View source for Battles of Khalkhin Gol

{{Short description|1939 border clashes between Imperial Japan and the Soviet Union}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Battle of Khalkha River|Battle of the Kalka River}}
{{Lead too short|date=November 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battles of Khalkhin Gol
| partof            = the [[Soviet–Japanese border conflicts]] and [[World War II]]
| campaign          =
| image             = Japanese soldiers creeping in front of wrecked Soviet tanks.jpg
| caption           = Japanese infantrymen near wrecked Soviet armored vehicles, July 1939
| date              = 11 May – 16 September 1939<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=05|day1=11|year1=1939|month2=09|day2=16|year2=1939}})
| place             = [[Khalkha River]], [[Mongolian People's Republic]]
| coordinates       = {{Coord|47|43|49|N|118|35|24|E|type:waterbody_region:RU}}
| map_type          = Mongolia#Inner Mongolia
| map_size          = 200
| map_caption       =
| map_label         = Khalkhin Gol/Nomonhan
| casus             =
| result            = Soviet–Mongolian victory
| territory         = ''[[Status quo ante bellum]]'';<br>enforcement of border claims in accordance with the Soviet and Mongolian interpretation.
| combatant1        = {{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mongolian People's Republic (1930–1940).svg}} [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]]
| combatant2        = {{flag country|Empire of Japan}}<br />{{flag|Manchukuo}}
| commander1        = {{ublist|class=nowrap
|{{flagicon|USSR|1936}} [[Grigory Shtern]]
|{{flagicon|USSR|1936}} [[Georgy Zhukov]]
|{{flagicon|USSR|1936}} [[Yakov Smushkevich]]
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mongolian People's Republic (1930–1940).svg}} [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]]
}}
| commander2        = {{ublist|class=nowrap
|{{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Michitarō Komatsubara]]
|{{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Masaomi Yasuoka]]
|{{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Kōtoku Satō]]
|{{flagicon|Manchukuo|army}} [[Urzhin Garmaev]]
}}
| strength1         = 57,000 (late August)<ref>[http://www.armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2/battles/khalkhin_gol/Khalkhin_cut1.pdf AMVAS, citing Kondratiev (2002), "Boi u reki Khalkhin-Gol."] Retrieved 4 December 2024</ref>{{#tag:ref |{{sfn|Kotelnikov|2010|p=109}}<ref name=mongolnow_com>{{cite web |title=Khalkhin Gol Battle: the Revision of Statistics |url=http://mongolnow.com/peresmotr_stat.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218215201/http://mongolnow.com/peresmotr_stat.html |archive-date=18 February 2017 |access-date=25 February 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Krivosheyev|1993|pp=71–2}}|group=nb}}<br>498–550 tanks<br>385–450 [[armored car (military)|armored cars]]<ref name=Suvorov2008>{{cite book |last=Suvorov |first=Viktor |date=2008 |title=The Chief Culprit |edition=hardcover |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=9781591148388 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYA4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT107}}</ref>{{sfn|Zaloga|2007a|p=13}}<br>900 aircraft (total),<ref name=militera_lib_ru >[http://militera.lib.ru/h/kondratyev_v/09.html V. Kondratiev, "Khalkhin Gol: War in the Air"] retrieved 3 January 2016</ref> peak strength 623<ref name="auto">Hata (2013)</ref><br>546 artillery pieces (156 100mm+)<ref name="auto"/><br>4,000 trucks{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=580}}<br>1,921 horses and camels (Mongol only)<ref>[http://www.armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2/battles/khalkhin_gol/Khalkhin_cut1.pdf "The Khalkhin Gol Battle, 1939"] Retrieved 3 January 2016</ref>
| strength2         = 25,000 (late August)<ref>[https://www.publication.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/pdf/political/political_50_1/each/06.pdf Hata (2013), "Summary of the Battle of Nomonhan"] Table 3 (Japanese). Retrieved 4 December 2024</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellamy |first1=Christopher D. |last2=Lahnstein |first2=Joseph S. |date=1990 |title=The New Soviet Defensive Policy: Khalkhin Gol 1939 as Case Study |journal=Parameters |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=24 |url=https://press.armywarcollege.edu/parameters/vol20/iss1/4
|access-date=25 February 2021 }}</ref><ref>Коллектив авторов. Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: Потери Вооружённых Сил / Под общ. ред. Г. Ф. Кривошеева. – М.: ОЛМА-ПРЕСС, 2001. – С. 177. – (Архив). – 5000 экз. – ISBN 5-224-01515-4.</ref><br>73 tanks{{sfn|Zaloga|2007a|p=14}}<br>19 [[tankette]]s
* Tanks withdrawn after July action
400 aircraft (total),<ref name=militera_lib_ru /> peak strength 255<ref name="auto"/><br>277 artillery pieces (50 100mm+)<ref name="auto"/><br>2,000 trucks (20 August)<ref>Hata (2013). Per Coox {{harvnb|Coox1985|p=563}} the Japanese had 1,000 trucks in July (25% inoperable); by early September this had increased to 3,000</ref><br>2,708 horses{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1168}}
| casualties1       = '''Manpower:<br>Total: 26,211–28,169 casualties{{#tag:ref|9,703 dead and missing,<ref name=Kolomiets2002>M. Kolomiets ''"Boi u reki Khalkhin-Gol"'' Frontovaya Illyustratsia (2002)</ref><ref name=Sokolov2015>{{Cite web |last=Sokolov |first=Boris |authorlink=Boris Vadimovich Sokolov |date=9 February 2015 |title=Халхин-Гол |website=slavic-europe.eu |language=ru |url=http://www.slavic-europe.eu/index.php/articles/57-russia-articles/2270-2015-02-09-07-08-01 |access-date=27 August 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207095214/http://www.slavic-europe.eu/index.php/articles/57-russia-articles/2270-2015-02-09-07-08-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br>15,251 wounded,<br>701 to 2,225 hospitalized due to disease. <br>Boris Sokolov{{bsn|date=May 2025}} writes that according to E. I. Smirnov's "Война и военная медицина. 1939–1945 годы" ("War and military medicine. 1939–1945") the figure of 701 only accounts for sick patients who were treated in hospitals of the Transbaikal Military District and that the total number of ill during the campaign was 2,225.|group=nb}}'''<br>{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} 24,903 combat<br>752–2,276 noncombat<br>{{flagicon|Mongolian People's Republic|1924b}} 556<ref name=armchairgeneral_com>{{cite web |title=Soviet Losses in the Khalkhin Gol Battle |website=RKKA in World War II – Russian Project |access-date=21 July 2015 |url=http://www.armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2/battles/khalkhin_gol/losses.htm}}</ref>–990{{r|mongolnow_com}}<br>'''Equipment:'''<br>250 aircraft lost<ref name="ReferenceA">Кондратьев В. Халхин-Гол: Война в воздухе. – М.: Библиотека журнала "Техники – Молодежи". Серия "Авиация", 2002. – 64 с. Тираж 1000 экз.{{ISBN|5-88573-009-1}}.</ref><br>253 tanks destroyed or crippled<ref>According to [http://www.armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2/battles/khalkhin_gol/losses.htm "Soviet Losses in the Khalkhin Gol Battle"], these losses break down as: 30 [[BT-7]]s, 27 BT-7RTs,2 BT-7As, 127 [[BT-5]]s, 30 BT-5RTs, 8 [[T-26]]s, 10 [[KhT-26]]S, 2 [[KhT-130]]S, and 17 [[T-37A tank|T-37s]]. This does not include tanks that only sustained light to moderate damage, or ones lost due to mechanical failure.</ref><br>133 armored cars destroyed<br>96 mortars and artillery<br>49 tractors and prime movers<br>652 trucks and other motor vehicles{{r|Kolomiets2002}}{{r|armchairgeneral_com}}<br>significant animal casualties<ref>{{harvnb|Coox|1985|p=576}}. During one Japanese counterattack alone on the 12/13 August the MPR 8th cavalry division lost 100 horses captured.</ref>
| casualties2       = '''Manpower:<br>Total: ~20,000 casualties<ref>Coox p. 915</ref>{{#tag:ref|'''Japanese military record''':<br>8,440 killed,<br>8,766 wounded<br>'''Soviet claim''':<br>60,000 killed and wounded,<br>3,000 captured<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glantz |first1=David M. |last2=House |first2=Jonathan |date=1995 |title=When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler |location=Lawrence KS |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |isbn=0-7006-0899-0 |page=14}}</ref> |group=nb}}'''<br>See {{slink|#Casualties}}.<br>{{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} 17,364–17,716 combat<br>2,350 noncombat<br>{{flagicon|Manchukuo|army}} 2,895 (Soviet claim)<br>'''Equipment:'''<br>162 aircraft lost<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br>29 tanks destroyed or crippled{{sfn|Zaloga|2007a|p=14}}<br>7 tankettes destroyed<br>72 artillery pieces (field guns only)<ref>{{harvnb|Coox|1985|p=987}}, includes 28 120mm–150mm guns and 44 75mm guns.</ref><br>2,330 horses killed, injured, or sick{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1168}}<br>significant motor vehicle losses<ref>There are multiple accounts of Japanese trucks being knocked out by Soviet artillery and aviation, as well as losses due to mechanical failures or environmental hazards. {{harvnb|Coox|1985}}.</ref>
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Soviet–Japanese border conflicts}}
}}
{{Events leading to World War II}}
The '''Battles of Khalkhin Gol''' ({{langx|ru|Бои на Халхин-Голе}}; {{langx|mn|Халхын голын байлдаан}}) were the decisive engagements of the undeclared [[Soviet–Japanese border conflicts]] involving the [[Soviet Union]], [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] and [[Manchukuo]] in 1939. The conflict was named after the river [[Khalkhyn Gol|Khalkhin Gol]], which passes through the battlefield. In Japan, the decisive battle of the conflict is known as the {{nihongo|'''Nomonhan Incident'''|ノモンハン事件|Nomonhan jiken|lead=yes}} after [[Nomonhan Burd Obo]], an [[Ovoo|''obo'']],<ref>The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, Volume 16 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8b4kAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Nomonhan-Burd+Obo%22 Nomonhan-Burd+Obo], [[:File:NDL10269238 Court Record of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East 1948-01-30 (pp. 38,549-38,617).pdf]]
:''Quote:'' "Nomonhan is an obo. It is called Nomonhan-Burd Obo. There are two obos and the border line ruins between these two obos. <...> Nomonhan-Burd Obo itself is situated on top of a hill which is near the Hailastin-Gol River."</ref> a [[cairn]] set as a border marker in the [[Yongzheng]] period of the [[Qing dynasty]]. The battles resulted in the defeat of the Japanese Sixth Army.

