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{{Short description|Alcoholic drink made from fermented cereal grains}}
{{About|the alcoholic drink}}
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{{Use British English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}

[[File:GravityTap.jpg|thumb|[[Schlenkerla]] Rauchbier, a traditional [[smoked beer]], being poured from a [[cask]] into a [[Beer glassware|beer glass]]]]
'''Beer''' is an [[alcoholic beverage]] produced by the [[brewing]] and [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]] of [[starch]]es from [[cereal]] grain—most commonly [[malt]]ed [[barley]], although [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[rice]], and [[oat]]s are also used. The grain is mashed to convert [[starch]] in the grain to [[sugar]]s, which dissolve in water to form [[wort]]. Fermentation of the wort by [[yeast]] produces [[Alcohol (drug)|ethanol]] and [[carbonation]] in the beer. Beer is one of the oldest and most widely consumed [[alcoholic drinks]] in the world, and one of the most popular of all drinks<!--hard or soft-->. Most modern beer is brewed with [[hops]], which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural [[preservative]] and [[stabilizing agent|stabilising agent]]. Other flavouring agents, such as [[gruit]], herbs, or fruits, may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, natural carbonation is often replaced with forced carbonation.

Beer is [[Beer distribution|distributed]] in bottles and cans, and is commonly available on [[Draught beer|draught]] in pubs and bars. The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]] and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[Microbrewery#Brewpub|brewpubs]] to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]]. The strength of modern beer is usually around 4% to 6% [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV).

Some of the earliest writings mention the production and distribution of beer: the [[Code of Hammurabi]] (1750 BC) included laws regulating it, while "The Hymn to [[Ninkasi]]", a prayer to the [[Mesopotamia]]n goddess of beer, contains a recipe for it. Beer forms part of the culture of many nations and is associated with social traditions such as [[beer festival]]s, as well as activities like [[pub game]]s. Beer can cause health issues if consumed often or in excess; [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] is an [[IARC group 1]] carcinogen.

==Etymology==

{{see also|Ale#Etymology}}
[[File:Beowulf - beore.jpg|thumb|{{Langx|ang|Beore}} 'beer']]

In early forms of English and in the Scandinavian languages, the usual word for beer was the word whose Modern English form is ''[[ale]]''.<ref name=Fell-1975-Leeds/> The modern word ''beer'' comes into present-day English from [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|bēor}}, itself from [[Common Germanic]]; it is found throughout the [[West Germanic]] and [[North Germanic]] dialects (modern Dutch and German {{lang|nl|bier}}, [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|bjórr}}). The earlier etymology of the word is debated: the three main theories are that the word originates in Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*beuzą}} (putatively from [[Proto-Indo-European]] {{lang|ine-x-proto|*bʰeusóm}}), meaning "[[brewer's yeast]], beer dregs"; that it is related to the word ''[[barley]]''; or that it was somehow borrowed from Latin {{lang|la|bibere}} "to drink".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=beer, n.1. |dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] Online |edition=1st |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1887 |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/16986 |access-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101033209/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=4699266323F0BF6431ED7281B79E085A?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F16986 |archive-date=1 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=Fell-1975-Leeds>{{cite report |last=Fell |first=Christine |year=1975 |title=Beor |department=Old English |series=Leeds Studies in English |volume=8 |pages=76–95 |publisher=[[University of Leeds]] |place=Leeds, UK |url=http://digital.library.leeds.ac.uk/132/1/LSE1975_pp76-95_Fell_article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003111259/http://digital.library.leeds.ac.uk/132/1/LSE1975_pp76-95_Fell_article.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2020 }}</ref>

[[Christine Fell]], in ''[[Leeds Studies in English]]'' (1975), suggests that the Old English/Norse word ''bēor'' did not originally denote ale or beer, but a strong, sweet drink rather like [[mead]] or [[cider]]. Whatever the case, the meaning of ''bēor'' expanded to cover the meaning of ''ale''. When hopped ale from Europe was imported into Britain in the late Middle Ages, it was described as "beer" to differentiate it from the British unhopped ale, later acquiring a broader meaning.<ref name=Fell-1975-Leeds/>

