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{{Short description|1805 battle of the Trafalgar campaign}}
{{Other uses|The Battle of Trafalgar (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Trafalgar
| partof            = the [[Trafalgar campaign]] of the [[War of the Third Coalition]]
| image             = The Battle of Trafalgar by William Clarkson Stanfield.jpg
| caption           = ''[[The Battle of Trafalgar (Stanfield)|The Battle of Trafalgar]]'' <br /> [[Clarkson Frederick Stanfield]], 1836
| date              = 21 October 1805
| place             = Off [[Cape Trafalgar]], [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| coordinates       = {{coord|36.25|N|6.20|W|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Battle of Trafalgar, 21st October 1805 |editor-last=Harrison |editor-first=Cy |date=26 April 2020 |website=Three Decks |publisher=Three Decks, Cy Harrison |url=https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_battle&id=15 |access-date=19 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603043559/https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_battle&id=157 }}</ref>
| map_type          = Europe
| map_relief        = 1
| map_size          = upright 1.5
| result            = British victory
| combatant1        = {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
| combatant2        = {{flagcountry|First French Empire}} <br /> {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[History of Spain (1700-1808)|Spain]]
| commander1        = {{flagicon|UKGBI}} [[Horatio Nelson]]{{KIA}} <br /> {{flagicon|UKGBI}} [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]]
| commander2        = {{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[Pierre Villeneuve]]{{Surrendered}} <br /> {{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Federico Gravina]]{{DOW}}
| strength1         = 27 ships of the line <br /> 4 frigates <br /> 1 schooner <br /> 1 cutter{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}
| strength2         = 33 ships of the line <br /> 5 frigates <br /> 2 brigs{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}
| casualties1       = 458 killed <br /> 1,208 wounded{{sfnp|Adkin|2005|p=524}}
| casualties2       = 4,395 killed <br /> 2,541 wounded <br /> 7,000–8,000 captured <br /> 17 ships of the line captured <br /> 1 ship of the line destroyed{{sfnp|Adkins|2004|p=190}}
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Trafalgar}}{{Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars: Anglo-Spanish War (1796)}}{{Campaignbox Third Coalition}}
}}

The '''Battle of Trafalgar''' was a [[naval engagement]] that took place on 21&nbsp;October 1805 between the [[Royal Navy]] and a combined fleet of the [[French Navy|French]] and [[Spanish Navy|Spanish navies]] during the [[War of the Third Coalition]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Napoleonic Wars |website=Westpoint.edu |publisher=U.S. Army |url=http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |url-status=dead |access-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728203458/http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2014 }}</ref> As part of [[Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom]], the French and Spanish fleets combined to take control of the [[English Channel]] and provide the [[Grande Armée]] safe passage. The allied fleet, under the command of French admiral [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], sailed from the port of [[Cádiz]] in the south of Spain on 18&nbsp;October 1805. They encountered a British fleet under [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Lord Nelson]], recently assembled to meet this threat, in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] along the southwest coast of Spain, off [[Cape Trafalgar]].

Nelson was outnumbered, with 27&nbsp;British [[ships of the line]] to 33&nbsp;French and Spanish, including the largest warship in either fleet, the Spanish ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad|Santísima Trinidad]]''. To address this imbalance, Nelson sailed his fleet directly at the allied battle line's flank in two columns, hoping to break the line into pieces. Villeneuve had worried that Nelson might attempt this tactic, but for various reasons, failed to prepare for it. To add to the French crisis, their crews were inexperienced and poorly trained. The British plan worked almost perfectly; Nelson's columns split the Franco-Spanish fleet in three, isolating the rear half from Villeneuve's flag aboard {{ship|French ship|Bucentaure|1803|2}}. The allied vanguard sailed off while it attempted to turn around, giving the British temporary superiority over the remainder of their fleet. In the ensuing fierce battle 18 allied ships were captured or destroyed, while the British lost none.

The offensive exposed the leading British ships to intense crossfire as they approached the Franco-Spanish lines. Nelson's own {{HMS|Victory}} led the front column and was almost knocked out of action. Nelson was shot by a French musketeer during the battle, and died shortly before it ended. Villeneuve was captured along with his flagship ''Bucentaure''. He attended Nelson's funeral while a captive on parole in Britain. The most senior Spanish commander, Admiral [[Federico Gravina]], escaped with the surviving third of the Franco-Spanish fleet; he died six months later of wounds sustained during the battle. The victory confirmed British naval supremacy, and was achieved in part through Nelson's departure from [[naval tactics in the Age of Sail|prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy]].<ref>Bennet, Geoffrey (2004). ''The Battle of Trafalgar''. England: Pen & Sword Books Limited, CPI UK, South Yorkshire.</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Trafalgar Campaign}}

In 1805, the [[First French Empire]], under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], was the dominant military land power on the European continent, while the British Royal Navy controlled the seas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kongstam |first=Angus |year=2003 |chapter=The New Alexander |page=46 |title=Historical Atlas of the Napoleonic Era |publisher=Mercury Books |location=London |isbn=1904668046}}</ref> During the course of the war, the British imposed a naval [[blockade]] on France, which affected trade and kept the French from fully mobilising their naval resources.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|pp=22–24}} Despite several successful evasions of the blockade by the French navy, it failed to inflict a major defeat upon the British, who were able to attack French interests at home and abroad with relative ease.{{sfnp|Willis|2013|p=247}}

When the [[Third Coalition]] declared war on France, after the short-lived [[Peace of Amiens]], Napoleon renewed his determination to invade Britain. To allow his invasion [[flotilla]] to reach England, he needed to wrest control of the [[English Channel]] from the Royal Navy.{{sfnp|Adkins|Adkins|2006|p=134}}

The main French [[Naval fleet|fleets]] were at [[Brest, France|Brest]] in Brittany and at [[Toulon]] on the [[Mediterranean]] coast. Other ports on the French Atlantic coast harboured smaller [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]]. France and Spain were allied, so the Spanish fleet based in [[Cádiz]] and [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] was also available.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=107}}

The British possessed an experienced and well-trained corps of naval officers.{{efn|When offered his pick from the [[Navy List]] by [[Lord Barham]] (the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]), Nelson replied "Choose yourself, my lord, the same spirit actuates the whole profession; you cannot choose wrong" {{harvp|Allen|1853|p=210}}.}} By contrast, some of the best officers in the French navy had been executed or had left the service during the early part of the [[French Revolution]].{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=104}}

Vice-Admiral [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]] had taken command of the French Mediterranean fleet following the death of [[Latouche-Treville|Latouche Treville]]. There had been more competent officers, but they had either been employed elsewhere or had fallen from Napoleon's favour.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=97}} Villeneuve had shown a distinct reluctance for facing Nelson and the Royal Navy after the French defeat at the [[Battle of the Nile]] in 1798.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=121}}

Napoleon's naval plan in 1805 was for the French and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and Cádiz to break through the blockade and join forces in the [[Caribbean]]. They would then return, assist the fleet in Brest to emerge from the blockade, and together clear the English Channel of Royal Navy ships, ensuring a safe passage for the invasion barges.{{sfnp|Lavery|2009|p=171}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="180" caption="The admirals of the campaign">
File:HoratioNelson1.jpg|Vice Admiral [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio, Lord Nelson]], by [[Lemuel Francis Abbott]]
File:Cuthbert Collingwood, Baron Collingwood by Henry Howard.jpg|Vice Admiral [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]]
File:Amiraldevilleneuve.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], the French admiral
File:FedericoGravinaYNápoliAnónimoHacia1810.jpg|[[Federico Gravina]], the Spanish admiral
</gallery>

===Pursuit of Villeneuve===
[[File:Nelson's Search in the Mediterranean.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Nelson's search in the Mediterranean]]
Early in 1805, [[Vice Admiral]] Lord Nelson commanded the British fleet blockading the Mediterranean port of [[Toulon]]. Unlike [[William Cornwallis]], who maintained a [[Blockade#Close, distant, and loose blockades|close blockade]] off Brest with the [[Channel Fleet]], Nelson adopted a loose blockade in hope of luring the French out to battle, saying, "to be able to get at the enemy you must let ''them'' come out to ''you'', if ''you'' cannot get at ''them''."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Rear Admiral Bertie |journal=Naval Chronicle |date=1811 |volume=26 |page=23}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lavery|2009|p=171}} However, Villeneuve's fleet successfully evaded Nelson's when the British were blown off station by storms. Nelson commenced a search of the Mediterranean, supposing that the French intended to make for [[Egypt]], but Villeneuve instead took his fleet through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], rendezvoused with the Spanish fleet in Cádiz, and sailed as planned for the Caribbean. Once Nelson realised that the French were crossing the Atlantic, he set off in pursuit.{{efn|Admirals of the time, due to the slowness of communications, were given considerable autonomy to make [[Naval strategy|strategic]] as well as [[Naval tactics|tactical]] decisions.}}[[File:The Chase to the West Indies.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The Chase to the West Indies]] He missed them by just days in the West Indies as a result of false information.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=106}}