==Background==
{{See also|Hokushin-ron}}
After the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Japanese occupation of Manchuria]] in 1931, Japan turned its military interests to Soviet territories that bordered those areas. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of Mongolia signed a [[Soviet-Mongolian Mutual Assistance Pact|Mutual Assistance Pact]] in March 1936, allowing the former to send troops to Mongolia. In the same year, Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]] in response. Following [[Marco Polo Bridge Incident|Japan's full invasion of China]] in July 1937, the Soviet Union sent the 57th Special Corps led by [[Ivan Konev]] to Mongolia. On 13 June, [[Genrikh Lyushkov]], a Soviet NKVD major general who knew Stalin personally, defected to Japan for fear of the [[Great Purge]]. He took with him a large number of secret documents that allegedly revealed the dire situation of the Soviet army in the Far East. The first major Soviet-Japanese border incident, the [[Battle of Lake Khasan]], occurred in 1938 in [[Primorsky Krai|Primorye]]. Clashes between Japanese and Soviet forces occurred frequently along the border of Manchuria.

In 1939, Manchuria was a [[puppet state]] of Japan known as [[Manchukuo]], and Mongolia was a [[communist state]] allied with the [[Soviet Union]], known as the [[Mongolian People's Republic]]. The Japanese maintained that the border between Manchukuo and Mongolia was the [[Khalkhyn Gol|Khalkhin Gol]] (English "Khalkha River") which flows into [[Lake Buir]]. In contrast, the Mongolians and their Soviet allies maintained that the border ran some {{convert|16|km|0}} east of the river, just east of Nomonhan.<ref>{{harvnb|Drea|1981|loc=p. 3}} – {{cite web |title=Map 2 |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/Maps.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507140700/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/Maps.html |archive-date=7 May 2011 }}</ref>

The principal occupying army of Manchukuo was the [[Kwantung Army]] of Japan, and had instructions from the Japanese Cabinet to strengthen and fortify Manchukuo's borders with Mongolia and the Soviet Union. However, the Kwantung Army, which had long been stationed in Manchuria far from the Japanese Home Islands, had become largely autonomous and tended to act without approval from, or even against the direction of, the Japanese government.{{sfn|Baabar|1999|pp=384–6}} It consisted of some of the best Japanese units in 1939. However, the western region of Manchukuo was garrisoned by the relatively newly formed [[23rd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|23rd Infantry Division]] at [[Hailar District|Hailar]] under General [[Michitarō Komatsubara]] and included several Manchu army and border guard units all under the direct command of the [[Sixth Army (Japan)|Sixth Army]]. The 23rd was the newest and least experienced division in the entire Kwantung Army. In addition to this, the 23rd Division was equipped with outdated equipment. Japanese army experts rated the combat capability of the 23rd Division as "below medium", comparable to a garrison division on occupation duty in China.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=181}}

The Soviet forces consisted of the [[57th Special Corps (Soviet Union)|57th Special Corps]], deployed from the [[Transbaikal Military District]]. They were responsible for defending the border between Siberia and Manchuria. The Mongolian troops mainly consisted of [[cavalry]] brigades and light [[artillery]] units, and proved to be effective and agile, but lacked armor and manpower in sufficient numbers.

From May 1938, the commander of the Soviet forces and of the [[Far East Front]] was [[Komandarm]] [[Grigori Shtern]].<ref name="Grigoriy Shtern">{{cite web |title=Григорий Штерн / Grigoriy Shtern |url=https://www.peoples.ru/military/general/shtern/ |access-date=15 May 2022}}</ref>

On 1 June 1939, [[Comcor]] [[Georgy Zhukov]] was summoned to Moscow and feared he was to be arrested and interrogated by the [[NKVD]], but instead was told on 2 June by Commissar of Defence [[Kliment Voroshilov]] that Stalin was dissatisfied with the local commander and he was to go to Mongolia, take command of the 57th Special Corps and eliminate Japanese provocations by inflicting a decisive reverse on the Imperial Japanese Army.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=14, 18}}

Hence Soviet 57th Special Corps and Japanese 23rd Infantry Division were set to clash violently.

==Battles==

===May: Skirmishes===
[[File:Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Mongolian cavalry.jpg|thumb|Mongolian cavalry in the Khalkhin Gol (1939)]]
[[File:MNRA soldiers 1939.jpg|thumb|Mongolian troops fight against a Japanese counterattack on the western beach of the river Khalkhin Gol, 1939]]
[[File:Japanese soldiers cross Khalkhyn Gol river 1939.jpg|thumb|Japanese soldiers cross the Khalkhin Gol]]
The battles began on 11 May 1939. A Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70 to 90 men had entered the disputed area in search of grazing for their horses. On that day, Manchu cavalry attacked the Mongolians and drove them back across the river Khalkhin Gol. On 13 May, the Mongolian force returned in greater numbers and the Manchukoans failed to dislodge them.

