,000–60,000{{efn|Contemporary sources claim over 100,000 on each side, modern estimates suggest 75,000 in total as the upper limit, over 3% of the English population at the time{{Sfn|Dean|2015|p=35}}}}
| casualties1       = 3,000 to 4,500 dead{{Efn|Based on total casualties of 9,000 to 13,000, 1/3 Yorkist{{Sfn|Dean|2015|p=35}}}}
| casualties2       = 6,000 to 8,500 dead{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=332}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Wars of the Roses}}

The '''Battle of Towton''' took place on 29 March 1461 during the [[Wars of the Roses]], near [[Towton]] in [[North Yorkshire]]. [[Yorkist]] forces decisively defeated [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] supporters of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], securing the English throne for [[Edward IV]]. Fought for ten hours between an estimated 50,000&nbsp;soldiers from both sides in a snowstorm on [[Palm Sunday]], it was "probably the largest and bloodiest battle on English soil".{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=7}}

Henry VI succeeded his father, [[Henry V of England|Henry V]], when he was nine months old in 1422, but was a weak, ineffectual and mentally unsound ruler, which encouraged the nobles to scheme for control over him. The situation deteriorated in the 1450s into a civil war between his [[House of Beaufort|Beaufort]] relatives and his wife, [[Margaret of Anjou|Queen Margaret]], on one side, with those of his cousin [[Richard, Duke of York]], on the other. 

In October 1460, [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] named [[Act of Accord|York]] as Henry's successor, but the Lancastrians refused to accept the disinheritance of [[Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales]]. In December, their army defeated and killed York at [[Battle of Wakefield|Wakefield]]. His eldest son Edward now declared himself king, and marched north with his own forces. On reaching the battlefield, the Yorkists found themselves heavily outnumbered, since levies under the [[John Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]] had yet to arrive. However, Yorkist archers under [[William Neville, Earl of Kent|Lord Fauconberg]] took advantage of the strong wind to outrange their enemies, provoking the Lancastrians into abandoning their defensive positions. The ensuing [[hand-to-hand combat|combat]] lasted hours, exhausting the combatants. The arrival of Norfolk's men reinvigorated the Yorkists who routed their foes. 

Many Lancastrians were killed while fleeing, with several high-ranking prisoners executed, while Henry fled the country, leaving Edward to rule England. In 1929, the Towton Cross was erected on the battlefield to commemorate the event. Various archaeological remains and mass graves related to the battle have been found in the area.

== Setting ==
{{further|Wars of the Roses}}
{{Location map+|England|width=300|AlternativeMap=England location map.svg|alt=Map of England showing the locations of towns and battles. The battle of Towton is in the north, just southwest of York.|float=right|caption=Locations:
: [[File:Battle icon active (crossed swords).svg|20px|link=]] – Battle of Towton; [[File:Battle icon (crossed swords).svg|16px|link=]] – other battles; [[File:Steel pog.svg|8px|link=]] – other places |places=
  {{Location map~|England|label='''Towton'''|label_size=75|position=left|lat=53.835833|long=-1.273333|mark=Battle icon active (crossed swords).svg|marksize=20}}
  {{Location map~|England|label=Wakefield|label_size=75|position=right|lat=53.680139|long=-1.247222|mark=Battle icon (crossed swords).svg|marksize=16}}
  {{Location map~|England|label=Northampton|label_size=75|position=right|lat=52.236667|long=-0.893556|mark=Battle icon (crossed swords).svg|marksize=16}}
  {{Location map~|England|label=Mortimer's Cross|label_size=75|position=right|lat=52.318611|long=-2.869167|mark=Battle icon (crossed swords).svg|marksize=16}}
  {{Location map~|England|label=St. Albans|label_size=75|position=right|lat=51.755|long=-0.336|mark=Battle icon (crossed swords).svg|marksize=16}}
  {{Location map~|England|label=London|label_size=75|position=left|lat=51.507778|long=-0.128056|mark=Steel pog.svg|marksize=8}}
  {{Location map~|England|label=York|label_size=75|position=right|lat=53.958333|long=-1.096667|mark=Steel pog.svg|marksize=8}}
}}
In 1461 England was in the sixth year of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars between the houses of [[House of York|York]] and [[House of Lancaster|Lancaster]] over the English throne. The Lancastrians backed the reigning king of England, [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], a weak and indecisive man who suffered from intermittent bouts of madness.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=289}} The leader of the Yorkists was initially [[Richard, 3rd Duke of York|Richard, Duke of York]], who resented the dominance of a small number of aristocrats favoured by the king, principally the king's close relatives, the [[Beaufort family]]. Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both factions, York's attempts to displace Henry's favourites from power led to war.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=289}}{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=11–18}} After capturing Henry at the [[Battle of Northampton (1460)|Battle of Northampton]] in 1460, the duke, who was of royal blood, issued his claim to the throne. Even York's closest supporters among the nobility were reluctant to usurp the dynasty; the nobles passed by a majority vote the [[Act of Accord]], which ruled that the duke and his heirs would succeed to the throne upon Henry's death.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=147}}{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|p=211}}<!-- Wolffe 332 effectively labels them conservative.  -->

Henry VI's wife, [[Margaret of Anjou|Queen Margaret]], refused to accept an arrangement that deprived their son, [[Edward of Westminster]], of his birthright. She had fled to Scotland after the Yorkist victory at Northampton; there she began raising an army, promising her followers the freedom to plunder on the march south through England. Her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England, preparing for her arrival. York marched with his army to meet this threat but he was lured into a trap at the [[battle of Wakefield]] and killed. The duke and his second son, [[Edmund, Earl of Rutland]], were decapitated by the Lancastrians and their heads were impaled on spikes atop the [[York city walls#Micklegate Bar|Micklegate Bar]], a gatehouse of the city of York.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=324–327}} The leadership of the House of York passed to the duke's heir, [[Edward IV of England|Edward]].{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=7, 33}}