===Cádiz===
Having lured the British to the West Indies, Villeneuve returned from the Caribbean to [[Europe]], intending to break the blockade at Brest.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=121}}  Nelson, still in fear for Egypt, made to return to the Mediterranean. The fast sailing corvette taking word of his plans back to the admiralty spotted the French heading further north. On receiving this intelligence [[Lord Barham]] immediately ordered Admiral Cornwallis to combine his squadron with that of Vice Admiral [[Robert Calder|Calder]] off Ferrol and to stretch out thirty to forty leagues into the Atlantic to block the French from entering the Channel.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=186}}

Calder intercepted the French resulting in an inconclusive engagement during the [[Battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)|Battle of Cape Finisterre]] in which two of the Spanish ships were captured. Villeneuve abandoned his plan and sailed back to [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] in northern Spain.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=137}} There he received orders from Napoleon to return to Brest according to the main plan.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=141}}

Napoleon's invasion plans for Britain depended on having a sufficiently large number of ships of the line protecting his port of [[Boulogne]] on the English Channel. This would require Villeneuve's force of 33&nbsp;ships to join Vice-Admiral [[Honoré Joseph Antoine Ganteaume|Ganteaume]]'s force of 21&nbsp;ships at Brest, along with a squadron of five ships under Captain Allemand, which would have given him a combined force of 59&nbsp;ships of the line.

When Villeneuve set sail from Ferrol on 10&nbsp;August, he was under orders from Napoleon to sail northward toward Brest. Instead, he worried that the British were observing his manoeuvres, so on 11 August, he sailed southward towards Cádiz on the southwestern coast of Spain.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=142}} With no sign of Villeneuve's fleet, on 25&nbsp;August, the three French army corps' invasion force near Boulogne broke camp and marched into Germany, where it was later engaged. This ended the immediate threat of invasion.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|p=32}}{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=157}}

The same month, Admiral Lord Nelson returned home to Britain after two years of duty at sea.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=145}} He remained ashore for 25&nbsp;days and was warmly received by his countrymen.{{sfnp|Best|2005|pp=161–162}} Word reached Britain on 2&nbsp;September about the combined French and Spanish fleet in Cádiz harbour.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=268}} Nelson had to wait until 15&nbsp;September before his ship, {{HMS|Victory}}, was ready to sail.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=273}}

On 15&nbsp;August, Cornwallis decided to detach 20&nbsp;ships of the line from the fleet guarding the English Channel to sail southward to engage the French and Spanish forces in Spain,{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=283}} leaving the Channel with only 11&nbsp;ships of the line.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|pp=283–284}} The detached force formed the nucleus of the British fleet at Trafalgar. This fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Calder, reached Cádiz on 15 September. Nelson joined the fleet on 28 September to take command.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=170}}

Hoping to lure the combined Franco-Spanish force out from Cádiz harbor and engage it in a decisive battle, Nelson kept his main force out of sight approximately {{convert|50|mi|km}} offshore{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=288}} and sent a squadron of [[frigate]]s (faster, but too small for the line of battle) to keep watch on the harbour.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=288}} This was led by Captain [[Henry Blackwood|Blackwood]] aboard {{HMS|Euryalus|1803|6}}, with five frigates, a [[schooner]], and a [[brig]].{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=190}}

===Supply situation===
[[File:Battle Of Trafalgar By William Lionel Wyllie, Juno Tower, CFB Halifax Nova Scotia.jpg|upright=1.3|left|thumb|''Battle of Trafalgar'' by [[William Lionel Wyllie]], Juno Tower, [[CFB Halifax]], Nova Scotia, Canada]]

Nelson's fleet badly needed provisioning. On 2&nbsp;October, five ships of the line, {{HMS|Queen|1769|6}}, {{HMS|Canopus|1798|2}}, {{HMS|Spencer|1800|2}}, {{HMS|Zealous|1785|2}}, {{HMS|Tigre|1795|2}}, and the frigate {{HMS|Endymion|1797|6}} were dispatched to [[Gibraltar]] under [[Thomas Louis|Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Louis]] for supplies.<ref>James p. 22.</ref>{{citation not found|date=August 2020}}

These ships were later diverted for convoy duty in the [[Mediterranean]], although Nelson had expected them to return. Similarly, {{HMS|Superb|1798|6}} under Captain [[Richard Goodwin Keats]] had been sent to the dockyard for a re-fit after four years at sea, including the chase of Villeneuve, and was expected to return to the fleet where Keats was to be Nelson's second, but the ship was not released in time.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|page=120–124}} Other British ships continued to arrive, and by 15&nbsp;October the fleet was up to full strength for the battle. Nelson also lost Calder's [[flagship]], the 98-gun {{HMS|Prince of Wales|1794|2}}, which he sent home as Calder had been recalled by the Admiralty to face a court-martial for his apparent lack of aggression during the engagement off Cape Finisterre on 22&nbsp;July.

Meanwhile, Villeneuve's fleet in Cádiz was also suffering from a serious supply shortage that could not be easily rectified by the cash-poor French.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|p=278}} The blockade maintained by the British fleet had made it difficult for the Franco-Spanish allies to obtain stores, and their ships were ill-equipped. Villeneuve's ships were also more than two thousand men short of the force needed to sail. These were not the only problems faced by the Franco-Spanish fleet. The main French ships of the line had been kept in harbour for years by the British blockade with only brief sorties. The French crews included few experienced sailors, and, as most of the crew had to be taught the elements of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, gunnery was neglected.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}} The hasty voyage across the Atlantic and back used up vital supplies. Villeneuve's supply situation began to improve in October, but news of Nelson's arrival made Villeneuve reluctant to leave port. His captains had held a vote on the matter and decided to stay in harbour.

On 16&nbsp;September, Napoleon gave orders for the French and Spanish ships at Cádiz to put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join with seven Spanish ships of the line then at [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], go to [[Naples]] and land the soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops there, then fight decisively if they met a numerically inferior British fleet.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=153}}

==Fleets==
{{main|Order of battle at the Battle of Trafalgar}}

===British===
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:right;"
|-
!
!British
!Franco-<br>Spanish
|-
|First rates
|3
|4
|-
|Second rates
|4
|0
|-
|Third rates
|20
|29
|-
|Total ships of the line
|27
|33
|-
|Other ships
|6
|7
|}

On 21&nbsp;October, Admiral Nelson had&nbsp;27 ships of the line with {{nobr| {{gaps|2|148}} cannons,}} and a total of {{nobr| {{gaps|17|000}} crewmen}} and marines under his command.{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=259}} Nelson's flagship, {{HMS|Victory}}, captained by [[Thomas Masterman Hardy]], was one of three 100-gun [[first-rate]]s in his fleet. He also had four 98-gun [[second-rate]]s and 20&nbsp;[[third-rate]]s. One of the third-rates was an 80-gun vessel, and 16 were 74-gun vessels. The remaining three were 64-gun ships, which were being phased out of the Royal Navy at the time of the battle. Nelson also had four frigates of 38 or 36&nbsp;guns, a 12-gun [[schooner]] and a 10-gun [[cutter (boat)|cutter]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Richter |first=Florian |title=The Battle of Trafalgar 1805: Profile Models of Every Ship in Both Fleets. |publisher=Helion, Limited |year=2018 |isbn=9781912174812 |location=United Kingdom}}</ref>

===Franco-Spanish===
Against Nelson, Vice-Admiral Villeneuve, sailing on his flagship ''Bucentaure'', fielded 33 ships of the line, including some of the largest in the world at the time. The Spanish contributed four first-rates to the fleet – three of these ships, one at 130&nbsp;guns ([[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad|''Santísima Trinidad'']]) and two at 112&nbsp;guns (''Príncipe de Asturias'', ''Santa Ana''), were much larger than anything under Nelson's command. The fourth first-rate carried 100&nbsp;guns. The fleet had six 80-gun third-rates (four French and two Spanish), and one Spanish 64-gun third-rate. The remaining 22&nbsp;third-rates were 74-gun vessels, of which 14&nbsp;were French and eight Spanish. In total, the Spanish contributed 15&nbsp;ships of the line and the French&nbsp;18 along with some {{nobr| {{gaps|30|000}} men}} and marines manning {{nobr| {{gaps|2|632}} cannons.}} The fleet also included five 40-gun frigates and two 18-gun [[brig]]s, all French.{{sfn|Goodwin|2002|p=257}}<ref name=":0" />