On 14 May, Lt. Col. [[Yaozo Azuma]] led the reconnaissance regiment of the 23rd Infantry Division, supported by the 64th Infantry Regiment of the same division, under Colonel [[Takemitsu Yamagata]], into the territory and the Mongolians withdrew. Soviet and Mongolian troops returned to the disputed region, however, and Azuma's force again moved to evict them, but the Soviet-Mongolian forces surrounded Azuma's force on 28 May and destroyed it.<ref>{{harvnb|Drea|1981|loc=p. 5}} – {{cite web |title=Map 3 |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/BigMaps.html#map3 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111113082544/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/BigMaps.html#map3 |archive-date=13 November 2011 }}</ref> The Azuma force suffered eight officers and 97 men killed and one officer and 33 men wounded, for 63% total casualties.

===June: Escalation===
Both sides increased their forces in the area. On 5 June, Zhukov, the new [[corps]] commander, arrived, and brought more motorized and armored forces (I Army Group) to the combat zone.{{sfn|Baabar|1999|pp=386–7}} Accompanying Zhukov was Comcor [[Yakov Smushkevich]] with his aviation unit. [[Zhamyangiyn Lhagvasuren]], Corps Commissar of the [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Army]], was appointed Zhukov's deputy.

On 27 June the [[Japanese Army Air Force]]'s [[2nd Air Brigade]]<!--2d ''Chutai''?--> struck the Soviet airbase at Tamsak-Bulak in Mongolia. The Japanese won this engagement, but the strike had been ordered by the Kwantung Army without obtaining permission from [[Imperial Japanese Army]] (IJA) headquarters in Tokyo. In an effort to prevent the incident from escalating,{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=271}} Tokyo promptly ordered the JAAF not to conduct any more air-strikes against Soviet airbases.{{sfn|Neeno|2005}}

[[File:SovietArmouredVehicle.jpg|thumb|Destroyed Soviet [[BA-10]] armored car]]
[[File:Khalkhin Gol Destroyed Soviet plane 1939.jpg|thumb|A destroyed Soviet biplane fighter (presumably an [[Polikarpov I-15|I-15]] or an [[Polikarpov I-153|I-153]])]]
[[File:Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Japanese soldiers and captured Soviet AFVs.jpg|thumb|Japanese soldiers cheering alongside captured Soviet AFVs]]
[[File:Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Japanese soldiers.jpg|thumb|Japanese soldiers posing for a photo with captured Soviet equipment]]
[[File:Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Soviet tank surrendered.jpg|thumb|Crew of a [[BT-5]] cavalry tank surrendering to the Japanese]]

Throughout June there were reports of Soviet and Mongolian activity on both sides of the river near Nomonhan and small-scale attacks on isolated Manchukoan units. At the end of the month, the commander of the 23rd Japanese Infantry Division, Lt. Gen. Michitarō Komatsubara, received permission to "expel the invaders".

===July: Japanese assault===
The Japanese planned a two-pronged assault. The first attack would be made by three regiments plus part of a fourth: the [[71st Infantry Regiment (Japan)|71st]] and the [[72nd Infantry Regiment (Japan)|72nd Infantry Regiment]] (23rd Division), a battalion of the 64th Infantry Regiment and the [[26th Infantry Regiment (Japan)|26th Infantry Regiment]] under Colonel Shinichiro Sumi (7th Infantry Division). This force would advance across the Khalkin Gol, destroy Soviet forces on Baintsagan Hill on the west bank, then make a left turn and advance south to the Kawatama Bridge. The second prong of the attack would be the task of the IJA 1st Tank Corps (1st TC) ([[Yasuoka Detachment]]), consisting of the [[3rd Tank Regiment (Japan)|3rd]] and [[4th Tank Regiment (Japan)|4th Tank Regiments]], plus a part of the [[64th Infantry Regiment (Japan)|64th Infantry Regiment]], a [[battalion]] from the [[28th Infantry Regiment (Japan)|28th Infantry Regiment]], detached from the 7th Infantry, 24th Engineer Regiment, and a battalion from the 13th Field-Artillery Regiment, all under the overall command of [[Lieutenant General]] [[Yasuoka Masaomi]].{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1119}} This force would attack Soviet troops on the east bank of the Khalkhin Gol and north of the [[Holsten River]]. The two Japanese thrusts were to join on the wings. The order of battle was thus:
* Lt. Gen. [[Yasuoka Masaomi]], IJA, Commanding Officer, 1st Tank Corps{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1119}}
** [[3rd Tank Regiment (Japan)|3rd Tank Regiment]]{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=349}}
*** [[Type 89 I-Go]] [[medium tank]]s – 26
*** [[Type 97 Chi-Ha]] medium tanks – 4
*** [[Type 94 tankette]]s – 7
*** [[Type 97 Te-Ke]] tankettes – 4
** [[4th Tank Regiment (Japan)|4th Tank Regiment]]{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=350}}
*** [[Type 95 Ha-Go]] [[light tank]]s – 35
*** [[Type 89 I-Go]] medium tanks – 8
*** [[Type 94 tankette]]s – 3

[[File:Khalkhin Gol Befor offensive 1939.jpg|thumb|The commander of the Soviet 149th Rifle Regiment before the offensive]]
The northern task force succeeded in crossing the Khalkhin Gol, driving the Soviets from Baintsagan Hill, and advancing south along the west bank. However, Zhukov, perceiving the threat, launched a counterattack with 450 tanks and armored cars. The tanks consisted of primarily [[BT tank]]s with a handful of [[T-26]]s, while the armored cars were [[BA-10]]s and [[BA-3/6]]s, which were similar in armor ({{cvt|6|-|15|mm}}) and armament (main: {{cvt|45|mm|0}} gun 20K mod, secondary: two {{cvt|7.62|mm|2}} machine guns) to the Soviet light tanks.

The Soviet armored force, despite being unsupported by infantry, attacked the Japanese on three sides and nearly encircled them. The Japanese force, further handicapped by having only one pontoon bridge across the river for supplies, was forced to withdraw, recrossing the river on 5 July.

Meanwhile, the 1st Tank Corps of the Yasuoka Detachment (the southern task force) attacked on the night of 2 July, moving in the darkness to avoid the Soviet artillery on the high ground of the river's west bank. A pitched battle ensued in which the Yasuoka Detachment lost over half its armor, but still could not break through the Soviet forces on the east bank and reach the Kawatama Bridge.<ref>{{harvnb|Drea|1981|loc=p. 6}} – {{cite web |title=Map 4 |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/BigMaps.html#map4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113082544/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/BigMaps.html#map4 |archive-date=13 November 2011 }}</ref> After a Soviet counterattack on 9 July threw the battered, depleted Yasuoka Detachment back, it was dissolved and Yasuoka was relieved.{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 47 (Redeployment)}}

[[File:Khalkhin Gol Japanese pilots 1939.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese pilots pictured on a [[Toyota KC]] [[Hucks starter|starter truck]]]]
The two armies continued to spar with each other over the next two weeks along a {{convert|4|km|adj=on|spell=in}} front running along the east bank of the Khalkhin Gol to its junction with the Holsten River.{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 1 (Japanese Initiatives)}} Zhukov, whose army was {{cvt|748|km}} away from its base of supply, assembled a fleet of 2,600 trucks to supply his troops, while the Japanese suffered severe supply problems due to a lack of similar motor transport.{{sfn|Neeno|2005}} In early July the Japanese had only 600 trucks, rising to 1,000 by the end of the month, of which only 75% were operable. By 20 August the Japanese managed to accumulate 2,000 trucks delivering 1,500 tons of supply daily, but even this fell below the Red Army's capabilities.<ref>Hata (2013). Imported Ford and Chevrolet trucks proved far more reliable than domestic Isuzus and Nissans, which were prone to breakdowns.</ref>

On 23 July, the Japanese launched another large-scale assault, sending the 64th and 72nd Infantry Regiments against Soviet forces defending the Kawatama Bridge. Over a period of two days, Japanese artillery supported the attack with a massive barrage that consumed more than half of their ammunition stores.{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 53 (Hills 742 and 754)}} The attack made some progress but failed to break through Soviet lines and reach the bridge. The Japanese disengaged from the attack on 25 July due to mounting casualties and depleted artillery stores. By this point they had suffered over 5,000 casualties between late May and 25 July, with Soviet losses being much higher but more easily replaced.{{sfn|Neeno|2005}}{{sfn|Drea|1981|p=7}} The battle drifted into a stalemate.