[[File:Movement to Towton.svg|thumb|upright|left|alt=The Yorkist army moved north towards Towton, engaging in the battle of Ferrybridge on 28 March and reaching Sherburn-in-Elmet on the same day. The Lancastrians moved southwards through Tadcaster. Both arrived at Towton on 29 March.|The armies of York (white) and Lancaster (red) move towards Towton.]]
The victors of Wakefield were joined by Margaret's army and marched south, plundering settlements along the way. They liberated Henry after defeating the Yorkist army of [[Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick]], in the [[second battle of St Albans]] and continued pillaging on their way to London. The city of London refused to open its gates to Henry and Margaret for fear of being looted. The Lancastrian army was short of supplies and had no adequate means to replenish them. When Margaret learned that Richard of York's eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, and his army had won the [[battle of Mortimer's Cross]] in Herefordshire and were marching towards London, she withdrew the Lancastrians to York.{{Sfn|Harriss|2005|p=538}}{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=29–32}} Warwick and the remnants of his army marched from St Albans to join Edward's men and the Yorkists were welcomed into London. Having lost custody of Henry, the Yorkists needed a justification to continue the rebellion against the king and his Lancastrian followers. On 4 March Warwick proclaimed the young Yorkist leader as King Edward IV. The proclamation gained greater acceptance than Richard of York's earlier claim, as several nobles opposed to letting Edward's father ascend the throne viewed the Lancastrian actions as a betrayal of the legally established Accord.{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|pp=216–217}}{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=330–331}}

The country now had two kings; a situation that could not be allowed to persist, especially if Edward were to be formally crowned.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=330–331}} Edward offered an amnesty to any Lancastrian supporter who renounced Henry. The move was intended to win over the commoners; his offer did not extend to wealthy Lancastrians (mostly the nobles).{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=35}} The young king summoned and ordered his followers to march towards York to take back his family's city and to depose Henry formally through force of arms.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=332–333}} The Yorkist army moved along three routes. Warwick's uncle, [[William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent|Lord Fauconberg]], led a group to clear the way to York for the main body, which was led by Edward. [[John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|The Duke of Norfolk]] was sent east to raise forces and rejoin Edward before the battle. Warwick's group moved to the west of the main body, through the Midlands, gathering men as they went. On 28 March, the leading elements of the Yorkist army came upon the remains of the crossing in [[Ferrybridge]] crossing the [[River Aire]]. They were rebuilding the bridge when they [[Battle of Ferrybridge|were attacked and routed]] by a band of about 500 Lancastrians, led by [[John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford|Lord Clifford]].{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|pp=218–219}}

Learning of the encounter, Edward led the main Yorkist army to the bridge and was forced into a gruelling battle: although the Yorkists were superior in numbers, the narrow bridge was a bottleneck, forcing them to confront Clifford's men on equal terms. Edward sent Fauconberg and his horsemen to [[Ford (crossing)|ford]] the river at [[Castleford]], which should have been guarded by Henry, Earl of Northumberland, but he arrived late, by which time the Yorkists had crossed the ford and were heading to attack the Lancastrians at Ferrybridge from the flank. The Lancastrians retreated but were chased to Dinting Dale, where they were all killed, Clifford being slain by an arrow to his throat. Having cleared the vicinity of enemy forces, the Yorkists repaired the bridge and pressed onwards to camp overnight at [[Sherburn-in-Elmet]]. The Lancastrian army marched to Tadcaster, about {{convert|2|mi}} north of Towton, and made camp.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=32–39}} As dawn broke the two rival armies struck camp under dark skies and strong winds.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=47}} Although it was [[Palm Sunday]], a day of holy significance to Christians, the forces prepared for battle and a few documents named the engagement the battle of ''Palme Sonday Felde'' but the name did not gain wide acceptance.{{Sfn|Morgan|2000|pp=38, 40}} Popular opinion favoured naming the battle after the village of Towton because of its proximity and it being the most prominent feature in the area.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=44}}

== Force compositions ==
The armies gathered at Towton were among the largest at the time.{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=1}} Contemporary sources (like ''[[Gregory's Chronicle]]'') claimed that the soldiers on each side numbered in the hundreds of thousands.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=25}} These figures are thought to be exaggerated, and modern historians believe that a combined figure of 50,000 – 65,000 is more likely, between one and two per cent of the English population at the time.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=36}}{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=331}}{{sfn|Sadler|2011|p=78}} An analysis of 50 skeletons found in mass graves between 1996 and 2003 showed most were 24 to 30 years old and many were veterans of previous engagements.{{Sfn|Scott|2010|p=24}}

Henry's physical and mental frailty was a major weakness for the Lancastrian cause, and he remained in York with Margaret.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=331}} In contrast the 18-year-old Edward was a tall and imposing sight in armour and led from the front: his preference for bold offensive tactics determined the Yorkist plan of action for this engagement. His presence and example were crucial to ensuring the Yorkists held together through the long and exhausting struggle.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}} 
[[File:The Battle of Towton by John Quartley.jpg|thumb|right|250px|alt=Armoured men on horses charge at one another, trampling men on foot. A man wearing a crown stands in the middle, pointing his sword to the left. The men are using weapons such as lances, swords and maces.|Edward's presence was crucial to Yorkist victory.]]
Approximately three-quarters of [[Peerage of England|English peers]] fought in the battle;{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=331}} eight were with the Yorkist army, whereas the Lancastrians had at least nineteen.{{Sfn|Goodman|1990|p=51}}