==Battle==

===Nelson's plan===
The prevailing tactical orthodoxy at the time involved manoeuvring to approach the enemy fleet in a single [[line of battle]] and then engaging broadside in parallel lines.{{sfnp|Fremont-Barnes|2007|p=66}} In previous times, fleets had usually engaged in a mixed mêlée of chaotic one-on-one battles. One reason for the development of the line of battle formation was to facilitate control of the fleet: if all the ships were in line, signalling during battle became possible.{{sfnp|Ireland|2000|p=52}} The line also allowed either side to disengage by breaking away in formation; if the opponent chose to continue, their line would be broken as well.{{sfnp|Fremont-Barnes|2007|p=66}} This often led to inconclusive battles, or allowed the losing side to minimise its losses. Facing a numerically superior Franco-Spanish line, Nelson wanted to break it into a chaotic mêlée which would force his opponents to fight his well-trained crews ship to ship.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=154}}

Nelson's solution was to cut the opposing line in three. Approaching in two columns sailing perpendicular to the Franco-Spanish fleet's line, one towards the centre of the opposing line and one towards the trailing end, his ships would surround the middle third, and force them to fight to the end.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=182}} Nelson hoped specifically to cut the line just in front of the French flagship, ''Bucentaure''; the isolated ships in front of the break would not be able to see the flagship's signals, which he hoped would take them out of combat while they re-formed. This echoed the [[Naval tactics in the Age of Sail|tactics]] used by [[Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan|Admiral Duncan]] at the [[Battle of Camperdown]] and [[Admiral Jervis]] at the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St.&nbsp;Vincent]], both in 1797.{{sfnp|White|2002|p=238}}
[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805 RMG BHC0550.tiff|thumb|''The Battle of Trafalgar'' painted by [[Samuel Drummond]] in 1825]]

The plan had three principal advantages:
* First, the British fleet would close with the Franco-Spanish as quickly as possible, preventing their escape.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=174}}
* Second, it would quickly bring on a [[mêlée]] and frantic battle by breaking the Franco-Spanish line and inducing a series of individual ship-to-ship actions, in which the British knew they were likely to prevail. Nelson knew that the superior seamanship, faster gunnery and better morale of his crews were great advantages.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=173}}
* Third, it would bring a decisive concentration on the rear of the Franco-Spanish fleet. The ships in the [[Vanguard|van]] of the French and Spanish fleet would have to turn back to support the rear, which would take a long time.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=182}} Additionally, once the line had been broken, their ships would be relatively defenceless against powerful broadsides from the British fleet, and it would take them a long time to reposition to return fire.

The main drawback of attacking head-on was that as the leading British ships approached, the Franco-Spanish Combined Fleet would be able to direct [[raking fire|raking]] [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]] fire at their bows, to which they would be unable to reply. To lessen the time the fleet was exposed to this danger, Nelson had his ships make all available sail (including [[Studding sail|stunsails]]), yet another departure from the norm.<ref name=NB215>{{harvp|Tracy|2008|p=215}}</ref> He was also well aware that French and Spanish gunners were ill-trained and would have difficulty firing accurately from a moving gun platform. The Combined Fleet was sailing across a heavy [[Swell (ocean)|swell]], causing the ships to roll heavily and exacerbate the problem. Nelson's plan was a carefully calculated gamble.{{sfnp|Willis|2013|p=266}}

During the blockade off the coast of Spain in October, Nelson instructed his captains, over two dinners aboard ''Victory'', on his plan for the approaching battle. In an animated conversation with his favourite captain, Richard Goodwin Keats, who was expected to be his second in the forthcoming battle, Nelson explained a refined battle plan whilst the two were walking in the garden of Merton in August&nbsp;1805.{{Sfnp|Hannah|2021|loc=ch. 9}} The order of sailing, in which the fleet was arranged when the opposing fleet was first sighted, was to be the order of the ensuing action so that no time would be wasted in forming two lines.{{sfnp|White|2002|p=239}} The first, led by his second-in-command Vice-Admiral [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Cuthbert Collingwood]], was to sail into the rear of the Franco-Spanish line, while the other, led by Nelson, was to sail into the centre and vanguard.{{sfnp|White|2005|p=174}} In preparation for the battle, Nelson ordered the ships of his fleet to be painted in a distinctive yellow and black pattern (later known as the [[Nelson Chequer]]) that would make them easy to distinguish from their opponents.{{sfnp|Best|2005|pp=182–183}}

Nelson was careful to point out that something had to be left to chance. Nothing is sure in a sea battle, so he left his captains free from all hampering rules by telling them that "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy."{{sfnp|White|2002|p=238}} In short, [[emergence|circumstances]]<!-- so while Nelson had a top-level plan, he allowed for considerable [[emergence]] to occur in action to strengthen his potential outcomes; in system theory also known as [[Bottom-up design]] --> would dictate the execution, subject to the guiding rule that the Franco-Spanish fleet's rear was to be cut off and superior force concentrated on that part of the line.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}}

Admiral Villeneuve himself expressed his belief that Nelson would use some sort of unorthodox attack, presciently speculating that Nelson would drive right at his line. But his long game of [[cat and mouse]] with Nelson had worn him down, and he was suffering from a loss of nerve. Fearing that his inexperienced officers would be unable to maintain formation in more than one group, he chose to keep the single line that became Nelson's target.{{sfnp|Stilwell|2005|pp=115–116}}

===Departure===<!--many paragraphs have no citations-->
The Combined Fleet of French and Spanish warships anchored in Cádiz under the leadership of Admiral Villeneuve was in disarray. On 16 September 1805 Villeneuve received orders from Napoleon to sail the Combined Fleet from Cádiz to Naples. At first, Villeneuve was optimistic about returning to the Mediterranean, but soon had second thoughts. A war council was held aboard his flagship, {{ship|French ship|Bucentaure|1803|2}}, on 8&nbsp;October.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=178}} While some of the French captains wished to obey Napoleon's orders, the Spanish captains and other French officers, including Villeneuve, thought it best to remain in Cádiz.{{sfnp|Best|2005|p=179}} Villeneuve changed his mind yet again on 18&nbsp;October 1805, ordering the Combined Fleet to sail immediately even though there were only very light winds.{{sfnp|Schom|1990|pp=301–06}}

The sudden change was prompted by a letter Villeneuve had received on 18&nbsp;October, informing him that Vice-Admiral [[François Rosily]] had arrived in [[Madrid]] with orders to take command of the Combined Fleet.{{sfnp|Lee|2005|pp=289–290}} Stung by the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, Villeneuve resolved to go to sea before his successor could reach Cádiz.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=153}} At the same time, he received intelligence that a detachment of six British ships (Admiral Louis' squadron), had docked at Gibraltar, thus weakening the British fleet. This was used as the pretext for sudden change.

The weather, however, suddenly turned calm following a week of gales. This slowed the progress of the fleet leaving the harbour, giving the British plenty of warning. Villeneuve had drawn up plans to form a force of four squadrons, each containing both French and Spanish ships. Following their earlier vote on 8&nbsp;October to stay put, some captains were reluctant to leave Cádiz, and as a result they failed to follow Villeneuve's orders closely and the fleet straggled out of the harbour in no particular formation.

It took most of 20&nbsp;October for Villeneuve to get his fleet organised; it eventually set sail in three columns for the Straits of Gibraltar to the southeast. That same evening, {{ship|French ship|Achille|1804|2}} spotted a force of 18 British ships of the line in pursuit. The fleet began to prepare for battle and during the night, they were ordered into a single line. The following day, Nelson's fleet of 27&nbsp;ships of the line and four frigates was spotted in pursuit from the northwest with the wind behind it.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Naval Battle Of Trafalgar |publisher=[[Clube de Autores]] |year=2021}}</ref> Villeneuve again ordered his fleet into three columns, but soon changed his mind and restored a single line. The result was a sprawling, uneven formation.

At {{nobr|5:40 a.m.}} on 21&nbsp;October, the British were about 21&nbsp;miles <!-- nautical (which nautical?) or statute? --> (34&nbsp;km) to the northwest of Cape Trafalgar, with the Franco-Spanish fleet between the British and the Cape. About {{nobr|6 a.m.,}} Nelson gave the order to prepare for battle.<ref>Signal log of HMS ''Bellerophon'', 21&nbsp;October 1805{{original research inline|date=November 2023}}</ref> At {{nobr|8 a.m.,}} the British frigate ''Euryalus'', which had been keeping watch on the Combined Fleet overnight, observed the British fleet still "forming the lines" in which it would attack.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Battle of Trafalgar: The logbook of the ''Euryalus'', 21st&nbsp;October 1805 |url=http://chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/the-battle-of-trafalgar-logbook-of_22.html |website=chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk |access-date=11 June 2017 |date=22 October 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135216/http://chasingnelson.blogspot.co.uk/2013/10/the-battle-of-trafalgar-logbook-of_22.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2024}}

At {{nobr|8 a.m.,}} Villeneuve ordered the fleet to ''wear together'' (turn about) and return to Cádiz. This reversed the order of the allied line, placing the rear division under Rear-Admiral [[Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley]] in the vanguard. The wind became contrary at this point, often shifting direction. The very light wind rendered manoeuvring virtually impossible for all but the most expert seamen. The inexperienced crews had difficulty with the changing conditions, and it took nearly an hour and a half for Villeneuve's order to be completed. The French and Spanish fleet now formed an uneven, angular crescent, with the slower ships generally to [[leeward]] and closer to the shore.