===August: Soviet counterattack===
[[File:Khalkhin Gol Soviet tanks 1939.jpg|thumb|BT-7 Tanks in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol]]

With war apparently imminent in Europe, and to avoid fighting a two front war, Zhukov planned a major offensive on 20 August 1939 to clear the Japanese from the Khalkhin Gol region and to end the fighting.{{sfn|Coox|1985|pp=578–9}} Zhukov, using a fleet of at least 4,000 trucks (IJA officers, with hindsight, disputed this, saying he instead used 10,000 to 20,000 motor vehicles) transporting supplies from the nearest base in Chita ({{cvt|600|km}} away){{sfn|Coox|1985|p=580}} assembled a powerful armored force of three tank brigades (the 4th, 6th and 11th), and two mechanized brigades (the 7th and 8th, which were armored car units with attached infantry support). This force was allocated to the Soviet left and right wings. The entire Soviet force consisted of three rifle divisions, two tank divisions and two more tank brigades (in all, some 498 [[BT-5]] and [[BT-7]] tanks),{{sfn|Coox|1985|loc= pp. 579, 641 note 23}} two motorized infantry divisions, and over 550 fighters and bombers.<ref name=Coox1985_590>{{harvnb|Coox|1985|p=590}}.</ref> The Mongolians committed two cavalry divisions.{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 9 (The Soviet Offensive)}}<ref>{{harvnb|Drea|1981|p=10}} – {{cite web |title= Map 6 |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/BigMaps.html#map6 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111113082544/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/BigMaps.html#map6 |archive-date= 13 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Drea|1981|p= 74}} – {{cite web |title= Map 17 |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/Maps.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110507140700/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/Maps.html#map17 |archive-date=7 May 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Khalkhin Gol Captured Japanese soldiers 1939.jpg|thumb|left|Captured Japanese soldiers]]

In comparison, at the point of contact, the Kwantung Army had only the 23rd Infantry Division, which with various attached forces was equivalent to two light infantry divisions. Its headquarters had been at Hailar, over {{cvt|150|km}} from the fighting. Japanese intelligence, despite demonstrating an ability to track the build-up of Zhukov's force, failed to precipitate an appropriate response from below.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=578}} Thus, when the Soviets finally did launch their offensive, Komatsubara was caught off-guard.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=578}}{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 71 (Japanese Intelligence Failures)}}

To test the Japanese defenses prior to their main assault on 20 August, the Soviets launched three aggressive probing assaults, one on 3 August and the others on 7/8 August. All three were disastrously thrown back, with around 1,000 combined dead and several tanks knocked out on the Soviet side compared to just 85 Japanese casualties.{{sfn|Coox|1985|pp=575–6}} The Japanese counterattacked and routed elements of the Mongolian 8th Cavalry Division, seizing a hilly sector of the battlefront.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=576}}

Despite the fact that no more major fighting would take place until 20 August, Japanese casualties continued to mount at a rate of 40 wounded per day.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=577}} Kwantung Army staff officers were becoming increasingly worried over the disorganized state of the 6th Army headquarters and supply elements. The growing casualty count meant that the green 23rd Division would have to take, train and assimilate new replacements "on the job".{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=577}} By contrast, Tokyo's oft-stated desire that it would not escalate the fighting at Khalkhin&nbsp;Gol proved immensely relieving to the Soviets, freed to hand-pick select units from across the military to be concentrated for a local offensive without fear of Japanese retaliation elsewhere.{{sfn|Coox|1985|pp=573–4}}
[[File:Battle of Khalkhin Gol-Captured Type 95 scout car.jpg|thumb|Captured Japanese [[Kurogane Type 95|Type 95 scout car]]]]

Zhukov decided it was time to break the stalemate.{{r|Coox1985_590}} At [[24-hour clock|05:45]] on 20 August 1939, Soviet artillery and 557 aircraft{{r|Coox1985_590}} attacked Japanese positions, the first fighter-bomber offensive in [[Soviet Air Force]] history.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p= 663}} Approximately 50,000 Soviet and Mongolian soldiers of the [[57th Special Corps]] attacked the east bank of the Khalkhin Gol. Three infantry divisions and a tank brigade crossed the river, supported by massed artillery and by the Soviet Air Force.

Once the Japanese were pinned down by the attack of Soviet center units, Soviet armored units swept around the flanks and attacked the Japanese in the rear, achieving a classic [[double envelopment]]. When the Soviet wings linked up by  Nomonhan  on 25 August, they trapped the Japanese 23rd Infantry Division.{{sfn|Neeno|2005}}{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 86 (Outcome)}}{{sfn|Drea|1981|loc=p. 77 (Encirclement of the 2/28th Infantry)}} On 26 August, a Japanese counterattack to relieve the 23rd Division failed. On 27 August, the 23rd Division attempted to break out of the encirclement but failed. When the surrounded forces refused to surrender, they were again hit with artillery and air attacks. By 31 August, Japanese forces on the Mongolian side of the border were destroyed, leaving remnants of the 23rd Division on the Manchurian side. The Soviets had achieved their objective.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=841}}

The Soviet Union and Japan agreed to a cease-fire on 15 September; it took effect the following day at 1:10 pm.{{sfn|Neeno|2005}}{{sfn|Goldman|2012|pp=163–4}}{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=911}}

==Casualties==
[[File:Ha-Go Khalkin-Gol.JPG|thumb|left|Japanese tank [[Type 95 Ha-Go]] captured by Soviet troops after the battle of Khalkhin Gol]]
[[File:Khalkhin Gol Captured Japanese guns 1939.jpg|thumb|Captured Japanese guns]]
Japanese military records reported approximately 20,000 battle and non-battle casualties, 162 aircraft lost in combat, and 42 tanks disabled (of which 29 were later repaired and redeployed). Roughly 500 to 600 Japanese and Manchus were taken prisoner. Due to a military doctrine that prohibited surrender, most of these men were listed as killed in action for the benefit of their families.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1176}} The Soviets initially claimed to have inflicted 29,085 casualties on the Japanese, but later increased this to 52–55,000 and then 61,000 for their official histories.{{r|mongolnow_com}}

According to the Sixth Army's medical data, Japanese casualties amounted to 7,696 killed, 8,647 wounded, 1,021 missing, and 2,350 sick, for a total of 19,714 personnel losses. The Kwantung Army headquarters and their internal records gave a slightly different figure of 8,629 killed and 9,087 injured, excluding sick. In November 1939 the American consulate in Harbin claimed to possess "authoritative" information that Japanese casualties reached 30,000, while Agricultural Minister Yukio Sakurauchi reported in October that casualties reached 35–36,000 out of 40,000 participants. In September 1942 the Japanese dedicated a monument to the fallen in the Manchurian theater; of these, 9,471 Japanese and 202 Manchus were attributed to the Nomonhan campaign, an increase of approximately 10 percent over previous totals.<ref>Coox p. 915</ref>