== History ==

{{Main|History of beer}}

=== Prehistory ===

[[File:Stèle Mercenaire syrien 18ème dynastie Neues Museum image éclaircie et perspective corrigée.jpg|thumb|Ancient Egyptian painting, [[18th dynasty]], reign of [[Akhenaten]], {{Circa|1300 BC}}, showing Syrian mercenary drinking beer through a straw. [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin]]]]

Beer is one of the world's oldest prepared alcoholic drinks.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ben |last=McFarland |year=2009 |title=World's Best Beers: One thousand craft brews from cask to glass |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SHh-4M_QxEsC&pg=PA10 |publisher=[[Sterling Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4027-6694-7 |page=10}}</ref> The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000 year-old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic [[Natufian]]s for ritual feasting, at the [[Raqefet Cave]] in the [[Carmel Mountains]] near [[Haifa]] in northern Israel.<ref name="BBC 2018 oldest brewery">{{cite news |title='World's oldest brewery' found in cave in Israel, say researchers |date=15 September 2018 |website=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-45534133 |access-date=15 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=13,000&nbsp;year-old brewery discovered in Israel – the oldest in the world |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/13000-year-old-brewery-discovered-in-israel-the-oldest-in-the-world/ |date=2018-09-12 |last1=Borschel-Dan |first1=Amanda |newspaper=[[The Times of Israel]] |access-date=16 September 2018}}</ref> There is evidence that beer was produced at [[Göbekli Tepe]] during the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]] (around 8500&nbsp;BC to 5500&nbsp;BC).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dietrich |first1=Oliver |last2=Heun |first2=Manfred |last3=Notroff |first3=Jens |last4=Schmidt |first4=Klaus |last5=Zarnkow |first5=Martin |date=September 2012 |title=The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities. New evidence from Göbekli Tepe, south-eastern Turkey |journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]] |volume=86 |issue=333 |pages=674–695 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00047840 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from [[barley]] dates to about 3500–3100&nbsp;BC, from the site of [[Godin Tepe]] in the [[Zagros Mountains]] of western Iran.<ref name=McGovern-2009>{{cite book |last=McGovern |first=Patrick |year=2009 |title=Uncorking the Past |isbn=978-0-520-25379-7 |pages=66–71|publisher=University of California Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Jar in Iranian ruins betrays beer drinkers of 3500 B.C. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/05/world/jar-in-iranian-ruins-betrays-beer-drinkers-of-3500-bc.html |date=1992-11-05 |last1=Wilford |first1=John Noble |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=10 November 2010}}</ref>

=== Early civilisations ===

Beer is recorded in the written history of [[ancient Egypt]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Beer |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britanica]] |edition=online |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-66615/beer |access-date=27 August 2023 |via=Britannica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Homan |first1=Michael M. |date=June 2004 |title=Beer and its drinkers: An ancient Near Eastern love story |journal=[[Near Eastern Archaeology (journal)|Near Eastern Archaeology]] |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=84–95 |doi=10.2307/4132364 |jstor=4132364 |s2cid=162357890 }}</ref> and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Archeologists link rise of civilization and beer's invention |date=8 November 2010 |website=[[CBS News]] |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/archeologists-link-rise-of-civilization-and-beers-invention/ |access-date=10 November 2010}}</ref> The Sumerians drank a variety of beers, eight types from barley, 12 types from wheat and 3 from a mixture of grains.<ref name="Gately 2008">{{Cite book |last=Gately |first=Iain |title=Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol |date=2008 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4406-3126-9 |location=East Rutherford |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Sumerian goddess Ninkasi was believed to oversee the brewing process, and the production and distribution of beer was attributed there to women.<ref name="Gately 2008"/> Approximately 5000&nbsp;years ago, workers in the city of [[Uruk]] (modern day Iraq) were paid by their employers with volumes of beer.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=George |first=Alison |date=22 June 2016 |title=The world's oldest paycheck was cashed in beer |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2094658-the-worlds-oldest-paycheck-was-cashed-in-beer/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625140953/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2094658-the-worlds-oldest-paycheck-was-cashed-in-beer/ |archive-date=2016-06-25}}</ref>  During the building of the [[Egyptian pyramids]], each worker got a daily ration of four to five litres of beer, which served as both nutrition and refreshment and was crucial to the pyramids' construction.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Abigail |last=Tucker |date=August 2011 |title=The beer archaeologist |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/ |access-date=30 October 2023 }}</ref>

Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer; examples include a prayer to the goddess [[Ninkasi]], known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Prince |first=J. Dyneley |year=1916 |title=A Hymn to Ninkasi |journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=40–44 |doi=10.1086/369806 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which served as both a prayer and a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people, and the ancient advice ("Fill your belly. Day and night make merry") to [[Gilgamesh]], recorded in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' by the [[Alewife (trade)|alewife]] [[Siduri]], may, at least in part, have referred to the consumption of beer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartman |first1=L.F. |last2=Oppenheim |first2=A.L. |year=1950 |title=On beer and brewing techniques in ancient Mesopotamia |journal=Supplement to the Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=10}}</ref> The [[Ebla tablets]], discovered in 1974 in [[Ebla]], Syria, show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC.<ref>Dumper, Stanley. 2007, p. 141.</ref> A fermented drink using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike [[sake]], mould was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by [[Mastication|chewing]] or [[malting]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McGovern |first1=Patrick E. |last2=Zhang |first2=Juzhong |last3=Tang |first3=Jigen |last4=Zhang |first4=Zhiqing |last5=Hall |first5=Gretchen R. |last6=Moreau |first6=Robert A. |last7=Nuñez |first7=Alberto |last8=Butrym |first8=Eric D. |last9=Richards |first9=Michael P. |last10=Wang |first10=Chen-Shan |last11=Cheng |first11=Guangsheng |last12=Zhao |first12=Zhijun |last13=Wang |first13=Changsui |display-authors=5 |year=2004 |title=Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China |journal=[[PNAS]] |volume=101 |issue=51 |pages=17593–17598 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407921102 |pmid=15590771 |pmc=539767 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10117593M |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Li wine: The beer of ancient China |date=15 July 2009 |series=China Beer Festivals |volume=2009 |website=echinacities.com |url=http://www.echinacities.com/Special/Beer-Festival/Content.aspx?n=3223 |access-date=21 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090719014915/http://www.echinacities.com/special/Beer-Festival/Content.aspx?n=3223 |archive-date=19 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jiajing |last2=Liu |first2=Li |last3=Ball |first3=Terry |last4=Yu |first4=Linjie |last5=Li |first5=Yuanqing |last6=Xing |first6=Fulai |title=Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China |journal=[[PNAS]] |volume=113 |issue=23 |date=2016-06-07 |pmid=27217567 |pmc=4988576 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1601465113 |doi-access=free |pages=6444–6448 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6444W |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/113/23/6444.full.pdf }}</ref> During the [[Vedic period]] in [[Ancient India]], there are records of the consumption of the beer-like ''[[Sura (alcoholic drink)|sura]]''.<ref name=Eraly2002>{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Eraly |year=2002 |title=Gem in the Lotus |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-93-5118-014-2 |page=165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YokatCwNG90C&pg=PT165}}</ref><ref name="Prakash2005">{{cite book |first=Om |last=Prakash |year=2005 |title=Cultural History of India |publisher=New Age International |isbn=978-81-224-1587-2 |page=503 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzpYb5UOeiwC&pg=PA503 |access-date=8 October 2013}}</ref> [[Xenophon]] noted that during his travels, beer was being produced in Armenia.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Karine |last=Vann |date=13 September 2017 |title=Armenia might be one of the oldest and youngest beer-making countries in the world |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/armenia-might-be-one-oldest-and-youngest-beermaking-countries-world-180964860/}}</ref>

=== Medieval ===

[[File:François Louis Jaques Paysans fribourgeois au bistrot.jpg|thumb|François Jaques: ''Peasants enjoying beer at pub in Fribourg'' (Switzerland, 1923)]]

Beer was spread through Europe by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] and [[Celts|Celtic]] tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.<ref name=Nelson-2005>{{cite book |first=Max |last=Nelson |year=2005 |title=The Barbarians' Beverage: A history of beer in ancient Europe |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-31121-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xul0O_SI1MC |pages=1-2, 110, 1025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beer history |publisher=Dreher Breweries |place=Hungary |url=http://www.dreherrt.hu/portal/main.php?heading_id=27&article_id=&language=en |access-date=21 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709015742/http://www.dreherrt.hu/portal/main.php?heading_id=27&article_id=&language=en |archive-date=9 July 2009}}</ref> The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers may have contained fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices, and other substances such as [[narcotic]] herbs.<ref name=Nelson-2005/> This mixture was called gruit, where if some were improperly heated could cause hallucinations. The mixture of gruit was different from every brewer. What they did not contain was [[hops]], as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard W. |last=Unger |year=2004 |title=Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |page=57 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=0-8122-3795-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMNf-p1mu6AC&dq=hops+Carolingian+Abbot&pg=PA57}}</ref> and again in 1067 by [[abbess]] [[Hildegard of Bingen]].<ref name=Nelson-2005/> 