Of the other Yorkist leaders, Warwick was absent from the battle, having suffered a leg wound at [[Battle of Ferrybridge|Ferrybridge]].{{sfn|Penn|2019|p=46}} Norfolk's contingent was commanded by [[Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy|Walter Blount]] and Robert Horne; this may have been an advantage, since he was regarded as an unpredictable ally.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|pp=126, 156}} Edward relied heavily on Warwick's uncle, Lord Fauconberg, a veteran of the [[Hundred Years' War|Anglo-French wars]], highly regarded by contemporaries for his military skills.{{Sfn|Goodman|1990|p=165}} He demonstrated this in a wide range of roles, having captained the Calais garrison,{{Sfn|Goodman|1990|p=165}} led naval piracy expeditions in the [[English Channel|Channel]],{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|pp=147, 240}} and commanded the Yorkist vanguard at Northampton.{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|p=179}}

The senior Lancastrian general was [[Henry Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset|Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset]], an experienced leader credited with victories at Wakefield and St Albans, although others suggest they were due to Sir [[Andrew Trollope]].{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=20–21}} Trollope was an extremely experienced and astute commander, who had served under Warwick in Calais, before defecting to the Lancastrians at [[Battle of Ludford Bridge|Ludford Bridge]] in 1459.{{Sfn|Goodman|1990|p=166}} Other notable Lancastrian leaders included [[Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter|Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter]],{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=17}} and northern magnates the [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]],{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=20}} [[Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros|Lord de Ros]] and [[Ralph Dacre, 1st Baron Dacre of Gilsland|Lord Dacre]]. Another leading Lancastrian, [[John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford|Lord Clifford]], had been killed by an arrow in the throat at Ferrybridge.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}}

== Deployment ==
[[File:Battle of Towton - Initial deployment.svg|thumb|300px|left|alt=The two forces face each other across a dale. A small patch of woods stand to their west. A river flows around the battlefield from the west to the north.|Initial deployments: the Yorkists (white) and Lancastrians (red) at Towton]]

Very few historical sources give detailed accounts of the battle and they do not describe the exact deployments of the armies. The paucity of such primary sources led early historians to adopt Hall's chronicle as their main resource for the engagement, despite its authorship 70&nbsp;years after the event and questions over the origin of his information. The [[Burgundian Netherlands|Burgundian]] chronicler [[Jean de Waurin]] (c. 1398 – c. 1474) was a more contemporary source, but his chronicle was made available to the public only from 1891, and several mistakes in it discouraged historians at that time from using it. Later reconstructions of the battle were based on Hall's version, supplemented by minor details from other sources.{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|pp=2–5}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=50–51}}

The battle took place on a [[plateau]] between the villages of [[Saxton, North Yorkshire|Saxton]] (to the south) and [[Towton]] (to the north). The region was agricultural land, with plenty of wide open areas and small roads on which to manoeuvre the armies.{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=2}} Two roads ran through the area: the Old London Road, which connected Towton to the English capital, and a direct road between Saxton and Towton. The steeply banked [[Cock Beck]] flowed in an S-shaped course around the plateau from the north to west. The plateau was bisected by the Towton Dale, which ran from the west and extended into the North Acres in the east. Woodlands were scattered along the beck; Renshaw Woods lined the river on the north-western side of the plateau, and south of Towton Dale, Castle Hill Wood grew on the west side of the plateau at a bend in the beck. The area to the north-east of this forest would be known as Bloody Meadow after the battle.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=44–46}}

According to Gravett and fellow military enthusiast Trevor James Halsall, Somerset's decision to engage the Yorkist army on this plateau was sound. Defending the ground just before Towton would block any enemy advance towards the city of York, whether they moved along the London – Towton road or an old Roman road to the west. The Lancastrians deployed on the north side of the dale, using the valley as a "protective ditch";{{Sfn|Halsall|2000|p=41}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=46}} the disadvantage of this position was that they could not see beyond the southern ridge of the dale.{{Sfn|Halsall|2000|p=42}} The Lancastrian flanks were protected by marshes; their right was further secured by the steep banks of the Cock Beck. The width of their deployment area did not allow for a longer front line, depriving the Lancastrians of the opportunity to use their numerical superiority.{{Sfn|Halsall|2000|p=41}} Waurin's account gave rise to the suggestion that Somerset ordered a force of mounted spearmen to conceal itself in Castle Hill Wood, ready to charge into the Yorkist left flank at an opportune time in battle.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=59}}

The Yorkists appeared as the Lancastrians finished deployment. Line after line of soldiers crested the southern ridge of the dale and formed up in ranks opposite their enemies as snow began to fall. Edward's army was outnumbered and Norfolk's troops had yet to arrive to join them.{{sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=49–50}} The Yorkist vanguard was commanded by Lord Fauconberg. Hall names [[John Wenlock, Baron Wenlock|John Wenlock]] and [[John Dynham, Baron Dynham|John Dinham]] and others as commanders of the Yorkist rearguard.{{sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=50–51}}{{sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=4}} Sources variously mention the [[Henry Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset|Duke of Somerset]], Trollope, the [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]] and the Duke of Exeter as the commanders of the Lancastrian host, but show little agreement as to which portion of the host each of them was assigned.{{sfn|English Heritage|1995|pp=3, 4–5}}

== Fighting ==
[[File:Fauconbridge's tactics at Towton.jpg|thumb|300px|Yorkist leader [[William Neville, Earl of Kent|William Neville]] (on horse) and his archers took advantage of the wind to inflict early damage on the Lancastrians – 19th century drawing]]

As Somerset was content to stand and let his foes come to him, the opening move of the battle was made by the Yorkists.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=52–53}} Noticing the direction and strength of the wind, Fauconberg ordered all Yorkist archers to step forward and unleash a volley of their arrows from what would be the standard maximum range of their longbows. With the wind behind them, the Yorkist missiles travelled farther than usual, plunging deep into the masses of soldiers on the hill slope.