;IJA battle casualties for selected periods, Nomonhan campaign<ref>Hata (2013) Table 3</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;"
!Period
!Personnel strength
!Battle casualties
!Casualties as % of strength
|-
|3–4 July
|10,000
|800
|8
|-
|7–14 July
|15,000
|2500
|16
|-
|23–25 July
|22,000
|1700
|8
|-
|1–20 August
|22,000
|1800
|8
|-
|21–31 August
|25,000
|8500
|34
|-
|Total
| –
|15,300
| –
|}
Zhukov reported Soviet casualties during the final offensive (beginning 20 August) as 9,284, including 1,701 dead & missing and 7,583 wounded. In 1993, [[Grigoriy Krivosheev]] cited totals of 7,974 killed and 15,251 wounded for the entire campaign.<ref name="Rus_edition">"Grif sekretnosti sniat': poteri Vooruzhennykh Sil SSSR v voynakh, boevykh deystviyakh i voennykh konfliktakh", pod oshchey redaktsiey G. F. Krivosheeva. (Moskva: Voennoe izd-vo, 1993, {{ISBN|5-203-01400-0}}). pp. 77–85.</ref> In the 2001 edition of Krivosheev's work, revised figures of 9,703 dead & missing, 15,251 wounded, and 701 sick are given, for a total of 25,655. Of the dead, 6,472 were killed in action or died of wounds during evacuation, 1,152 died of wounds in hospitals, eight died of disease, 2,028 were missing, and 43 died from non-combat causes.<ref>Россия и СССР в войнах ХХ века. Книга потерь. Москва, Вече, 2010 {{ISBN|978-5-9533-4672-6}} pp. 158–59, 162.</ref> Historian Boris Sokolov has cited a higher number of sick, 2,225, writing that the lower number of 701 only reflects patients who were treated in the Trans-Baikal Military district.{{r|Sokolov2015}}

In addition to their personnel losses, the Soviets lost a large amount of equipment including 253 tanks, 250 aircraft (including 208 in combat), 96 artillery pieces, and 133 armored cars. Of the Soviet tank losses, 75–80% were destroyed by anti-tank guns, 15–20% by field artillery, 5–10% by infantry-thrown incendiary bombs, 2–3% by aircraft, and 2–3% by hand grenades and mines.{{r|armchairgeneral_com}} The large number of Soviet armor casualties are reflected in the manpower losses for Soviet tank crews. A total of 1,559 Soviet "Tank Troops" were killed or wounded during the battles.{{sfn|Krivosheyev|1993|p=77}}
[[File:Ki-27 Shimada.jpg|thumb|Nakajima Ki-27b of Kenji Shimada, commander of the 1st Chutai of the 11th Sentai, battle of Khalkhin Gol, June 1939]]

Mongolian casualties were 556–990, including 280 killed and 710 wounded. At least 11 armored cars were destroyed and 1,921 horses and camels were lost.<ref>[http://www.armchairgeneral.com/rkkaww2/battles/khalkhin_gol/Khalkhin_cut1.pdf Khalkhin Gol Battle: Brief Description and Data] Retrieved 20 January 2017. pp. 5–6, 13.</ref>

Nomonhan was the first use of [[airpower]] on a massive scale in a high-intensity battle to obtain a specific military objective.{{sfn|Nedialkov|2011|p=144}} The combatants remained at peace until August 1945, when the [[Soviet–Japanese War|Soviet Union declared war on Japan]] and invaded Manchukuo and other territories after the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima]].

==Air combat==
===Soviet aircraft strength===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Date
! [[Polikarpov I-16|I-16]] fighter
! [[Polikarpov I-15bis|I-15]] biplane fighter
! [[Polikarpov I-153|I-153]] biplane fighter
! [[Tupolev SB|SB]] high-speed bomber
! [[Tupolev TB-3|TB-3]] heavy bomber
! [[Polikarpov R-5|R-5]] reconnaissance aircraft
! Total:
|-
| 27 May
| 52
| 49
| 0
| 88
| 0
| 17
| 206
|-
| 22 June
| 95
| 56
| 0
| 116
| 0
| 51
| 318
|-
|20 Aug
|223
|21
|84
|181
|23
|43
|623 (incl. 65 additional fighters)
|-
|11 Sep
| colspan="3" |362
| colspan="2" |166
|54
|582
|-
| colspan="8" |Ref:<ref name=":0">[https://www.publication.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/pdf/political/political_50_1/each/06.pdf Hata (2013), "Summary of the Battle of Nomonhan"] Table 4 (Japanese). Retrieved 4 December 2024</ref>
|}

===Japanese aircraft strength===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Date
! Fighter
! Heavy bomber
! Light bomber
! Reconnaissance
! Total:
|-
| 27 May
| 40
| 12
| 6
| 6
| 64
|-
| 20 June
| 77
| 24
| 6
| 12
| 119
|-
|23 July
|86
|9
|29
|24
|148
|-
|21 Aug
|88
|12
|24
|21
|145
|-
|13 Sep
|158
|13
|66
|18
|255
|-
| colspan="6" |Ref:<ref name=":0" />
|}

===Soviet aircraft losses===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Type
! [[Polikarpov I-16|I-16]] fighter
! [[Polikarpov I-15bis|I-15]] biplane fighter
! [[Polikarpov I-153|I-153]] biplane fighter
! [[Tupolev SB|SB]] high-speed bomber
! [[Tupolev TB-3|TB-3]] heavy bomber
! [[Polikarpov R-5|R-5]] reconnaissance aircraft
! Total:
|-
| Combat losses
| 87
| 60
| 16
| 44
| 0
| 1
| 208
|-
| Non-Combat losses
| 22
| 5
| 6
| 8
| 1
| 0
| 42
|-
| Total losses
| 109
| 65
| 22
| 52
| 1
| 1
| 250
|-
|colspan=8 | Ref<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|}

===Japanese aircraft losses===

{| class="wikitable"
!Type
! [[Nakajima Ki-4|Ki-4]] reconnaissance aircraft
! [[Kawasaki Ki-10|Ki-10]] biplane fighter
! [[Mitsubishi Ki-15|Ki-15]] reconnaissance
! [[Mitsubishi Ki-21|Ki-21]] high speed bomber
! [[Nakajima Ki-27|Ki-27]] fighter
! [[Mitsubishi Ki-30|Ki-30]] light bomber
! [[Tachikawa Ki-36|Ki-36]] utility aircraft
! [[Fiat BR.20]] medium bomber<!--only a heavy in Japan...-->
! Transport aircraft
! Total
|-
| Aerial combat losses
| 1
| 1
| 7
| 3
| 62
| 11
| 3
| 0
| 0
| 88
|-
| Write-offs due to combat damage
| 14
| 0
| 6
| 3
| 34
| 7
| 3
| 1
| 6
| 74
|-
| Total combat losses
| 15
| 1
| 13
| 6
| 96
| 18
| 6
| 1
| 6
| 162
|-
| Combat damage
| 7
| 4
| 23
| 1
| 124
| 33
| 6
| 20
| 2
| 220
|-
|colspan=11 | Ref<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|}

===Aircraft losses summary and notes===
Combat losses include aircraft shot down during aerial combat, written off due to combat damage or destroyed on the ground.