In 1516, [[William IV, Duke of Bavaria]] adopted the ''[[Reinheitsgebot]]'' (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, [[hops]], and barley-[[malt]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=492&nbsp;years of good beer: Germans toast the anniversary of their beer purity law |date=23 April 2008 |magazine=[[Der Spiegel]] |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/492-years-of-good-beer-germans-toast-the-anniversary-of-their-beer-purity-law-a-549175.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622065706/http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/492-years-of-good-beer-germans-toast-the-anniversary-of-their-beer-purity-law-a-549175.html |archive-date=22 June 2017 }}</ref> Beer produced before the [[Industrial Revolution]] was made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European [[Monastery|monasteries]]. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from [[artisan]]al to [[Manufacturing|industrial manufacture]], while domestic production ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century.<ref name=sotp>{{cite book |first=Martyn |last=Cornell |year=2003 |title=Beer: The story of the pint |publisher=Headline |isbn=978-0-7553-1165-1 }}</ref>

=== Modern ===

In 1912, brown bottles began to be used by the [[Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company]] of [[Beer in Milwaukee|Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], in the United States. This innovation has since been accepted worldwide as it prevents light rays from degrading the quality and stability of beer.<ref name="Schlitz">{{cite web |title=A chronological history |department=Joseph Schlitz Brewing Co. |via=slahs.org |url=http://www.slahs.org/history/brewery/schlitz/history4.htm |access-date=16 March 2019 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020150826/http://www.slahs.org/history/brewery/schlitz/history4.htm |archive-date=20 October 2019 }}</ref> The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers, ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]].<ref name=market>{{cite report |title=Company list |department=Industry browser – consumer non-cyclical – beverages (alcoholic) |series=Finance |website=[[Yahoo!]] |url=http://biz.yahoo.com/p/bevalcmktd.html |access-date=5 November 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071002045616/http://biz.yahoo.com/p/bevalcmktd.html |archive-date=2 October 2007}}</ref> As of 2006, more than {{convert|133|e9l|e9gal|abbr=off}} of beer are sold per year, producing global revenues of US$294.5 billion. In 2010, China's beer consumption hit {{convert|450|e9l|e9gal|abbr=off}}, or nearly twice that of the United States, but only 5 per cent sold were premium beers, compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany.<ref>{{cite news |title=Premium Chinese beer a bitter brew for foreign brands |date=3 November 2011 |department=Analysis |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-beer-china-idUSTRE7A20X520111103 |access-date=30 June 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131217032328/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/03/us-beer-china-idUSTRE7A20X520111103 |archive-date=17 December 2013}}</ref> Beer is the most widely consumed of all alcoholic drinks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Volume of world beer production |website=European Beer Guide |url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production |access-date=17 October 2006}}</ref> A widely publicised study in 2018 suggested that sudden decreases in barley production due to extreme drought and heat could in the future cause substantial volatility in the availability and price of beer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=Wei |last2=Xiong |first2=Wei |last3=Pan |first3=Jie |last4=Ali |first4=Tariq |last5=Cui |first5=Qi |last6=Guan |first6=Dabo |last7=Meng |first7=Jing |last8=Mueller |first8=Nathaniel D. |last9=Lin |first9=Erda |last10=Davis |first10=Steven J. |display-authors=5 |year=2018 |title=Decreases in global beer supply due to extreme drought and heat |journal=[[Nature Plants]] |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=964–973 |pmid=30323183 |doi=10.1038/s41477-018-0263-1 |bibcode=2018AGUFMGC31E1301X |s2cid=53085959 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-018-0263-1 |access-date=16 October 2018|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Brewing ==

=== Process ===

{{Main|Brewing}}

[[File:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|thumb|upright|A 16th-century brewery]]