By {{nobr|11 a.m.,}} Nelson's entire fleet was visible to Villeneuve, drawn up in two parallel columns. The two fleets would be within range of each other within an hour. Villeneuve was concerned at this point about forming up a line, as his ships were unevenly spaced in an irregular formation drawn out nearly 5&nbsp;miles <!-- nautical (which nautical?) or statute? -->(8&nbsp;km) long as Nelson's fleet approached.

As the British drew closer, they could see that the combined French and Spanish fleet was not sailing in a tight order, but in irregular groups. Nelson could not immediately make out the French flagship as the French and Spanish were not flying command pennants.

Nelson was outnumbered and outgunned, with the opposing fleet totalling nearly {{nobr|{{gaps|30|000}} men}} and {{nobr|{{gaps|2|568}} guns}} to Nelson's {{nobr|{{gaps|17|000}} men}} and {{nobr|{{gaps|2|148}} guns.}} The Franco-Spanish fleet also had six more ships of the line, and so could more readily combine their fire. There was no way for some of Nelson's ships to avoid being "doubled on" or even "trebled on".

As the two fleets drew closer, anxiety began to build among officers and sailors; one British sailor described the approach thus:

{{blockquote|During this momentous preparation, the human mind had ample time for meditation, for it was evident that the fate of England rested on this battle.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004a|p={{page needed|date=February 2012}}}}}}

===Combat===<!--many paragraphs have no citations-->
[[File:England expects...retouched.jpg|thumb|Nelson's signal, "[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]", flying from ''Victory'' on the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar]]
[[File:England Expects Signal.svg|thumb|Nelson's signal<ref name=SignalWasFamous/>]]

The battle progressed largely according to Nelson's plan. At 11:45, Nelson sent the flag signal, ''"[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]"''.<ref name=SignalWasFamous>{{cite web |url=http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/england%20expcts.htm |title=England Expects |publisher=aboutnelson.co.uk |access-date=16 September 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223162755/http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/england%20expcts.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{blockquote|His Lordship came to me on the [[Poop deck|poop]], and after ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, he said, "Mr.&nbsp;[[John Pasco|Pasco]], I wish to say to the fleet, ''<nowiki/>'England confides that every man will do his duty'<nowiki/>''{{-"}} and he added "You must be quick, for I have one more to make which is for close action." I replied, "If your Lordship will permit me to substitute 'expects' for 'confides' the signal will soon be completed, because the word 'expects' is in the vocabulary, and 'confides' must be spelt," His Lordship replied, in haste, and with seeming satisfaction, "That will do, Pasco, make it directly."<ref name="NS">{{cite web |title=England 'expects' |publisher=The Nelson Society |url=http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/body_england_expects.htm |access-date=24 March 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050324080325/http://www.nelson-society.org.uk/html/body_england_expects.htm |archive-date=24 March 2005 }}</ref>}}

The term "England" was widely used at the time to refer to the United Kingdom; the British fleet included significant contingents from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Unlike the photographic depiction above, this signal would have been shown on the [[mizzen]] mast only and would have required 12&nbsp;lifts.

As the battle opened, the French and Spanish were in a ragged curved line headed north. As planned, the British fleet was approaching the Franco-Spanish line in two columns. Leading the northern, [[windward]] column in ''Victory'' was Nelson, while Collingwood in the 100-gun {{HMS|Royal Sovereign|1786|2}} led the second, leeward, column. The two British columns approached from the west at nearly a right angle to the allied line. Nelson led his column into a feint toward the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet and then abruptly turned toward the actual point of attack. Collingwood altered the course of his column slightly so that the two lines converged at this line of attack.

[[File:Trafalgar-Auguste Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Artist's conception of {{HMS|Sandwich|1759|6}} fighting the French [[flagship]] {{ship|French ship|Bucentaure|1803|2}} (completely dismasted) at Trafalgar. ''Bucentaure'' is also fighting {{HMS|Temeraire|1798|6}} (on the left) and being fired into by {{HMS|Victory}} (behind her). In fact, this is a mistake by [[Auguste Mayer]], the painter; HMS ''Sandwich'' never fought at Trafalgar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Musée national de la Marine (in French) |website=Musee-marine.fr |url=http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |access-date=6 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526163947/http://www.musee-marine.fr/cartel2.php?id=55 |archive-date=26 May 2010}}</ref>]]

Just before his column engaged the allied forces, Collingwood said to his officers, "Now, gentlemen, let us do something today which the world may talk of hereafter."{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Because the winds were very light during the battle, all the ships were moving extremely slowly, and the foremost British ships were under heavy fire from several of the allied ships for almost an hour before their own guns could bear.

At noon, Villeneuve sent the signal "engage the enemy", and {{ship|French ship|Fougueux|1785|2}} fired her first trial shot at ''Royal Sovereign''.{{sfnp|Fraser|1906|pp=114, 211–213}}{{sfnp|Corbett|1919|p=440}}{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}} ''Royal Sovereign'' had all sails out and, having recently had her bottom cleaned, outran the rest of the British fleet. As she approached the allied line, she came under fire from ''Fougueux'', {{ship|French ship|Indomptable|1790|2}}, ''San Justo'', and ''San Leandro'', before breaking the line just astern of Admiral Alava's flagship {{ship|Spanish ship|Santa Ana||6}}, into which she fired a devastating [[double-shotted]] raking broadside. On board ''Victory'', Nelson pointed to ''Royal Sovereign'' and said, "See how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!" At approximately the same moment, Collingwood remarked to his captain, [[Edward Rotheram]], "What would Nelson give to be here?"<ref name="Heathcote41">{{cite book |last=Heathcote |title=Nelson's Trafalgar Captains |page=41}}</ref>

[[File:Trafalgar 1200hr.svg|thumb|Artist's conception of the situation at noon as {{HMS|Royal Sovereign|1786|2}} was breaking into the Franco-Spanish line]]

The second ship in the British lee column, {{HMS|Belleisle|1795|2}}, was engaged by {{ship|French ship|Aigle|1800|2}}, ''Achille'', {{ship|French ship|Neptune|1803|2}}, and ''Fougueux''; she was soon completely dismasted, unable to manoeuvre and largely unable to fight, as her sails blinded her batteries, but kept flying her flag for 45&nbsp;minutes until the following British ships came to her rescue.

For 40&nbsp;minutes, ''Victory'' was under fire from {{ship|French ship|Héros|1801|2}}, [[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad (1769)|''Santísima Trinidad'']], {{ship|French ship|Redoutable|1795|2}}, and ''Neptune''; although many shots went astray, others killed and wounded a number of her crew and shot her wheel away, so that she had to be steered from her tiller belowdecks, all before she could respond. At 12:45, ''Victory'' cut the Franco-Spanish line between Villeneuve's flagship ''Bucentaure'' and ''Redoutable''; she came close to ''Bucentaure'' with her guns loaded with double or treble shots each, and her 68-pounder carronades loaded with 500 musketballs, she unleashed a devastating treble-shotted raking broadside through ''Bucentaure''{{'s}} stern which killed and wounded some 200–400 men of the ship's 800-man complement and dismasted the ship.<ref>{{Citation |author=Drachinifel |title=HMS Victory – The Original Fast Battleship |date=3 July 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8udR6Hyr60 |access-date=2023-03-26 |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314162236/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8udR6Hyr60 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023|reason=Drachinifel makes some interesting videos, but he's not a reliable source}} This volley of gunfire from the ''Victory'' immediately knocked the French flagship out of action. Villeneuve thought that boarding would take place, and with the [[French Imperial Eagle|Eagle]] of his ship in hand, told his men, "I will throw it onto the enemy ship and we will take it back there!" However, ''Victory'' engaged the 74-gun ''Redoutable''; ''Bucentaure'' was left to the next three ships of the British windward column: {{HMS|Temeraire|1798|2}}, {{HMS|Conqueror|1801|2}}, and {{HMS|Neptune|1797|2}}.

[[File:Fall of Nelson.jpg|thumb|left|Painter Denis Dighton's imagining of Nelson being shot on the quarterdeck of ''Victory'']]
A general mêlée ensued. ''Victory'' locked masts with the French ''Redoutable,'' whose crew, including a strong infantry corps (with three captains and four lieutenants), gathered for an attempt to board and seize ''Victory''. A [[musket]] bullet fired from the [[Top (sailing ship)|mizzentop]] of ''Redoutable'' struck Nelson in the left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches below his right scapula in the muscles of his back. Nelson exclaimed, "They finally succeeded, I am dead." He was carried below decks.