Non-combat losses include aircraft that were lost due to accidents, as well as write-offs of warplanes due to the end of their service life. Thus Soviet combat losses amount to 163 fighters, 44 bombers, and a reconnaissance aircraft, with further 385 fighters and 51 bombers requiring repairs due to combat damage. VVS ([[Soviet Air Forces]]) personnel losses were 88 killed in aerial combat, 11 killed by anti-aircraft artillery, 65 missing, six killed in air-strikes and four died of wounds (174 total) and 113 wounded. The Japanese combat losses were 97 fighters, 25 bombers and 41 other (mostly reconnaissance), while 128 fighters, 54 bombers and 38 other required repairs due to combat damage. The Japanese Air Force suffered 152 dead and 66 severely wounded.

===Aircraft ordnance expenditures===
USSR: Bomber sorties 2,015, fighter sorties 18,509; 7.62&nbsp;mm machine gun rounds fired 1,065,323; {{cvt|0.80|in|0|disp=flip}} cannon rounds expended 57,979; bombs dropped 78,360 (1,200 tons).

Japan: Fighter/bomber sorties 10,000 (estimated); {{cvt|7.7|mm|2}} machine gun rounds fired 1.6 million; bombs dropped 970 tons.{{sfn|Nedialkov|2011|p=141}}

==Summary==
[[File:Hokushin-ron-Map.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Hokushin-ron|North Strike Group]] plans]]
While this engagement is little known in the West, it played an important part in subsequent Japanese conduct in World War II. The battle earned the Kwantung Army the displeasure of officials in Tokyo, not so much due to its defeat, but because battles were initiated and escalated without direct authorization from the Japanese government. This defeat combined with the Chinese resistance in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]],{{sfn|Beevor|2012|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XS8xlDaZVJMC&pg=PA250 Chapter 17]}} together with the signing of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|German-Soviet non-aggression pact]] (which deprived the Army of the basis of its war policy against the USSR), moved the Imperial General Staff in Tokyo away from the policy of the [[Hokushin-ron|North Strike Group]] favored by the Army, which wanted to seize Siberia for its resources as far as [[Lake Baikal]].{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=18}}

Instead, support shifted to the [[South Strike Group]], favored by the Navy, which wanted to seize the resources of Southeast Asia, especially the petroleum and mineral-rich [[Dutch East Indies]]. [[Masanobu Tsuji]], the Japanese colonel who had helped instigate the Nomonhan incident, was one of the strongest proponents of the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. General [[Ryūkichi Tanaka]], Chief of the Army Ministry's Military Service Bureau in 1941, testified after the war that "the most determined single protagonist in favor of war with the United States was Tsuji Masanobu". Tsuji later wrote that his experience of Soviet fire-power at Nomonhan convinced him not to attack the Soviet Union in 1941.<ref name=TheDiplomat2012>{{cite news |last=Goldman |first=Stuart |date=28 August 2012 |title=The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939 |website=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939/ |ref=none}}</ref>

On 24 June 1941, two days after the war on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] broke out, the Japanese army and navy leaders adopted a resolution "not intervening in German Soviet war for the time being". In August 1941, Japan and the Soviet Union reaffirmed their neutrality pact.{{sfn|Snyder|2010|p=166}} The United States and Britain had imposed an oil embargo on Japan, threatening to stop the Japanese war effort, but the European colonial powers were weakening and suffering early defeats in the war with Germany; only the [[US Pacific Fleet]] stood in the way of seizing the oil-rich Dutch East Indies.{{r|TheDiplomat2012}} Because of this, Japan's focus was ultimately directed to the south, leading to its decision to launch the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December of that year.

Despite [[Kantokuen|plans being made]] for a potential war against the USSR (particularly contingent on German advances towards Moscow), the Japanese never launched an offensive against the Soviet Union. In 1941, the two countries signed agreements respecting the borders of Mongolia and Manchukuo<ref>{{cite web |date=14 April 1941 |title=Declaration Regarding Mongolia |website=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School |url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/s2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311013906/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/s2.htm |archive-date=11 March 2007 |access-date=24 February 2021}}</ref> and pledging neutrality towards each other.<ref>{{cite web |title=World War II : Documents |website=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School |url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/s1.htm |access-date=4 March 2015 |archive-date=6 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306092523/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/wwii.asp }}</ref> In the closing months of World War II, the Soviet Union [[Soviet–Japanese War|annulled the Neutrality Pact and invaded the Japanese territories]] in Manchuria, northern Korea, and the southern part of Sakhalin island.

===Soviet assessment===
Following the battle, the Soviets generally found the results unsatisfactory, despite their victory. Though the Soviet forces in the Far East in 1939 were not plagued by fundamental issues to the same extent as those in Europe during the 1941 campaigns, their generals were still unimpressed by their army's performance. As noted by [[Petro Grigorenko|Pyotr Grigorenko]], the Red Army went in with a very large advantage in technology, numbers and firepower, yet still suffered huge losses, which Grigorenko blamed on poor leadership.<ref name="Grigoriy Shtern" />

The battle was the first victory for the soon-to-be-famous Soviet general Zhukov, earning him the first of his four [[Hero of the Soviet Union]] awards. The two other generals, [[Grigori Shtern]] and [[Yakov Smushkevich]], had important roles and were also awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. They would, however, both be executed in the [[1941 Red Army Purge|1941 Purges]]. Zhukov himself was promoted and transferred west to the Kiev district.

The battle experience gained by Zhukov was put to good use in December 1941 at the [[Battle of Moscow]]. Zhukov used his experience to launch the first successful Soviet counteroffensive against the German invasion. Many units of the Siberian and other trans-Ural armies were part of this attack, and the decision to move these divisions from Siberia was aided by the Soviet spy [[Richard Sorge]] in Tokyo, who alerted the Soviet government that the Japanese were looking south and were unlikely to launch another attack against Siberia in the immediate future.

A year after defending Moscow against the advancing Germans, Zhukov planned and executed the [[Red Army]]'s offensive, i.e. [[Operation Uranus]], at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], using a technique very similar to Khalkhin Gol, in which the Soviet forces held the enemy fixed in the center, built up an undetected mass force in the immediate rear area, and launched a pincer attack on the wings to trap the German army.

Although their victory and the subsequent negotiation of the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] secured the Far East for the duration of the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Soviet-German War]], the Red Army always remained cautious about the possibility of another, larger Japanese incursion as late as early 1944. In December 1943, when the American military mission proposed a logistics base be set up east of Lake Baikal, the Red Army authorities, were according to Coox, "shocked by the idea and literally turned white".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Coox |first=Alvin D. |date=July 1958 |title=The Myth of the Kwantung Army |journal=Marine Corps Gazette |volume=42 |issue=7 |page=43}}</ref>

The Red Army kept a large force in the Far East even during the bleakest days of the war in Europe. For example, on 1 July 1942, Soviet forces in the Far East consisted of 1,446,012 troops, 11,759 artillery pieces, 2,589 tanks and self-propelled guns, and 3,178 combat aircraft.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glantz |first=David |date=27 February 2003 |title=The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria, 1945: 'August Storm' |publisher=Routledge |page=8 |isbn=9780415408615 }}</ref> Despite this, the Soviet operations chief of the Far Eastern Front, General A. K. Kazakovtsev, was not confident in his army group's ability to stop an invasion if the Japanese committed to it (at least in 1941–1942), commenting: "If the Japanese enter the war on Hitler's side ... our cause is hopeless."{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1079}}

===Japanese assessment and reforms===
The Japanese similarly considered the result not a failing of tactics, but one that simply highlighted a need to address the material disparity between themselves and their neighbours.<ref>「"ノモンハン" は日本軍の一方的敗北ではない」三代史研究会「明治・大正・昭和30 の"真実"」文春新書、2003 年、p. 122</ref><ref>福井雄三「坂の上の雲に隠された歴史の真実 明治と昭和の歴史の虚像と実像」</ref> They made several reforms as a result of this battle: Tank production was increased from 500 annually to 1,200 in 1939. A mechanized headquarters was established in early 1941, and the new [[Type 1 47 mm anti-tank gun]] was introduced as a response to the Soviet 45&nbsp;mm. These cannons were mounted on Type 97 Chi-Ha tanks, resulting in the [[Type 97 ShinHoTo Chi-Ha]] ("New Turret") variant, which became the IJA's standard medium tank by 1942.