The process of making beer is brewing. It converts the grain into a sugary liquid called [[wort]] and then ferments this into beer using [[Brewer's yeast|yeast]]. The first step, mixing malted barley with hot water in a [[mash tun]], is "[[mashing]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beer-pages.com/protz/features/protz-the-brewer.htm|title=Roger Protz tries his hand at brewing|publisher=Beer-pages.com|date=June 2007|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-date=12 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012040702/http://beer-pages.com/protz/features/protz-the-brewer.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The starches are converted to sugars, and the sweet wort is drained off. The grains are washed to extract as much fermentable liquid from the grains as possible.<ref>Goldhammer, Ted (2008), ''The Brewer's Handbook'', 2nd ed., Apex, {{ISBN|978-0-9675212-3-7}} pp. 181 ff.</ref> The sweet wort is put into a kettle, or "copper",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2005/brewing.html|title=Copper Brewing Vessels|publisher=Msm.cam.ac.uk|access-date=28 September 2008|archive-date=9 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809114905/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2005/brewing.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and boiled. [[Hops]] are added as a source of bitterness, flavour, and aroma. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but the less hop flavour and aroma remain.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-0729-1_15 |chapter=Hop chemistry and wort boiling |title=Brewing |year=2001 |last1=Lewis |first1=Michael J. |last2=Young |first2=Tom W. |pages=259–278 |isbn=978-0-306-47274-9 }}</ref> The wort is cooled and the yeast is added. The wort is then fermented, often for a week or longer. The yeast settles, leaving the beer clear.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Chapter 13: Beer Fermentation |chapter-url=http://www.beer-brewing.com/apex/beer_chapters/ch06_beer_adjuncts.htm |title=The Brewers Handbook |publisher=Apex Publishing |first=Ted |last=Goldammer |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-9675212-0-6 |access-date=29 September 2008 |archive-date=27 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027063059/http://www.beer-brewing.com/apex/beer_chapters/ch06_beer_adjuncts.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> During fermentation, most of the [[carbon dioxide]] is allowed to escape through a [[trap (plumbing)|trap]]. The carbonation is often increased either by transferring the beer to a [[pressure vessel]] and introducing pressurised carbon dioxide or by transferring it before the fermentation is finished so that carbon dioxide pressure builds up inside the container.<ref name=carbonated>{{cite web |title=How beer is carbonated and why is beer fizzy? |department=Commercial Beers |website=about.com |url=http://beer.about.com/od/commercialbeers/f/fizz.htm |access-date=31 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123135205/http://beer.about.com/od/commercialbeers/f/fizz.htm |archive-date=23 January 2017}}</ref>

=== Ingredients ===

[[File:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|thumb|left|[[Malted barley]] before roasting]]

The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, usually [[malt]]ed [[barley]]; a [[brewer's yeast]] to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as [[hops]].<ref>[http://www.alabev.com/ingredie.htm Alabev.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123045417/http://www.alabev.com/ingredie.htm |date=23 January 2016 }} ''The Ingredients of Beer''. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref> A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary carbohydrate source, such as maize (corn), rice, wheat, or sugar, often termed an [[adjunct (beer)|adjunct]], especially when used alongside malted barley.<ref>[http://www.beer-brewing.com/apex/beer_chapters/ch06_beer_adjuncts.htm beer-brewing.com Beer-brewing.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027063059/http://www.beer-brewing.com/apex/beer_chapters/ch06_beer_adjuncts.htm |date=27 October 2007 }} Ted Goldammer, ''The Brewers Handbook'', Chapter 6&nbsp;– Beer Adjuncts, Apex Pub (1 January 2000), {{ISBN|0-9675212-0-3}}. Retrieved 29 September 2008</ref> Less widely used starch sources include [[millet]], [[sorghum]], and [[cassava]] root in Africa; potato in Brazil; and [[agave]] in Mexico.<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000120.html BeerHunter.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204115213/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000120.html |date=4 December 2010 }} Michael Jackson, ''A good beer is a thorny problem down Mexico way'', What's Brewing, 1 October 1997. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref>