[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805- Beginning of the Action RMG BHC0548.tiff|thumb|Painter Nicholas Pocock's conception of the situation at 1300h]]

''Victory''{{'}}s gunners were called on deck to fight boarders, and she ceased firing. The gunners were forced back below decks by French [[grenade]]s. As the French were preparing to board ''Victory'', ''Temeraire'', the second ship in the British windward column, approached from the starboard bow of ''Redoutable'' and fired on the exposed French crew with a [[carronade]], causing many casualties.

At 13:55, the French [[Jean Jacques Etienne Lucas|Captain Lucas]] of ''Redoutable'', with 99&nbsp;fit men out of 643 and severely wounded himself, surrendered. The French ''Bucentaure'' was isolated by ''Victory'' and ''Temeraire'', and then engaged by ''Neptune'', {{HMS|Leviathan|1790|2}}, and ''Conqueror''; similarly, ''Santísima Trinidad'' was isolated and overwhelmed, surrendering after three hours.

[[File:Trafalgar2.jpg|thumb|left|Painter Nicholas Pocock's conception of the situation at 1700h]]

As more and more British ships entered the battle, the ships of the allied centre and rear were gradually overwhelmed. The allied van, after long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration and then sailed away.{{sfnp|Hannay|1911|p=154}} During the combat, Gravina was wounded, while [[Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano]] and [[Cosme Damián Churruca]] – commanders of the ''Bahama'' and {{ship|Spanish ship|San Juan Nepomuceno||2}}, respectively – were killed after ordering their ships not to surrender.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ocampo Aneiros |first=José Antonio |title=Biografía de Cosme Damián Churruca y Elorza |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/12143/cosme-damian-churruca-y-elorza |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716145320/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/12143/cosme-damian-churruca-y-elorza |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=O'Donnell y Duque de Estrada |first=Hugo |author-link=Hugo O'Donnell, 7th Duke of Tetuan |title=Biografía de Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano y Alcalá-Galiano |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6053/dionisio-alcala-galiano-y-alcala-galiano |access-date=2022-08-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808022215/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6053/dionisio-alcala-galiano-y-alcala-galiano |archive-date=8 August 2022 }}</ref> Gravina died from his wounds months later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Benítez Martín |first=Manuel |title=Biografía de Federico Carlos Gravina y Napoli |website=[[Real Academia de la Historia]] |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11283/federico-carlos-gravina-y-napoli |access-date=2022-08-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813234321/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11283/federico-carlos-gravina-y-napoli |archive-date=13 August 2022 }}</ref> The British took 20&nbsp;vessels of the Franco-Spanish fleet and lost none. Among the captured French ships were ''Aigle'', {{ship|French ship|Algésiras|1804|2}}, {{HMS|Berwick|1775|2}}, ''Bucentaure'', ''Fougueux'', {{ship|French ship|Intrépide|1800|2}}, ''Redoutable'', and {{ship|French ship|Swiftsure||2}}. The Spanish ships taken were ''Argonauta'', ''Bahama'', ''Monarca'', ''Neptuno'', {{ship|Spanish ship|San Agustín||2}}, ''San Ildefonso'', ''San Juan Nepomuceno'', [[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Santísima Trinidad (1769)|''Santísima Trinidad'']], and ''Santa Ana''. Of these, ''Redoutable'' sank, and ''Santísima Trinidad'' and ''Argonauta'' were scuttled by the British. ''Achille'' exploded, ''Intrépide'' and ''San Augustín'' burned, and ''Aigle'', ''Berwick'', ''Fougueux'', and ''Monarca'' were wrecked in a gale following the battle.

As Nelson lay dying, he ordered the fleet to anchor, as a storm was predicted. However, when the storm blew up, many of the severely damaged ships sank or ran aground on the [[shoals]]. A few of them were recaptured, some by the French and Spanish prisoners overcoming the small prize crews, others by ships sallying from Cádiz. Surgeon [[William Beatty (surgeon)|William Beatty]] heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty"; when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded, and his pulse was very weak.{{sfnp|Hibbert|1994|pp=376–377}} He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Nelson's chaplain, [[Alexander John Scott|Alexander Scott]], who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country."<ref name="Hayward 63">{{harvp|Hayward|2003|page=63}}</ref> It has been suggested by Nelson historian Craig Cabell that Nelson was actually reciting his own prayer as he fell into his death coma, as the words 'God' and 'my country' are closely linked therein. Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after being hit.{{sfnp|Hibbert|1994|pp=376–377}}

Towards the end of the battle, and with the combined fleet being overwhelmed, the still relatively un-engaged portion of the van under Rear-Admiral Dumanoir Le Pelley tried to come to the assistance of the collapsing centre. After failing to fight his way through, he decided to break off the engagement, and led four French ships, his flagship the 80-gun {{ship|French ship|Formidable|1795|2}}, the 74-gun ships {{ship|French ship|Scipion|1801|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Duguay-Trouin|1800|2}} and {{ship|French ship|Mont Blanc|1793|2}} away from the fighting. He headed at first for the Straits of Gibraltar, intending to carry out Villeneuve's original orders and make for Toulon.<ref name=Adkin530>{{harvp|Adkin|2005|p=530}}</ref> On 22&nbsp;October he changed his mind, remembering a powerful British squadron under Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis was patrolling the straits, and headed north, hoping to reach one of the French Atlantic ports. With a storm gathering in strength off the Spanish coast, he sailed westwards to clear [[Cape St. Vincent]], prior to heading north-west, swinging eastwards across the [[Bay of Biscay]], and aiming to reach the French port at [[Rochefort, Charente-Maritime|Rochefort]].<ref name=Adkin530/> These four ships remained at large until their encounter with and attempt to chase a British frigate brought them in range of a British squadron under [[Sir Richard Strachan]], which captured them all on 4&nbsp;November 1805 at the [[Battle of Cape Ortegal]].<ref name=Adkin530/>

====Cosmao and MacDonnell sortie====
[[File:Trafalgar, ships scattered.jpg|thumb|The gale after Trafalgar, depicted by [[Thomas Buttersworth]]]]

Only eleven allied ships escaped to Cádiz, and, of those, only five were considered seaworthy. The seriously wounded Admiral Gravina passed command of the remainder of the fleet over to Commodore [[Julien Cosmao]] on 23 October. From shore, the allied commanders could see an opportunity for a rescue mission. Cosmao claimed in his report that the rescue plan was entirely his idea, but Vice-Admiral [[Antonio de Escaño|Escaño]] recorded a meeting of Spanish and French commodores at which a planned rescue was discussed and agreed upon. [[Enrique MacDonnell]] and Cosmao were of equal rank and both raised commodore's pennants before hoisting anchor.{{sfnp|Clayton|Craig|2004}} Both sets of mariners were determined to make an attempt to recapture some of the prizes.{{Sfnp|Clayton|Craig|2004}} Cosmao ordered the rigging of his ship, the 74-gun {{ship|French ship|Pluton|1805|2}}, to be repaired and reinforced her crew (which had been depleted by casualties from the battle), with sailors from the French frigate {{ship|French frigate|Hermione|1804|2}}. Taking advantage of a favourable northwesterly wind, ''Pluton'', the 80-gun ''Neptune'' and ''Indomptable'', the Spanish 100-gun {{ship|Spanish ship|Rayo|1749|2}} and 74-gun {{ship|Spanish ship|San Francisco de Asis|1767|2}}, together with five French frigates and two brigs, sailed out of the harbour towards the British.<ref name=Yonge-p335>{{harvp|Yonge|1863|p=335}}.</ref><ref name=Fremont-Barnes-p81/>

====The British cast off the prizes====
Soon after leaving port, the wind shifted to west-southwest, raising a heavy sea with the result that most of the British prizes broke their tow ropes, and drifting far to [[leeward]], were only partially resecured. The combined squadron came in sight at noon, causing Collingwood to summon his most battle-ready ships to meet the threat. In doing so, he ordered them to cast off towing their prizes. He had formed a defensive line of ten ships by three o'clock in the afternoon and approached the Franco-Spanish squadron, covering the remainder of their prizes which stood out to sea.<ref name=Fremont-Barnes-p81>{{harvp|Fremont-Barnes|2005|p=81}}</ref><ref name=Fremont-Barnes-p82>{{harvp|Fremont-Barnes|2005|p=82}}</ref> The Franco-Spanish squadron, numerically inferior, chose not to approach within gunshot and then declined to attack.<ref>{{harvp|Pocock|2005|p=175}}.</ref> Collingwood also chose not to seek action, and in the confusion of the powerful storm, the French frigates managed to retake two Spanish ships of the line which had been cast off by their British captors, the 112-gun ''Santa Ana'' and 80-gun {{ship|Spanish ship|Neptuno|1795|2}}, taking them in tow and making for Cádiz.<ref name=Yonge-p336>{{harvp|Yonge|1863|p=336}}.</ref> On being taken in tow, the Spanish crews rose up against their British prize crews, putting them to work as prisoners.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}}<ref>{{harvp|TB staff|2004}}</ref>

[[File:Retour a Rota Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Painting depicting the French [[frigate]] {{ship|French frigate|Thémis|1799|2}} towing the re-taken Spanish [[first-rate]] [[ship of the line]] ''Santa Ana'' into [[Cádiz]]. [[Auguste Mayer]], 19th&nbsp;century.]]