IGHQ also dispatched General [[Tomoyuki Yamashita]] to Germany in order to learn more about tank tactics, following the crushingly one-sided [[Battle of France]] and the signing of the [[Tripartite Pact]]. He returned with a report where he stressed the need for mechanization and more medium tanks. Accordingly, plans were put underway for the formation of 10 new armoured divisions in the near future.{{sfn|Zaloga|2007a|p=14}}

Despite all of the above, Japanese industry was not productive enough to keep up with either the United States or the Soviet Union, and Yamashita warned against going to war with them for this reason. His recommendations were not taken to heart, and Japanese militarists eventually [[Pacific War|successfully pushed for war]] with the United States. In spite of their recent experience and military improvements, the Japanese generally continued to underestimate their adversaries, emphasizing the courage and determination of the individual soldier as a way to make up for their lack of numbers and smaller industrial base. To varying degrees, the basic problems that faced them at Khalkhin Gol would haunt them again when the Americans and British recovered from their defeats of late 1941 and early 1942 and turned to the conquest of the Japanese Empire.{{sfn|Neeno|2005}}{{sfn|Drea|1981}}{{Page needed|date=February 2021}}

Also, events exposed a severe lack of procedures for emergency stanching of bleeding. The original Japanese doctrine explicitly forbade first aid to fellow soldiers without prior orders from an officer, and first-aid training was lacking. As a result, a large proportion of Japanese dead was due to hemorrhaging from untreated wounds. Furthermore, up to 30% of the total casualties were due to [[dysentery]], which the Japanese believed was delivered by Soviet biological-warfare aerial bombs. To reduce susceptibility to diseases, future Japanese divisions commonly included specialized [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]]s.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1167}} Finally, the Japanese food rations were found to be unsatisfactory, both in packing and in nutritional value.{{sfn|Coox|1985|p=1019}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in Mongolia August 2009-3.jpg|thumb|[[Russian president]] [[Dmitry Medvedev]] and [[Mongolian President|Mongolian president]] [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] standing in front of a statue of Zhukov at a ceremony in [[Ulaanbaatar]] in August 2009, commemorating the 70th anniversary of the battle]]

After the Second World War, at the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]], fourteen Japanese were charged by delegates of the conquering Soviet Union, with having "initiated a war of aggression&nbsp;...&nbsp;against the Mongolian People's Republic in the area of the Khalkhin-Gol River" and also with having waged a war "in violation of international law" against the USSR.<ref>See counts 26 and 36 of the IMTFE indictment, available at {{cite web |title=Indictment from the International Military Tribunal for the Far East |website=Harry S. Truman Library & Museum |pages=7, 9 |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/indictment-international-military-tribunal-far-east?documentid=NA&pagenumber=7 }}</ref> [[Kenji Doihara]], [[Hiranuma Kiichirō]] and [[Seishirō Itagaki]] were convicted on these charges.

=== Commemoration ===
The anniversary of the battle was first celebrated in the Soviet Union in 1969, on the occasion of its 30th anniversary. After its 50th anniversary, in 1989, it dwindled in importance, going down to the level of academic debates and lectures. Only recently has the anniversary made a resurgence as an important event in Mongolian history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baabar.mn/article/who-loses-in-khalkhin-gol-battle |title=Who Loses in Khalkhin Gol Battle |website=baabar.mn}}</ref>

The Mongolian town of [[Choibalsan (city)|Choibalsan]], in the [[Dornod Province]], where the battle was fought, is the location of the "G. K. Zhukov Museum", dedicated to Zhukov and the 1939 battle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cultology.blogspot.com/2004_09_01_archive.html#109559658800975926|title=Cultological Culture|access-date=4 March 2015}}</ref> [[Ulaanbaatar]] also has a "G. K. Zhukov Museum" with information about the battle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongolia.mid.ru/en/press_18.html|title=Embassy of the Russian Federation in Mongolia|access-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008150214/http://www.mongolia.mid.ru/en/press_18.html|archive-date=8 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> The latter museum was opened on 19 August 1979 in the presence of [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] and Zhukov's three daughters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legendtour.ru/rus/mongolia/ulaanbaatar/zhukov_museum.shtml|title=Музей маршала Советского Союза Георгия Константиновича Жукова. Улан-Батор. Монголия.|website=legendtour.ru|access-date=18 June 2019|archive-date=10 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710054229/https://www.legendtour.ru/rus/mongolia/ulaanbaatar/zhukov_museum.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the 70th, 75th 80th, and 85th anniversaries of the battle in 2009, 2014, 2019, and 2024,<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hopkins |first1=Valerie |last2=Pierson |first2=David |date=2 September 2024 |title=Putin Arrives in Mongolia in Defiance of I.C.C. Arrest Warrant |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/02/world/europe/putin-mongolia.html |access-date=2 September 2024 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> respectively, the [[president of Russia]] took part in the celebrations alongside the [[president of Mongolia]] and Soviet and Mongolian veterans, with the celebration often coinciding with a [[state visit]].

[[File:В Монголии военнослужащие ВВО примут участие в военном параде 02.jpg|thumb|Troops of the Mongolian Armed Forces during the 80th anniversary parade in 2019]]