The response from the Lancastrian [[archers]] was ineffective as the heavy wind blew snow in their faces. They found it difficult to judge the range and pick out their targets and their arrows fell short of the Yorkist ranks; Fauconberg had ordered his men to retreat after loosing one volley, thus avoiding any casualties. Unable to observe their results, the Lancastrians loosed their arrows until most had been used, leaving a thick, prickly carpet in the ground in front of the Yorkists.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=53–56}}

[[File:Bodkin1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A wooden shaft is tipped with a narrow metal piece sharpened to a point.|[[Bodkin point|Bodkin arrows]] were among the missiles that killed many in the battle.]]

After the Lancastrians had ceased loosing their arrows, Fauconberg ordered his archers to step forward again to shoot. When they had exhausted their ammunition, the Yorkists plucked arrows off the ground in front of them — arrows loosed by their foes — and continued shooting. Coming under attack without any effective response of its own, the Lancastrian army moved from its position to engage the Yorkists in close combat. Seeing the advancing mass of men, the Yorkist archers shot a few more volleys before retreating behind their ranks of men-at-arms, leaving thousands of arrows in the ground to hinder the Lancastrian attack.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=56–57}}

As the Yorkists reformed their ranks to receive the Lancastrian charge, their left flank came under attack by the horsemen from Castle Hill Wood mentioned by Waurin. The Yorkist left wing fell into disarray and several men started to flee. Edward had to take command of the left wing to save the situation. By engaging in the fight and encouraging his followers, his example inspired many to stand their ground. The armies clashed and archers shot into the mass of men at short range. The Lancastrians continuously threw fresher men into the fray and gradually the numerically inferior Yorkist army was forced to give ground and retreat up the southern ridge. Gravett thought that the Lancastrian left had less momentum than the rest of its formation, skewing the line of battle such that its western end tilted towards Saxton.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=60–61, 65}}{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=6}}

The fighting continued for three hours, according to research by [[English Heritage]], a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=6}} It was indecisive until the arrival of Norfolk's men. Marching up the Old London Road, Norfolk's contingent was hidden from view until they crested the ridge and attacked the Lancastrian left flank.{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=6}}{{Sfn|Harriss|2005|p=644}} The Lancastrians continued to give fight but the advantage had shifted to the Yorkists. By the end of the day, the Lancastrian line had broken up, as small groups of men began fleeing for their lives.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}} [[Polydore Vergil]], chronicler for [[Henry VII of England]], said combat lasted for a total of 10&nbsp;hours.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=68}}

== Rout ==
[[File:Battle of Towton - Engagement.svg|thumb|left|300px|alt=The Lancastrians were pushing back the Yorkists, but are engaged on their left flank by Norfolk's soldiers.|At the crucial moment, Norfolk's troops arrived, helping the Yorkists (white) overcome the Lancastrians (red).]]

The tired Lancastrians flung off their helmets and armour to run faster. Without such protection, they were much more vulnerable to the attacks of the Yorkists. Norfolk's troops were much fresher and faster. Fleeing across what would later become known as Bloody Meadow, many Lancastrians were cut down from behind or were slain after they had surrendered. Before the battle, both sides had issued the order to give [[no quarter]] and the Yorkists were in no mood to spare anyone after the long, gruelling fight.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=50, 69–73}} A number of Lancastrians, such as Trollope, also had substantial bounties on their heads.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=35}} Gregory's chronicle stated 42&nbsp;knights were killed after they were taken prisoner.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}

Archaeological findings in the late 20th century shed light on the final moments of the battle. In 1996 workmen at a construction site in the village of Towton uncovered a mass grave, which archaeologists believed to contain the remains of men who were slain during or after the battle in 1461. The bodies showed severe injuries to their upper torsos; arms and skulls were cracked or shattered.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=85–89}} One exhumed specimen, known as Towton 25, had the front of his skull bisected: a weapon had slashed across his face, cutting a deep wound that split the bone. The skull was also pierced by another deep wound, a horizontal cut from a blade across the back.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=37, 88}}

The Lancastrians lost more troops in their rout than from the battlefield. Men struggling across the Cock Beck were dragged down by currents and drowned. Those floundering were stepped on and pushed under water by their comrades behind them as they rushed to get away from the Yorkists. As the Lancastrians struggled across the beck Yorkist archers rode to high vantage points and shot arrows at them. The dead began to pile up and the chronicles state that the Lancastrians eventually fled across these "bridges" of bodies.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=72–73}} The chase continued northwards across the River Wharfe, which was larger than Cock Beck. A bridge over the river collapsed under the flood of men and many drowned trying to cross. Those who hid in Tadcaster and York were hunted down and killed.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=73}}

A newsletter dated 4 April 1461 reported a widely circulated figure of 28,000&nbsp;casualties in the battle, which [[Charles Ross (historian)|Charles Ross]] and other historians believe was exaggerated. The number was taken from the heralds' estimate of the dead and appeared in letters from Edward and the Bishop of Salisbury, [[Richard Beauchamp (bishop)|Richard Beauchamp]].{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=79–80}} Letters from an ambassador and a merchant from the [[duchy of Milan]] broke this number down into 8,000 dead for the Yorkists and 20,000 for the Lancastrians;{{sfn|Hinds|1912|pp=68, 73}} in contrast, bishops Nicholas O'Flanagan ([[bishop of Elphin|Elphin]]) and [[Francesco Coppini]] reported only 800 dead Yorkists.{{sfn|Hinds|1912|pp=65, 81}} Other contemporary sources gave higher numbers, ranging from 30,000 to 38,000; Hall quoted an exact figure of 36,776.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|pp=79–80}} An exception was the ''Annales rerum anglicarum'', which stated the Lancastrians had 9,000&nbsp;casualties, an estimate Ross and Wolffe found to be more believable.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=37}}{{sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=332}} A more recent analysis of the sources and archaeological evidence, which posits that accounts of Towton were combined with those of the actions of Ferrybridge and Dintingdale, suggests total casualty figures in the range 2,800 – 3,800.{{sfn|Sutherland|2009|pp=21–24}}