Despite this initial success the Franco-Spanish force, hampered by battle damage, struggled in the heavy seas. ''Neptuno'' was eventually wrecked off [[Rota, Andalusia|Rota]] in the gale, while ''Santa Ana'' reached port.{{sfn|Adkin|2005|pp=524–529}} The French 80-gun ship ''Indomptable'' was wrecked on the 24th or 25th off the town of Rota on the northwest point of the bay of Cádiz.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} At the time ''Indomptable'' had 1,200 men on board, but no more than 100 were saved. ''San Francisco de Asís'' was driven ashore in [[Cádiz Bay]], near Fort Santa Catalina, although her crew was saved. ''Rayo'', an old three-deck vessel with more than 50 years of service, anchored off [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar]], a few [[league (unit)|leagues]] to the northwest of Rota. There, she lost her masts, already damaged in the battle.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Heartened by the approach of the squadron, the French crew of the former flagship ''Bucentaure'' also rose up and retook the ship from the British prize crew but she was wrecked later on 23&nbsp;October. {{ship|French ship|Aigle|1800|2}} escaped from the British ship {{HMS|Defiance|1783|6}}, but was wrecked off the [[El Puerto de Santa María|Port of Santa María]] on 23&nbsp;October; while the French prisoners on ''Berwick'' cut the tow cables, but caused her to founder off Sanlúcar on 22&nbsp;October. The crew of {{ship|French ship|Algésiras|1804|2}} rose up and managed to sail into Cádiz.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}}

Observing that some of the leewardmost of the prizes were escaping towards the Spanish coast, ''Leviathan'' asked for and was granted permission by Collingwood to try to retrieve the prizes and bring them to anchor. ''Leviathan'' chased {{ship|Spanish ship|Monarca|1794|2}}, but on 24&nbsp;October she came across ''Rayo'', dismasted but still flying Spanish colours, at anchor off the shoals of Sanlúcar.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} At this point the 74-gun {{HMS|Donegal|1798|6}}, en route from Gibraltar under Captain [[Pulteney Malcolm]], was seen approaching from the south on the [[larboard]] tack with a moderate breeze from northwest-by-north and steered directly for the Spanish three-decker.<ref>James (Vol. IV) pp. 89–90.</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=April 2021}} At about ten o'clock, just as ''Monarca'' had got within little more than a mile of ''Rayo'', ''Leviathan'' fired a warning shot wide of ''Monarca'', to oblige her to drop anchor. The shot fell between ''Monarca'' and ''Rayo''. The latter, conceiving that it was probably intended for her, hauled down her colours, and was taken by HMS ''Donegal'', who anchored alongside and took off the prisoners.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} ''Leviathan'' resumed her pursuit of ''Monarca'', eventually catching up and forcing her to surrender. On boarding her, her British captors found that she was in a sinking state, and so removed the British prize crew, and nearly all of her original Spanish crew members. The nearly empty ''Monarca'' parted her cable and was wrecked during the night. Despite the efforts of her British prize crew, ''Rayo'' was driven onshore on 26&nbsp;October and wrecked, with the loss of 25&nbsp;men. The remainder of the prize crew were made prisoners by the Spanish.<ref>James (Vol. IV) p. 91.</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=April 2021}}

====Casualties====
[[File:Battle of Trafalgar Casualties.svg|thumb|none|upright=2|Casualties % by ship.{{Efn|(referenced in [[Battle of Trafalgar order of battle#Franco-Spanish fleet|§ Franco-Spanish fleet]] and [[Battle of Trafalgar order of battle#British fleet|§ British fleet]])}} The number is the order in the line.<br />{{legend0|#ffff00|{{HMS|Africa|1781|6}}}} • {{legend0|#91ef91|British weather column, led by [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Nelson]]}} • {{legend0|#c0c0c0|British lee column, led by [[Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood|Collingwood]]}} • {{legend0|#0000ff|French}} • {{legend0|#ff0000|Spanish}}]]

====Aftermath====
In the aftermath of the storm, Collingwood wrote to the [[British Admiralty]] on November 1805:

{{blockquote|The condition of our own ships was such that it was very doubtful what would be their fate. Many a time I would have given the whole group of our capture, to ensure our own... I can only say that in my life I never saw such efforts as were made to save these [prize] ships, and would rather fight another battle than pass through such a week as followed it...{{sfnp|Tracy|2008|p=249}}}}

On balance, the allied counter-attack achieved little. In forcing the British to suspend their repairs to defend themselves, it influenced Collingwood's decision to sink or set fire to the most damaged of his remaining prizes.<ref name=Yonge-p336/> Cosmao retook two Spanish ships of the line, but it cost him one French and two Spanish vessels to do so. Fearing their loss, the British burnt or sank ''Santísima Trinidad'', ''Argonauta'', ''San Antonio'', and {{ship|French ship|Intrépide|1800|2}}.{{sfnp|Thiers|1850|p=45}} Only four of the British prizes, the French ''Swiftsure'' and the Spanish ''Bahama'', {{ship|Spanish ship|San Ildefonso||2}} and ''San Juan Nepomuceno'' survived to be taken to Britain.<ref name=Yonge-p336/> After the end of the battle and storm only nine ships of the line were left in Cádiz.<ref name=Yonge-p335/>{{sfnp|Ward|Prothero|Leathers|1906|p=234}}

Spanish military garrisons and civilians set out to rescue survivors from the numerous shipwrecks scattered along the Andalusian coast. British prize crews were captured and given good treatment. On 27&nbsp;October, Collingwood offered the governor of Cádiz to put his Spanish wounded prisoners ashore and set them free. The governor and Gravina offered in exchange to release their British prisoners, who boarded the British fleet. The French later joined this humanitarian agreement.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rodríguez González |first=Agustín Ramón|authorlink=Agustín Rodríguez González |date=20 October 2015 |title=El epílogo de Trafalgar |newspaper=Espejo de Navegantes |url=http://abcblogs.abc.es/espejo-de-navegantes/2015/10/20/el-epilogo-de-trafalgar/ |access-date=21 October 2018 |url-status=live |language=es-ES |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021151311/http://abcblogs.abc.es/espejo-de-navegantes/2015/10/20/el-epilogo-de-trafalgar/ |archive-date=21 October 2018 }}</ref>

The disparity in losses has been attributed by some historians less to Nelson's daring tactics than to the difference in fighting readiness of the two fleets.{{sfnp|Nicolson|2005|pp=9–10}} Nelson's fleet was made up of ships of the line which had spent a considerable amount of sea time during the months of blockades of French ports, whilst the French fleet had generally been at anchor in port. However, Villeneuve's fleet had just spent months at sea crossing the Atlantic twice, which supports the proposition that the main difference between the two fleets' combat effectiveness was the morale of the leaders. The daring tactics employed by Nelson were to ensure a strategically decisive result. The results vindicated his naval judgement.