On the 80th anniversary, in 2019, a [[military parade]] was held in [[Choibalsan (city)|Choibalsan]] on Independence Square, which featured tactical formations of the [[Russian Armed Forces]]' [[Eastern Military District]] and the [[Mongolian Armed Forces]], all of whom were participants in the joint Russian-Mongolian military exercises "Selenga-2019" the previous month.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ria.ru/20190829/1558017112.html|title=В Монголии прошел парад в честь 80-летия боев на Халхин-Голе – РИА Новости, 29.08.2019|website=ria.ru |date=29 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://yandex.ru/news/story/V_Mongolii_proshel_parad_v_chest_80-letiya_boev_na_KHalkhin-Gole--5163ee373e1ef6d80e091ff312170848?lang=ru&lr=213|title=В Монголии прошел парад в честь 80-летия боев на Халхин-Голе|website=Яндекс.Новости}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://asiarussia.ru/news/22381/|title=В Монголии прошел парад в честь 80-летия боев на Халхин-Голе|website=asiarussia.ru}}</ref> Parades were held in the [[federal subjects of Russia]] that surround and have a close relationship with Mongolia, such as [[Buryatia]], [[Sakha Republic|Yakutia]] and the [[Altai Republic]]. In the Buryat capital of [[Ulan-Ude]], a parade was held in the capital.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://egov-buryatia.ru/press_center/news/detail.php?ID=51796|title=Парад в честь 80-летия Победы советских и монгольских войск на реке Халхин-Гол прошел в Улан-Удэ|website=egov-buryatia.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://regnum.ru/news/polit/2719686.html |title=Info |publisher=Regnum.ru |date=16 September 2019 |access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref> In addition, a concert on [[Sükhbaatar Square]] took place on 28 August, during which the Russian [[Alexandrov Ensemble]] together with the Mongolian singers gave a performance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://russkiymir.ru/en/news/261462/|title=80th anniversary of Khalkhin Gol victory celebrated in Mongolia|website=russkiymir.ru}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Mukden Incident]]
* [[Tientsin incident]]
* [[Kantokuen]]
* [[Mongolia in World War II]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Baabar |first=B. |authorlink=Baabar |editor-last=Kaplonski |editor-first=Christopher |date=1999 |title=From World Power to Soviet Satellite: History of Mongolia |publisher=University of Cambridge Press |oclc=318985384
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baëza |first1=Bernard |date=October 1996 |title=L'incidente du Nomonhan (mai-septembre 1939), une guerre entre l'URSS et le Japon passée inaperçue (1ère partie) |journal=Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire |issue=43 |pages=39–42 |trans-title=The Nomonhan Incident (May–September 1939), An Unnoticed War Between the USSR and Japan |language=French |issn=1243-8650
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baëza |first1=Bernard |date=November 1996 |title=L'incidente du Nomonhan (mai-septembre 1939), une guerre entre l'URSS et le Japon passée inaperçue (2ème partie) |journal=Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire |issue=44 |pages=8–11 |language=French |issn=1243-8650
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baëza |first1=Bernard |date=December 1996 |title=L'incidente du Nomonhan (mai-septembre 1939), une guerre entre l'URSS et le Japon passée inaperçue (3ème partie) |journal=Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire |issue=45 |pages=7–11 |language=French |issn=1243-8650
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baëza |first1=Bernard |date=January 1997 |title=L'incidente du Nomonhan (mai-septembre 1939), une guerre entre l'URSS et le Japon passée inaperçue (4ème et dernière partie) |journal=Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire |issue=46 |pages=20–7 |language=French |issn=1243-8650
}}
* {{cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |date=2012 |title=The Second World War |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |isbn=978-0297844976
}}
* {{cite book |last=Coox |first=Alvin D. |authorlink=Alvin Coox |date=1985 |title=Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939 |others=Two volumes |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=0-8047-1160-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Colvin |first=John | author-link = John Colvin (diplomat) |date=1999 |title=Nomonhan |location=London |publisher=Quartet Books |isbn=0-7043-7112-X
}}
* {{cite journal |last=Drea |first=Edward J. |date=January 1981 |title=Nomonhan: Japanese-Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939 |journal=Leavenworth Papers |issue=2 |issn=0195-3451 |url=https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Books/Browse-Books/Leavenworth-Papers/}} Combat Studies Institute (U.S. Army Command and General Staff). See also {{cite web |title=Leavenworth Paper n. 2 |publisher=Command and General Staff College |url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/drea2.asp#32 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505201714/http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/drea2/drea2.asp |archive-date=5 May 2010}}
* {{Cite book |last=Drea |first=Edward J. |date=1998 |chapter=Tradition and Circumstances: The Imperial Japanese Army's Tactical Response to Khalkhin-Gol, 1939 |title=In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army
|publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=0-8032-1708-0
}}
* {{cite book |last=Erickson |first=John |authorlink=John Erickson (historian) |title=The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941 |year=2001 |publisher= Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-7146-5178-8
}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Stuart D. |date=2012 |title=Nomonhan, 1939; The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II |publisher=[[Naval Institute Press]] |isbn=9781591143291 }} [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36367 online review].
* {{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Alexander |date=2017 |title=The Red Army and the Second World War |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107020795
}}
* {{cite book |last=Kotelnikov |first=Vladimir R. |date=2010 |title=Air War Over Khalkhin Gol, The Nomonhan Incident |publisher=SAM publications |isbn=9781906959234
}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Krivosheyev |editor-first=G. F. |date=1993 |title=Soviet Armed Forces Losses in Wars, Combat Operations and Military Conflicts |location=Moscow |publisher=Military Publishing House |isbn=5-203-01400-0 |url=http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/SovietLosses.pdf
}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kuromiya |first=Hiroaki |date=2011 |title=The Mystery of Nomonhan, 1939 |journal=The Journal of Slavic Military Studies |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=659–77 |doi=10.1080/13518046.2011.624820
|s2cid=144644320 }}
* Moses, Larry W. "Soviet-Japanese Confrontation in Outer Mongolia: The Battle of Nomonhan-Khalkin Gol," ''Journal of Asian History'' (1967) 1#1 pp.&nbsp;64–85.
* {{cite book |last=Nedialkov |first=Dimitar |date=2011 |title=In The Skies of Nomonhan, Japan vs Russia, May–September 1939 |edition=2nd |publisher=Crecy Publishing |isbn=9780859791526
}}
* {{cite web |last=Neeno |first=Timothy |date=16 January 2005 |title=Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War |website=MilitaryHistoryOnline.com |url=https://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/Modern/Nomonhan }} This work uses the Coox book and Drea paper as sources.
* Sella, Amnon. "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (1983) 18#4 pp.&nbsp;651–87 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260307 in JSTOR]
* Snow, Philip. "Nomonhan – the unknown victory," ''History Today'' (1990) 40#7 pp.&nbsp;22–28
* {{Cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |date=2010 |chapter=Final Solution |title=Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin |location=New York City |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=9780465002399
}}
* Young, Katsu H. "The Nomonhan Incident: Imperial Japan and the Soviet Union," ''Monumenta Nipponica'' (1967) Vol. 22, No. 1/2 (1967), pp.&nbsp;82–102 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2383224 in JSTOR]
* {{Cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |date=2007a |title=Japanese Tanks 1939–45 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=9781846030918}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Sukhbaatar Т. |date=2007b |title=Khalkin Gol 1939 |publisher=Osprey}}
* {{ cite book |last=Shishov |first=Alexei |date=2001 |language=ru |script-title=ru:Россия и Япония. История военных конфликтов |trans-title=Russia and Japan. The history of military conflicts |chapter=Халкин-Гол |trans-chapter=Khalkin-Goal |url=http://militera.lib.ru/h/shihsov_av/09.html |publisher=Вече }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of Khalkhin Gol}}
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/manchuria/txu-oclc-6614368-nl50-3.jpg Topographic Map of the Khalkhin Gol battle area]
* [http://www.xcar.com.cn/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=7976492&extra=&showthread=&page=11 Videos of the Nomonhan War Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523225738/http://www.xcar.com.cn/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=7976492&extra=&showthread=&page=11 |date=23 May 2011 }}
* [http://www.warbirdforum.com/nomonhan.htm Warbird Forum – Japan vs. Russia, 1939]
* "On the Road to Khalkhin Gol", [http://soviet-awards.com/digest/kg1/On-the-Road-to-Khalkin-Gol-1.html Part 1] and [http://soviet-awards.com/digest/kg2/Road-to-Khalkin-Gol-Part2-1.html Part 2], by Henry Sakaida
* [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=MDRtR7MkiQY Парад в Монголии в честь 80-летия победы на Халхин-Голе]

{{World War II}}
{{Tank battles|style=wide}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khalkhin Gol}}
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Japan]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles involving Mongolia]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1939]]
[[Category:Wars involving Mongolia]]
[[Category:Tank battles of World War II]]
[[Category:1939 in Japan]]
[[Category:1939 in Mongolia]]
[[Category:1939 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Japan–Mongolia relations]]
[[Category:Japan–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Mongolia–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Pacific War]]
[[Category:Battles involving Manchukuo]]
[[Category:Tank battles involving Japan]]
[[Category:Tank battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:May 1939 in Asia]]
[[Category:June 1939 in Asia]]
[[Category:July 1939 in Asia]]
[[Category:August 1939 in Asia]]
[[Category:1939 in the Japanese colonial empire]]
[[Category:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts]]
[[Category:Hulunbuir]]
[[Category:Khalkhgol]]
[[Category:Battles of Khalkhin Gol| ]]