The Lancastrian nobility sustained heavy losses. The [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]], lords [[Lionel Welles, 6th Baron Welles|Welles]], [[Ralph Bigod (Baron Mauley)|Mauley]] and [[Ralph Dacre, 1st Baron Dacre of Gilsland|Dacre]], and Sir [[Andrew Trollope]] fell in battle, while the earls of [[Thomas Courtenay, 14th Earl of Devon|Devon]] and [[James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire|Wiltshire]] were afterwards taken and executed.{{sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=332}} Lord Dacre was said to have been killed by an archer who was perched in a "bur tree" (a local term for an [[Sambucus nigra|elder]]).{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=77}} In contrast, the Yorkists lost only one notable member of the gentry, Horne, at Towton.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}}

== Aftermath ==
[[File:DacreCross.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=A stone post, topped with a cross, stands next to a bush in a field. An inscription on its base reads, "Battle of Towton Palm Sunday 1461".|Towton Cross: a memorial for the Battle of Towton]]

On receiving news of his army's defeat, Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son. They were later joined by Somerset, Ros, Exeter, and the few Lancastrian nobles who escaped from the battlefield. The battle of Towton severely reduced the power of the House of Lancaster in England; the linchpins of their power at court (Northumberland, Clifford, Ros, and Dacre) had either died or fled the country, ending the house's domination over the north of England.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=37–38}} Edward further exploited the situation, naming 14&nbsp;Lancastrian peers as traitors.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=159}} Approximately 96&nbsp;Lancastrians of the rank of knight and below were also [[Attainder|attainted]], twenty-four of them Members of Parliament.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=67}}

The new king preferred winning over his enemies to his cause; the nobles he attainted either died in the battle or had refused to submit to him. The estates of a few of these nobles were confiscated by the crown but the rest were untouched, remaining in the care of their families.{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=159}} Edward also pardoned many of those he attainted after they submitted to his rule.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=67–68}}

Although Henry was at large in Scotland with his son, the battle put an end (for the time being) to disputes over the country's state of leadership since the Act of Accord. The English people were assured that there was now one true king: Edward.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=37–38}}{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=149}} He turned his attention to consolidating his rule over the country, winning over the people and putting down the rebellions raised by the few remaining Lancastrian diehards.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|pp=41–63}} He knighted several of his supporters and elevated several of his gentry supporters to the [[peerage]]; Fauconberg was made the [[Earl of Kent]].{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=148}} Warwick benefited from Edward's rule after the battle.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=70}} He received parts of Northumberland's and Clifford's holdings,{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=158}} and was made "the king's lieutenant in the North and admiral of England."{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|p=221}} Edward bestowed on him many offices of power and wealth, further enhancing the earl's considerable influence and riches.{{sfn|Ross|1997|pp=70–71}}

By 1464, the Yorkists had "wiped out all effective Lancastrian resistance in the north of England."{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=335–337}} Edward's reign was not interrupted until 1470;{{Sfn|Harriss|2005|p=644}} by then, his relationship with Warwick had deteriorated to such an extent that the earl defected to the Lancastrians and forced Edward to flee England, restoring Henry to the throne.{{Sfn|Hicks|2002|pp=281, 292, 296}} The interruption of Yorkist rule was brief, as Edward regained his throne after defeating Warwick and his Lancastrian cohorts at the [[battle of Barnet]] in 1471.{{Sfn|Ross|1997|p=171}}

== Literature ==
[[File:Francois Gravelot's Henry VI Act 2 Scene 5 (crop 2).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=A man stands next to a tree while a battle rages behind him. In front of him, two men kneel beside two bodies on the ground. All are wearing armour.|Shakespeare used the battle of Towton to illustrate the ills of civil war; in ''3 Henry VI'', Act&nbsp;2, Scene&nbsp;5, a father finds he has killed his son, while a son finds he has killed his own father.]]

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In the sixteenth century [[William Shakespeare]] wrote a number of dramatisations of historic figures. The use of history as a backdrop, against which the familiar characters act out Shakespeare's drama, lends a sense of realism to his plays.{{Sfn|Berlin|2000|p=139}} Shakespeare wrote a three-part play about Henry VI, relying heavily on Hall's chronicle as a source.{{Sfn|Edelman|1992|p=39}} His vision of the battle of Towton ([[Henry VI, Part 3|''Henry VI'', Part 3]], Act&nbsp;2, Scene&nbsp;5), touted as the "bloodiest" engagement in the Wars of the Roses,{{Sfn|Carpenter|2002|p=149}}{{Sfn|Saccio|2000|p=141}} became a set piece about the "terror of civil war, a ''national'' terror that is essentially ''familial''".{{Sfn|Berlin|2000|p=139}} Historian Bertram Wolffe said it was thanks to Shakespeare's dramatisation of the battle that the weak and ineffectual Henry was at least remembered by English society, albeit for his pining to have been born a shepherd rather than a king.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|p=3}}

Shakespeare's version of the battle presents a notable scene that comes immediately after Henry's soliloquy. Henry witnesses the laments of two soldiers in the battle. One slays his opponent in hope of plunder, only to find the victim is his son; the other kills his enemy, who turns out to be his father. Both killers have acted out of greed and fell into a state of deep grieving after discovering their misdeeds.{{Sfn|Warren|2003|p=236}} Shakespearian scholar Arthur Percival Rossiter names the scene as the most notable of the playwright's written "rituals". The delivery of the event follows the pattern of an opera: after a long speech, the actors alternate among one another to deliver single-line [[asides]] to the audience.{{Sfn|Hattaway|Shakespeare|1993|pp=32–34}} In this scene of grief, in a reversal of the approach adopted in his later historical plays, Shakespeare uses anonymous fictional characters to illustrate the ills of civil war while a historical king reflects on their fates.{{Sfn|Berlin|2000|p=139}} Michael Hattaway, emeritus professor of English Literature at the [[University of Sheffield]], comments that Shakespeare intended to show Henry's sadness over the war, to elicit the same emotion among the audience and to expose Henry's ineptitude as king.{{Sfn|Hattaway|Shakespeare|1993|p=34}}