==Results==
[[File:MuseoNaval Hispalois bajas españolas batalla Trafalgar.jpg|thumb|Report of Spanish losses in the combat of 21&nbsp;October]]

When Rosily arrived in Cádiz, he found only five French ships, rather than the 18 he was expecting. The surviving ships remained bottled up in Cádiz until 1808 when [[Peninsular War|Napoleon invaded Spain]]. The French ships were then [[Capture of Rosily Squadron|seized by the Spanish forces]] and put into service against France. HMS ''Victory'' made her way to Gibraltar for repairs, carrying Nelson's body. She put into Rosia Bay, Gibraltar and after emergency repairs were carried out, returned to Britain. Many of the injured crew were taken ashore at Gibraltar and treated in the Naval Hospital. Men who subsequently died from injuries sustained at the battle are buried in or near the [[Trafalgar Cemetery]], at the south end of [[Main Street, Gibraltar]]. One [[Royal Marine]] officer, Captain Charles Adair, was killed on board ''Victory'', and Royal Marine Lieutenant Lewis Buckle Reeve was seriously wounded and laid next to Nelson.{{efn|Reeve's Naval General Service Medal with Trafalgar clasp and Muster List for HMS ''Victory'' are on show at the [[Royal Marines Museum]], [[Southsea]], Britain {{harvp|BBC staff|2008}}.}}

The battle took place the day after the [[Battle of Ulm]], and Napoleon did not hear about it for weeks—the [[Grande Armée]] had left Boulogne to fight Britain's allies before they could combine their armies. He had tight control over the Paris media and kept the defeat a closely guarded secret for over a month, at which point newspapers proclaimed it to have been a tremendous victory.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004}} In a counter-propaganda move, a fabricated text declaring the battle a "spectacular victory" for the French and Spanish was published in ''Herald'' and attributed to ''[[Le Moniteur Universel]]''.<ref>See for example: {{cite journal |author=NC staff |date=July–December 1805 |title=First Bulletin of the Grand Naval Army [From the Moniteur] As it appeared in the Herald. Battle of Trafalgar |journal=Naval Chronicle |volume=14 |location=Fleet Street, London |publisher=J. Gold}} Cited by {{harvp|ACS staff |2009}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Westmacott |first1=Charles Molloy |last2=Jones |first2=Stephen |year=1806 |title=The Spirit of the Public Journals |volume=9 |publisher=James Ridgeway |page=322 |quote = Being an impartial selection of the most exquisite essays and ''jeux d'esprits'', principally prose, that appear in the newspapers and other publications ... Footnote of one claim: 'This turned out to be really asserted afterwards by the French newspapers.' The authors hence believe the rest to be a fabrication. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpp349sTMhwC&pg=PA322 |access-date=27 March 2015 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110549/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpp349sTMhwC&pg=PA322 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Vice-Admiral Villeneuve was taken prisoner aboard his flagship and taken back to Britain. After his parole in 1806, he returned to France, where he was found dead in his inn room during a stop on the way to Paris, with six stab wounds in the chest from a dining knife. It was officially recorded that he had committed suicide. Despite the British victory over the Franco-Spanish navies, Trafalgar had negligible impact on the remainder of the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. Less than two months later, Napoleon decisively defeated the Third Coalition at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], knocking Austria out of the war and forcing the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Although Trafalgar meant France could no longer challenge Britain at sea, Napoleon proceeded to establish the [[Continental System]] in an attempt to deny Britain trade with the continent. The Napoleonic Wars continued for another ten years after Trafalgar.{{sfnp|Harding|1999|pp=96–117}} Nelson's body was preserved in a barrel of brandy for the trip home to a hero's funeral.{{sfnp|Adkins|2004a}}{{page needed|date=April 2021}}

==Consequences==
[[File:Broadside titled "The Battle of Trafalgar".jpg|thumb|A [[Broadside (printing)|broadside]] from the 1850s recounts the story]]

Following the battle, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement. Napoleon had already abandoned his plans of invasion before the battle and they were never revived. The battle did not mean, however, that the French naval challenge to Britain was over. First, as the French control over the continent expanded, Britain had to take active steps with the [[Battle of Copenhagen (1807)|Battle of Copenhagen]] in 1807 and elsewhere in 1808 to prevent the ships of smaller European navies from falling into French hands. This effort was largely successful, but did not end the French threat as Napoleon instituted a large-scale shipbuilding programme that had produced a fleet of 80&nbsp;ships of the line at the time of his fall from power in 1814, with more under construction.{{sfnp|Glover|1967|pp=233–252}} However, despite constituting a substantial [[fleet in being]], these had no impact on Britain's naval superiority throughout the conflict. For almost 10&nbsp;years after Trafalgar, the Royal Navy maintained a close blockade of French bases and observed the growth of the French fleet. In the end, Napoleon's Empire was destroyed by land before his ambitious naval build-up could be completed. 

The Royal Navy proceeded to dominate the sea until the [[Second World War]].<ref>{{cite book |title = Nelson's Navy: The ships, men, and organization, 1793–1815 |first = Brian |last = Lavery}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2024}} Although the victory at Trafalgar was typically given as the reason at the time, modern historical analyses suggest that relative economic strength was an important underlying cause of British naval mastery.

[[File:Battle of Trafalgar Poster 1805.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from a modern reproduction of an 1805 poster commemorating the battle]]

[[File:Admiral Horatio Nelson, Nelson's Column, Trafalgar Square, London.JPG|thumb|right|Nelson on top of [[Nelson's Column]] in [[Trafalgar Square]] in London]]

Nelson became – and remains – Britain's greatest naval war hero, and an inspiration to the Royal Navy, yet his unorthodox tactics were seldom emulated by later generations. The first monument to be erected in Britain to commemorate Nelson may be that raised on [[Glasgow Green]] in 1806, albeit possibly preceded by a monument at [[Taynuilt]], near [[Oban]] in Scotland dated 1805, both also commemorating the many Scots crew and captains at the battle.{{sfnp|Spicer|2005}}{{efn|Five of Nelson's 27&nbsp;captains of the fleet were Scottish, as were almost 30% of the crew {{harvp|MercoPress staff|2005}}}} The {{convert|144|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall|0}} ''Nelson Monument'' on Glasgow Green was designed by [[David Hamilton (architect)|David Hamilton]] and paid for by public subscription. Around the base are the names of his major victories: [[Battle of Aboukir Bay|Aboukir]] (1798), [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)|Copenhagen]] (1801) and Trafalgar (1805). [[The Nelson Monument, Portsdown Hill|The Nelson Monument overlooking Portsmouth]] was built in 1807–08 with money subscribed by sailors and marines who served at Trafalgar.<ref>{{cite web |title = Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson 1758–1805 |publisher = Portsmouth City Council |series = Economy, Culture, and Community Safety |website = visitportsmouth.co.uk |url = http://www.visitportsmouth.co.uk/history/207.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070503002811/http://www.visitportsmouth.co.uk/history/207.htm |archive-date=3 May 2007}}</ref> In 1808, [[Nelson's Pillar]] was erected by leading members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy in [[Dublin]] to commemorate Nelson and his achievements (between 10% and 20% of the sailors at Trafalgar had been from Ireland{{sfnp|Cowan|2005}}{{sfnp|Poppyland staff|2012}}), and remained until it was destroyed in a bombing by "Old [[Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)|IRA]]" members in 1966.{{sfnp|Spicer|2005}} [[Nelson Monument, Edinburgh|Nelson's Monument]] in Edinburgh was built between 1807 and 1815 in the form of an upturned [[telescope]], and in 1853 a [[time ball]] was added which still drops at noon [[GMT]] to give a time signal to ships in [[Leith]] and the [[Firth of Forth]]. In summer this coincides with the ''one o'clock gun'' being fired. The [[Britannia Monument]] in [[Great Yarmouth]] was raised by 1819. [[Nelson's Column, Montreal]] began public subscriptions soon after news of the victory at Trafalgar arrived; the column was completed in the autumn of 1809 and still stands in [[Place Jacques Cartier]]. A [[Statue of Lord Nelson, Bridgetown|statue of Lord Nelson]] stood in Bridgetown, Barbados, in what was also once known as [[National Heroes Square|Trafalgar Square]], from 1813 to 2020.

London's [[Trafalgar Square]] was named in honour of Nelson's victory. At the centre of the square there is the {{convert|45.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Nelson's Column]], with a {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} statue of Nelson on top. It was finished in 1843.

==100th anniversary==
In 1905, there were events up and down the country to commemorate the centenary, although none were attended by any member of the Royal Family, apparently to avoid upsetting the French, with whom the United Kingdom had recently entered the ''[[Entente cordiale]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Review of "Nelson Remembered – The Nelson Centenary 1905" by David Shannon |url=http://www.rjerrard.co.uk/royalnavy/broadside/broadside2008.htm |access-date=12 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025095810/http://www.rjerrard.co.uk/royalnavy/broadside/broadside2008.htm |archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref> King [[Edward VII]] did support the ''Nelson Centenary Memorial Fund'' of the [[British and Foreign Sailors Society]], which sold Trafalgar centenary souvenirs marked with the [[Royal cypher]]. A gala was held on 21&nbsp;October at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in aid of the fund, which included a specially commissioned film by [[Alfred John West]] entitled ''Our Navy''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sea Salts and Celluloid |website=user29269.vs.easily.co.uk  |url=http://user29269.vs.easily.co.uk/Nelson.htm |access-date=12 April 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023081423/http://user29269.vs.easily.co.uk/Nelson.htm |archive-date=23 October 2012 }}</ref> The event ended with ''[[God Save the King]]'' and ''[[La Marseillaise]]''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Antoine |last=Capet |date=22 January 2008 |title=Review of Hoock, Holger, ed., ''History, Commemoration and National Preoccupation: Trafalgar 1805–2005''  |publisher=H-Albion, H-Review |url=https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14022 |via=www.h-net.org |access-date=22 July 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718142851/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=14022 |archive-date=18 July 2019}}</ref> The first performance of Sir [[Henry Wood]]'s ''[[Fantasia on British Sea Songs]]'' occurred on the same day at a special [[The Proms|Promenade Concert]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur |last=Jacobs |year=2004 |orig-year=1995 |title=Henry J. Wood: ''Maker of the Proms'' |publisher=Methuen |ol=10185704M |isbn=9780413693402 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFvkAAAAMAAJ&q=Trafalgar+Day+Concert+of+21+October+1905 |access-date=1 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324110615/https://books.google.com/books?id=xFvkAAAAMAAJ&q=Trafalgar+Day+Concert+of+21+October+1905 |archive-date=24 March 2023 }}</ref>

==200th anniversary==
{{Commons|Trafalgar 200}}
In 2005 a series of events around the UK, part of the ''Sea Britain'' theme, marked the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar. The 200th&nbsp;anniversary of the battle was also commemorated on six occasions in [[Portsmouth]] during June and July, at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] (where Nelson is entombed), in Trafalgar Square in London in October (''[[T Square 200]]''), and across the UK.