The battle of Towton was re-examined by [[Geoffrey Hill]] in his poem "Funeral Music" (1968). Hill presents the historical event through the voices of its combatants, looking at the turmoil of the era through their eyes.{{Sfn|Sherry|1987|pp=86–87}}{{Sfn|Wainwright|2005|p=7}} The common soldiers grouse about their physical discomforts and the sacrifices that they had made for the ideas glorified by their leaders.{{Sfn|Sherry|1987|pp=88}} They share their superiors' determination to seek the destruction of their opponents, even at the cost of their lives.{{Sfn|Wainwright|2005|p=18}} Hill depicts the participants' belief that the event was pre-destined and of utmost importance as a farce; the world went about its business regardless of the battle of Towton.{{Sfn|Wainwright|2005|pp=19, 37}}

An episode in [[C. J. Sansom]]'s 2006 historical novel [[Sovereign (Sansom novel)|''Sovereign'']], set in 1541, eighty years after the battle, concerns a Towton farmer appealing to [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] to be compensated for the time and effort he has to spend on turning over to the Church the skeletons discovered nearly every day on his land.

== Legacy ==
[[File:Battle of Towton reenactment 2010.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A line of people in mediaeval dress and armour, several with weapons, stand under a cloudy sky.|Re-enactors from the Towton Battlefield Society observe a moment of silence in memory of the dead of the battle.]]
Obtaining an accurate figure for casualties has been complicated:  remains were either moved or used by farmers as fertiliser, and corpses were generally stripped of clothing and non-perishable items before burial. However some survived when later buildings were constructed over their graves; the first were uncovered in 1996 and excavations have so far uncovered more than 50 skeletons from the battle. An analysis of their injuries shows the brutality of the contest, including extensive post-mortem mutilations.{{sfn|Sutherland|Schmidt|2003|pp=15–25}}

Some 15th-century documents confirm that there were casualties that had eventually been reburied in graveyards at Saxton and a chapel constructed for the purpose by [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] in 1484.{{sfn|Sutherland|Schmidt|2003|p=17}} His death at the [[Battle of Bosworth]] in 1485 meant the building was never completed and eventually collapsed.{{Sfn|NHLE 1000040|ignore-err=yes}} In 1929 stones allegedly from the chapel were used to create the Towton Cross, also known as Lord Dacre's Cross, which commemorates those who died in the battle.{{Sfn|Gravett|2003|p=51}}

Lord Dacre was buried at the church of All Saints in Saxton and his tomb was reported in the late 19th century to be well maintained, although several of its panels had been weathered away.{{Sfn|Fallow|1889|pp=303–305}} The tree from which Dacre's killer was supposed to have shot his arrow had been cut down by the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Ransome|1889|p=463}} In 2010 fragments from what are some of the earliest known handguns found in Britain were discovered on the battlefield.{{Sfn|Catton|2010}}

Views of the Wars of the Roses in general and of the battle as a charnel house were formed by Shakespeare and endured for centuries.{{Sfn|Saccio|2000|p=141}} However at the start of the 21st century the battle was no longer prominent in the public consciousness. Journalists lamented that people were ignorant of the battle of Towton and of its significance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gill|2008}}; {{Harvnb|Kettle|2007}}</ref> According to English Heritage the battle was of the "greatest importance":  it was one of the largest, if not ''the'' largest, fought in England and resulted in the replacement of one royal dynasty by another.{{Sfn|English Heritage|1995|p=6}} Hill expressed a different opinion. Although impressed with the casualty figures touted by the chroniclers, he believed the battle brought no monumental changes to the lives of the English people.{{Sfn|Wainwright|2005|p=83}}