On 28&nbsp;June, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] was involved in the largest [[International Fleet Review 2005|Fleet Review]] in modern times in the [[Solent]], in which 167&nbsp;ships from 35&nbsp;nations took part. The Queen inspected the international fleet from the Antarctic patrol ship {{HMS|Endurance|A171|6}}. The fleet included six aircraft carriers (modern capital ships): {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle|R91|2}}, {{HMS|Illustrious|R06|2}}, {{HMS|Invincible|R05|2}}, {{HMS|Ocean|L12|2}}, {{ship|Spanish aircraft carrier|Principe de Asturias||2}} and {{USS|Saipan|LHA-2|2}}. In the evening a symbolic re-enactment of the battle was staged with fireworks and various small ships playing parts in the battle.

Lieutenant [[John Richards Lapenotière|John Lapenotière]]'s historic voyage in {{HMS|Pickle|1800|6}} bringing the news of the victory from the fleet to [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] and thence by [[post chaise]] to the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]] in London was commemorated by the inauguration of [[The Trafalgar Way]] and further highlighted by the [[New Trafalgar Dispatch]] celebrations from July to September in which an actor played the part of Lapenotière and re-enacted parts of the historic journey.

On the actual anniversary day, 21&nbsp;October, naval manoeuvres were conducted in Trafalgar Bay near Cádiz involving a combined fleet from Britain, Spain, and France. Many descendants of people present at the battle, including members of Nelson's family, were at the ceremony.{{sfnp|Elmundo staff|2005}}

==See also==
{{Portal|France}}
* [[List of Royal Navy ships]]
* {{section link|List of ships captured in the 19th century#Battle of Trafalgar}}
* [[Bibliography of 18th–19th century Royal Naval history]]
* [[Trafalgar Day]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

===Sources cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite book |last=White |first=Colin |title=The Nelson Encyclopaedia |date=2002 |publisher=Chatham Publishing, Lionel Leventhal Limited |isbn=1-86176-253-4 |location=Park House, Russell Gardens, London.}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=Colin |title=Nelson the Admiral |date=2005 |publisher=Sutton Publishing Limited |isbn=0-7509-3713-0 |location=Phoenix Mill, Stroud, Glos.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Willis |first=Sam |title=In the Hour of Victory – The Royal Navy at War in the Age of Nelson |date=2013 |publisher=Atlantic Books Ltd |isbn=978-0-85789-570-7 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yonge |first=Charles D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQY-AAAAcAAJ |title=The history of the British navy: From the earliest period to the present time |date=1863 |volume=II |author-link=Charles Duke Yonge}}

'''Attribution:'''
* {{EB1911|last=Hannay |first=David |author-link=David Hannay (historian) |wstitle=Trafalgar, Battle of|volume=27|pages=153–155}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Desbrière |first=Edouard |title=The Naval Campaign of 1805: Trafalgar |date=1907 |edition=English 1933 |publisher=Clarendon Press |translator-last=Eastwick |translator-first=Constance}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Fernández |first1=Cayuela |title=Trafalgar. Hombres y naves entre dos épocas |last2=Gregorio |first2=José |date=2004 |publisher=Ariel |isbn=84-344-6760-7 |location=Barcelona |language=es}}
* {{Cite book |last=Frasca |first=Francesco |title=Il potere marittimo in età moderna, da Lepanto a Trafalgar |date=2008 |publisher=Lulu Enterprises UK |isbn=978-1-4092-4348-9 |edition=1st}}
** 2nd ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-84799-550-6}}
** 3rd ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-4092-6088-2}}
** 4th ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK, {{ISBN|978-1-4092-7881-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Robert |title=The campaign of Trafalgar, 1803–1805 |publisher=Mercury Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-84560-008-8 |ref={{harvid|Gardiner}}}}
* Harbron, John D., ''Trafalgar and the Spanish Navy'', 1988, London, {{ISBN|0-85177-963-8}}.
* [[David Howarth (author)|Howarth, David]], ''Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch'', 2003, Phoenix Press, {{ISBN|1-84212-717-9}}.
* Huskisson, Thomas, ''Eyewitness to Trafalgar'', reprinted in 1985 as a limited edition of 1000; Ellisons' Editions, {{ISBN|0-946092-09-5}}—the author was half-brother of [[William Huskisson]]
* Lambert, Andrew, ''War at Sea in the Age of Sail'', Chapter 8, 2000, London, {{ISBN|1-55278-127-5}}
* Pocock, Tom, ''Horatio Nelson'', Chapter XII, 1987, London, {{ISBN|0-7126-6123-9}}
* Pope, Dudley, ''England Expects'' (US title ''Decision at Trafalgar''), 1959, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
* [[Warner, Oliver]], ''Trafalgar''. First published 1959 by Batsford{{snd}}republished 1966 by Pan.
* {{Cite book |last=Warwick |first=Peter |title=Voices from the Battle of Trafalgar |publisher=David & Charles Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=0-7153-2000-9 |ref={{harvid|Warwick}}}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070427051506/http://www.nelsonsnavy.co.uk/battle-of-trafalgar.html Nelson's Navy]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/frenchmusterrolls.asp Read about French Muster Rolls from the Battle of Trafalgar on The National Archives' website.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080315204240/http://www.historicdockyard.co.uk/dockyard/hmsvictory.php Visit HMS Victory at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard]
* [http://www.hms-victory.com/ HMS ''Victory'' Royal Navy Web Site]
* [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/histtexts/nelson/ Nelson's Memorandum – battle plan – in the British Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207012713/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/histtexts/nelson/ |date=7 December 2016 }} <!--accessed 4 April 2009-->
* [https://www.theguardian.com/flash/0,5860,1504015,00.html Interactive guide:Battle of Trafalgar] educational presentation by [[Guardian Unlimited]]
* [http://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/Our-Navy-Video.nsf/0/0EF9501708ACCAB1802575C70073896D?opendocument&autostart=true A. J. West's "Our Navy": Wreath laying on HMS Victory, October 1905] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331225353/http://mcs-notes2.open.ac.uk/Our-Navy-Video.nsf/0/0EF9501708ACCAB1802575C70073896D?opendocument&autostart=true |date=31 March 2012 }}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/launch_gms_trafalgar_bfacademy.shtml BBC Battlefield Academy: Battle of Trafalgar] game created by [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716102645/http://www.solarismedia.com/ Solaris Media] (now [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715093254/http://www.playniac.com/ Playniac]) for the bicentenary.
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4627453.stm BBC video (42 min.) of the re-enactment of the Battle of Trafalgar off Portsmouth on 28 June 2005]
* {{YouTube|id=s9mZvemKXJw |title=Concert Overture – Trafalgar 1805}}
* [http://www.bruzelius.info/Nautica/Naval_History/GB/Times(1805-11-07)a.html The London Gazette Extraordinary, 6 November 1805] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310131115/http://www.bruzelius.info/Nautica/Naval_History/GB/Times(1805-11-07)a.html |date=10 March 2007 }} original published dispatches, Naval History: Great Britain, EuroDocs: Primary Historical Documents From Western Europe, Brigham Young University Library. Retrieved 27 July 2006
* {{YouTube|id=PR_io1t8FtA|title=English folk song about the Battle of Trafalgar}}

{{Sequence
| prev = [[Battle of Verona (1805)]]
| list = Napoleonic Wars
| curr = Battle of Trafalgar
| next = [[Battle of Caldiero (1805)]]
}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Trafalgar}}
[[Category:Battle of Trafalgar| ]]
[[Category:Horatio Nelson]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1805]]
[[Category:Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars involving Spain]]
[[Category:War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:1805 in Gibraltar]]
[[Category:1805 in Spain]]
[[Category:19th-century history of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:October 1805]]