The Battle of Towton was associated with a tradition previously upheld in the village of [[Tysoe]], Warwickshire. For several centuries a local farmer had scoured a hill figure, the [[Red Horse of Tysoe]], each year, as part of the terms of his land tenancy. Although the origins of the tradition have never been conclusively identified, it was locally said this was done to commemorate the Earl of Warwick's inspirational deed of slaying his horse to show his resolve to stand and fight with the common soldiers.{{Sfn|Harris|1935}}{{Sfn|Salzman|1949|p=175}} The tradition died in 1798 when the [[Tysoe Inclosure Act 1796]] ([[36 Geo. 3]]. c. ''31'' {{small|Pr.}}) was implemented redesignated the [[common land]] on which the equine figure was located as private property.{{Sfn|Harris|1935}}{{Sfn|Salzman|1949|p=175}} The scouring was revived during the early 20th century but has since stopped.{{Sfn|Askew|1935}}{{Sfn|Gibson|1936|p=180}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== Sources ==
===Books===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Berlin |date=2000 |first=Normand |title=O'Neill's Shakespeare |orig-year=1993 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Michigan, United States |doi=10.3998/mpub.14276 |isbn=978-0-472-10469-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brooke |date=1857 |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Brooke (antiquary) |title=Visits to Fields of Battle in England |publisher=[[John Russell Smith]] |place=London, United Kingdom |chapter=The Field of the Battle of Towton |pages=81–129 |chapter-url={{google books|4Xk9AAAAcAAJ |pg=PA81 |plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Carpenter |date=2002 |first=Christine |author-link=Christine Carpenter (historian) |title=The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the constitution in England, c. 1437–1509 |orig-year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=New York, United States |url={{google books|z0A9frbkU0MC |plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-521-31874-7 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Edelman |date=1992 |first=Charles |title=Brawl Ridiculous: Swordfighting in Shakespeare's Plays |publisher=Manchester University Press |place=Manchester, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-7190-3507-4 |chapter=The Wars of the Roses: 2 and 3 Henry VI, Richard III |pages=69–89 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNnYAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodman |date=19 July 1990 |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Goodman (historian) |title=The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society, 1452–97 |orig-year=1981 |publisher=Routledge |place=London, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-415-05264-1 |chapter=Local Revolts and Nobles' Struggles, 1469–71 |chapter-url={{google books|ShfEdpp2bbAC |pg=PA66 |plainurl=yes}} |pages=66–85 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodwin |first1=George |title=Fatal Colours: Towton 1461 - England's Most Brutal Battle |date=2012 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=9780393080841 |pages=288 |url=https://www.waterstones.com/book/fatal-colours/george-goodwin/9780753828175 |access-date=24 October 2024 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gravett |date=2003 |first=Christopher |title=Towton 1461: England's Bloodiest Battle |url=https://brego-weard.com/lib/newosp/Towton%201461.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808023313/https://brego-weard.com/lib/newosp/Towton%201461.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 August 2013 |series=Campaign |volume=120 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |place=Oxford, UK |publication-date=20 April 2003 |isbn=978-1-84176-513-6 |author-link=Christopher Gravett }}
* {{Cite book |last=Harriss |date=2005 |first=G.L. |title=Shaping the Nation: England 1360–1461 |url={{google books|t0ISN2Reg_UC |plainurl=yes}} |series=[[New Oxford History of England]] |publisher=Clarendon Press |place=Oxford, UK |publication-date=27 January 2005 |isbn=978-0-19-822816-5 |author-link=G. L. Harriss }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hattaway |date=1993 |first1=Michael |last2=Shakespeare |first2=William |name-list-style=amp |chapter=The Play: 'What Should be the Meaning of All Those Foughten Fields?' |title=The Third Part of King Henry VI |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=9–35 |isbn=0-521-37705-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcf0NSYk1TwC&pg=PA9 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Hicks |date=2002 |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Hicks (historian) |title=Warwick the Kingmaker |orig-year=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |place=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=0-631-23593-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Markham |first=Clements |author-link=Clements Markham |title=Richard III: His Life and Character |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027929540 |year=1906 |publisher=[[Smith, Elder & Co.]] |place=London, United Kingdom |chapter=The Crowning Victory of Towton }}
* {{cite book |last1=Penn |first1=Thomas |title=The Brothers York |date=2019 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-1846146909}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Charles |title=Edward IV |edition=revised |series=[[English Monarchs series]] |year=1997 |orig-year=1974 |publisher=Yale University Press |place=New Haven, Connecticut |isbn=0-300-07372-0 |author-link=Charles Ross (historian)}}
* {{cite book |last=Saccio |first=Peter |title=Shakespeare's English Kings: History, Chronicle, and Drama |year=2000 |orig-year=1977 |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=0-19-512319-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Sadler |first=John |author-link=John Sadler (historian) |year=2011 |title=Towton: The Battle of Palm Sunday Field 1461 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84415-965-9}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Salzman |editor-first=Louis Francis |title=A History of the County of Warwick |volume=5 |pages=175–182 |year=1949 |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=London, United Kingdom |chapter=Parishes{{snd}}Tysoe |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=57069 |archive-date=10 September 2014 |access-date=3 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910104931/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=57069 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Santiuste |first=David |year=2010 |title=Edward IV and the Wars of the Roses |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84415-930-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sherry |first=Vincent B. |title=The Uncommon Tongue: The Poetry and Criticism of Geoffrey Hill |year=1987 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |place=Michigan, United States |pages=81–125 |isbn=0-472-10084-X |chapter=King Log: Thorny Craft |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwk9gCtejgUC&pg=PA81 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wainwright |first=Jeffrey |title=Acceptable Words: Essays on the Poetry of Geoffrey Hill |year=2005 |publisher=Manchester University Press |place=Manchester, United Kingdom |isbn=0-7190-6754-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wolffe |date=2001 |first=Bertram |title=Henry VI |edition=Yale |url={{google books|SPLVBwAAQBAJ |plainurl=yes}} |series=[[English Monarchs series]] |publisher=Yale University Press |place=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven, CT]], US |publication-date=10 June 2001 |orig-year=1981 |isbn=978-0-300-08926-4 }}
{{Refend}}

===Essays and journals===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Askew |first=H. |date=1 June 1935 |title=The Tysoe Red Horse |journal=Notes and Queries |volume=168 |page=394 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |publisher=Oxford University Press |type=PDF, subscription required |issn=1471-6941 |doi=10.1093/nq/CLXVIII.jun01.394e}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dean |first=Sidney |date=2015 |title=Bloody Sunday: The Battle of Towton |journal=Medieval Warfare |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=28–35 |jstor=48578453}}
* {{cite journal |last=Fallow |first=Thomas McCall |date=January 1889 |title=The Dacre Tomb in Saxton Churchyard |journal=The Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Journal |volume=10 |pages=303–308 |location=London, United Kingdom |publisher=Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Association |access-date=14 December 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6yg1HMFWPOsC&pg=PA303 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Fiorato |first=Veronica |title=Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461 |edition=Second revised |year=2007 |publisher=Oxbow |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=978-1-84217-289-6 |chapter=The Context of the Discovery}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gibson |first=Strickland |author-link=Strickland Gibson |year=1936 |title=Francis Wise, B. D |journal=Oxoniensia |volume=1 |pages=173–195 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |publisher=[[Oxfordshire Architectural and Historical Society]] |issn=0308-5562 |access-date=17 December 2010 |url=http://oxoniensia.org/volumes/1936/gibson.pdf |archive-date=24 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124214410/https://www.oxoniensia.org/volumes/1936/gibson.pdf |url-status=live }} {{open access}}
* {{cite book |last=Halsall |first=Trevor James |editor1-last=Rose |editor1-first=Edward P. F. |year=2000 |chapter=Geological Constraints on Battlefield Tactics: Examples in Britain from the Middle Ages to the Civil Wars |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OEdlfb1VnMUC&pg=PA32 |editor2-last=Nathanail |editor2-first=C. Paul |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |publisher=Geological Society of London |location=Bath, United Kingdom |isbn=1-86239-065-7 |pages=32–59 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Harris |first=Mary Dormer |date=18 May 1935 |title=The Tysoe Red Horse |journal=Notes and Queries |volume=168 |page=349 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |publisher=Oxford University Press |issn=1471-6941 |doi=10.1093/nq/CLXVIII.may18.349a}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hinds |date=1912 |editor-first=Allen B. |title=Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts in the Archives and Collections of Milan 1385–1618 |publisher=Stationery Office |place=London |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/milan/1385-1618/pp37-106 |archive-date=12 November 2019 |access-date=12 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112162826/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/milan/1385-1618/pp37-106 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Philip |editor-last=Dunn |editor-first=Diana |year=2000 |chapter=The Naming of Battlefields in the Middle Ages |title=War and Society in Medieval and Early Modern |publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]] |location=Liverpool, United Kingdom |isbn=0-85323-885-5 |pages=34–52 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jx4x1WRdYwC&pg=PA34 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ransome |first=Cyril |date=July 1889 |title=The Battle of Towton |journal=The English Historical Review |access-date=11 November 2010 |volume=4 |pages=460–466 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Y7RAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA460 |doi=10.1093/ehr/IV.XV.460 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Douglas Dowell |year=2010 |chapter=Military Medicine in the Pre-Modern Era: Using Forensic Techniques in the Archaeological Investigation of Military Remains |title=The Historical Archaeology of Military Sites: Method and Topic |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |location=Texas, United States |pages=21–29 |isbn=978-1-60344-207-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RmxNf9Py5IC&pg=PA21 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Styles |first=Philip |editor-last=Nicoll |editor-first=John Ramsay Allardyce |editor-link=Allardyce Nicoll |year=2002 |orig-year=1964 |chapter=The Commonwealth |title=Shakespeare Survey |series=Shakespeare Criticism |volume=17 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=103–119 |isbn=0-521-52353-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibfBljHrZm4C&pg=PA103 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sutherland |date=2009 |first=Tim |title=Killing Time: Challenging the Common Perceptions of Three Medieval Conflicts{{snd}}Ferrybridge, Dintingdale and Towton{{snd}}'The Largest Battle on British Soil' |journal=Journal of Conflict Archaeology |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |url=http://droppdf.com/files/z3atf/killing-time-sutherland-2009.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604124131/http://droppdf.com/files/z3atf/killing-time-sutherland-2009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 June 2019 |doi=10.1163/157407709x12634580640173 |s2cid=159544440 |issn=1574-0773 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sutherland |first1=TL |last2=Schmidt |first2=A |title=The Towton Battlefield Archaeological Survey Project:An Integrated Approach to Battlefield Archaeology |journal=Landscapes |date=2003 |volume=4 |issue=2 |jstor=3805936}}
* {{Cite book |last=Warren |first=Roger |editor-last=Alexander |editor-first=Catherine M. S. |year=2003 |orig-year=1984 |chapter=An Aspect of Dramatic Technique in Henry VI |title=Shakespeare Criticism |series=The Cambridge Shakespeare Library |volume=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |isbn=0-521-82433-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wt0OtMT7AToC&pg=PA231 }}
{{Refend}}

===Newspaper articles===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite news |last1=Catton |first1=Richard |title='Unique' battlefield gun discovery on Towton battlefield |url=https://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/8679946.unique-battlefield-gun-discovery-on-towton-battlefield/ |access-date=22 May 2020 |work=York Press |date=22 November 2010 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726150451/https://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/8679946.unique-battlefield-gun-discovery-on-towton-battlefield/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |title=Towton, the Bloodbath that Changed the Course of Our History |first=A.A. |last=Gill |author-link=A. A. Gill |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/destinations/england/article4572704.ece |newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] |date=24 August 2008 |access-date=25 November 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110103050736/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/destinations/england/article4572704.ece |archive-date=3 January 2011 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news |last=Kettle |date=25 August 2007 |first=Martin |title=Our Most Brutal Battle has been Erased from Memory |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/aug/25/comment.comment |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |page=33 |access-date=25 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405210519/http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/aug/25/comment.comment |archive-date=5 April 2010 |url-status=dead |author-link=Martin Kettle }}
{{Refend}}

===Online sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web |url=https://content.historicengland.org.uk/content/docs/battlefields/towton.pdf |title=English Heritage Battlefield Report: Towton 1461 |access-date=21 May 2010 |year=1995 |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |ref=CITEREFEnglish_Heritage1995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708074415/https://content.historicengland.org.uk/content/docs/battlefields/towton.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2018 |url-status=dead}}
* {{NHLE |num=1000040 |desc=Battle of Towton, 1461 |grade=II |access-date=22 May 2020|mode=cs2|ref={{SfnRef|NHLE 1000040}}}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite magazine |last=Goodwin |year=2011 |first=George |title=The Battle of Towton |magazine=[[History Today]] |volume=61 |issue=5 |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/battle-towton}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Battle of Towton}}
* [http://www.towton.org.uk/ Towton Battlefield Society]
* {{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/warsoftheroses/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=46 |title=Battle of Towton |publisher=The Battlefields Trust}}

{{Wars of the Roses}}
{{featured article}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Towton, Battle Of}}
[[Category:1461 in England]]
[[Category:Battles involving Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Battles of the Wars of the Roses]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1461]]
[[Category:Registered historic battlefields in England]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in North Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Edward IV]]