[[Water]] is the main ingredient, accounting for 93% of beer's weight.<ref>[https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/a-pint-a-day--/9706.article "A pint a day..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827215542/https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/a-pint-a-day--/9706.article |date=27 August 2017 }} The Royal Society of Chemistry: ''Chemistry World''; 1 December 1996. Retrieved 27 August 2017.</ref> The level of dissolved bicarbonate influences beer's finished taste.<ref>[https://phys.org/news/2015-12-science-beer.html "Questions about the science of beer", by Matt Shipman.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829081127/https://phys.org/news/2015-12-science-beer.html |date=29 August 2017 }} Science X: ''Phys.org''; 3 December 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2017.</ref> Due to the [[mineral]] properties of each [[region]]'s water, specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer, each identifiable by regional characteristics.<ref name="geot"/> [[Dublin]]'s [[hard water]] is well-suited to making [[stout]], such as [[Guinness]], while the [[Plzeň Region]]'s soft water is ideal for brewing [[Pilsner]], such as [[Pilsner Urquell]].<ref name="geot">{{cite news |url=http://www.agiweb.org/geotimes/aug04/resources.html|title=Geology and Beer|work=Geotimes|date=August 2004|access-date=5 November 2007}}</ref> The waters of [[Burton Bridge Brewery|Burton]] in England contain [[gypsum]], which benefits making [[pale ale]] to such a degree that brewers of pale ale add gypsum in a process known as [[Burtonisation]].<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000098.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619014900/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000098.html|date=19 June 2010}} 19 October 1991, "Brewing a good glass of water". Retrieved 13 September 2008.</ref>

The starch source provides the fermentable material and determines the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin [[germination]], and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting produces enzymes that convert starches into fermentable sugars.<ref>[[s:en:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brewing/Chemistry|Wikisource]] 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica''/Brewing/Chemistry. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref> Different roasting times and temperatures produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts produce darker beers.<ref>[http://www.farm-direct.co.uk/farming/stockcrop/barley/malt.html Farm-direct.co.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814221734/http://www.farm-direct.co.uk/farming/stockcrop/barley/malt.html |date=14 August 2009 }} Oz, ''Barley Malt'', 6 February 2002. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref> Nearly all beers use barley malt for most of the starch, as its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing. After malting, barley is milled, which finally removes the hull, breaking it into large pieces. These pieces remain with the grain during the [[Mashing|mash]] and act as a filter bed during [[lautering]], when sweet [[wort]] is separated from insoluble grain material. Other grains, including wheat, rice, [[oats]], and [[rye]], and less frequently, corn and sorghum may be used. Some brewers have produced [[gluten-free beer]], made with sorghum, for those who cannot consume [[gluten]]-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye.<ref>{{cite web |first=Carolyn |last=Smagalski |year=2006 |url=http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art39558.asp |title=CAMRA & The First International Gluten Free Beer Festival |publisher=Carolyn Smagalski, Bella Online}}</ref>

[[File:Humulus Lupulus Hopfendolde-mit-hopfengarten.jpg|thumb|[[Hops|Hop cone]] in a [[Hallertau]], Germany, hop yard]]

Flavouring beer is the sole commercial use of [[hops]].<ref>A. H. Burgess, ''Hops: Botany, Cultivation and Utilization'', Leonard Hill (1964), {{ISBN|0-471-12350-1}}</ref> The flower of the [[Humulus lupulus|hop vine]] acts as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer dates from 822 AD in monastery rules written by [[Adalard of Corbie]],<ref name="sotp"/><!-- p62 --><ref name="bmar">{{cite book |first=Richard W. |last=Unger |title=Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |pages=54–55 |isbn=978-0-8122-3795-5 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia}}</ref> though widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer began in the thirteenth century.<ref name="sotp"/><!-- p63 --><ref name="bmar"/> Before then, beer was flavoured with other plants such as [[grains of paradise]] or '[[alehoof]]'. Combinations of aromatic herbs, berries, and even [[Absinth Wormwood|wormwood]] were combined into aflavouring mixture known as [[gruit]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMNf-p1mu6AC&dq=gruit+beer&pg=PA30 Books.google.co.uk] Richard W. Unger, ''Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance'', University of Pennsylvania Press (2004), {{ISBN|0-8122-3795-1}}. Retrieved 14 September 2008.</ref> Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company use plants other than hops for flavouring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fraoch.com/historicales.htm |title=Heatherale.co.uk |publisher=Fraoch.com |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629071231/http://www.fraoch.com/historicales.htm |archive-date=29 June 2008}}</ref> and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brasserie-lancelot.com/brasserie-lancelot.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819030220/http://www.brasserie-lancelot.com/brasserie-lancelot.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2008 |title=La Brasserie Lancelot est située au coeur de la Bretagne, dans des bâtiments rénovés de l'ancienne mine d'Or du Roc St-André, construits au 19 ème siècle sur des vestiges néolithiques |publisher=Brasserie-lancelot.com |language=fr |access-date=28 September 2008 }}</ref> 

Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. Hops further contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours. They have an [[antibiotic]] effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms, and aids in "[[Head (beer)|head]] retention",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brewwiki.com/index.php/Head_Retention |title=Head Retention |publisher=BrewWiki |access-date=5 November 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071011144640/http://brewwiki.com/index.php/Head_Retention |archive-date=11 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hopsteiner.com/isopg1.htm |title=Hop Products: Iso-Extract |publisher=Hopsteiner |access-date=5 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011212319/http://hopsteiner.com/isopg1.htm |archive-date=11 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops is a preservative.<ref>[http://beer.pdqguides.com/beer-ingredient-hops.html PDQ Guides, ''Hops: Clever Use For a Useless Plan''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016111537/http://beer.pdqguides.com/beer-ingredient-hops.html |date=16 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blanco |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Rojas |first2=Antonio |last3=Caballero |first3=Pedro A. |last4=Ronda |first4=Felicidad |last5=Gomez |first5=Manuel |last6=Caballero |first6=Isabel |title=A better control of beer properties by predicting acidity of hop iso-α-acids |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=July 2006 |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=373–377 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2005.11.012 }}</ref>

Yeast is the [[microorganism]] responsible for fermenting beer. It [[metabolism|metabolises]] the sugars, producing [[ethanol]] and [[carbon dioxide]], and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition, yeast influences the character and flavour.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ostergaard |first1=Simon |last2=Olsson |first2=Lisbeth |last3=Nielsen |first3=Jens |title=Metabolic Engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |date=1 March 2000 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=34–50 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.34-50.2000 |pmid=10704473 |pmc=98985 }}</ref> The dominant types of beer yeast are [[Top-fermenting yeast|top-fermenting]] ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' and [[bottom-fermenting]] ''[[Saccharomyces pastorianus]]''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0kefSj0_i9sC&dq=types+of+yeast+used+to+make+beer&pg=PA376 Google Books] Paul R. Dittmer, J. Desmond, ''Principles of Food, Beverage, and Labor Cost Controls'', John Wiley and Sons (2005), {{ISBN|0-471-42992-9}}</ref> ''[[Brettanomyces]]'' ferments [[lambic]]s,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DvNhR0xfHtMC&dq=Brettanomyces+lambic&pg=PA221 Google Books] Ian Spencer Hornsey, ''Brewing'' pp&nbsp;221–222, Royal Society of Chemistry (1999), {{ISBN|0-85404-568-6}}</ref> and ''[[Torulaspora delbrueckii]]'' ferments Bavarian [[weissbier]].<ref>[http://web.mst.edu/~microbio/BIO221_2001/torulospora_delbrueckii.htm Web.mst.edu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809212726/http://web.mst.edu/~microbio/BIO221_2001/torulospora_delbrueckii.htm |date=9 August 2011 }} David Horwitz, ''Torulaspora delbrueckii''. Retrieved 30 September 2008.</ref> Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles, such as [[lambics]], rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast [[Microbiological culture|cultures]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TxCQlmasQh8C&dq=beer+yeast+history&pg=PA847 Google Books] Y. H. Hui, George G. Khachatourians, ''Food Biotechnology'' pp&nbsp;847–848, Wiley-IEEE (1994), {{ISBN|0-471-18570-1}}</ref>

Some brewers add clarifying agents or [[finings]] to beer, which typically [[precipitate]] (collect as a solid) out along with protein solids, and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear [[Bright beer|bright]] and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles such as [[wheat beer]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000717.html |title=Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter&nbsp;— A pint of cloudy, please |publisher=Beerhunter.com|access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926132813/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000717.html |archive-date=26 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Clarifying agents include [[isinglass]], from the [[swimbladder]]s of fish; [[Chondrus crispus|Irish moss]], a seaweed; kappa [[carrageenan]], from the seaweed ''[[Kappaphycus cottonii]]''; [[Polyclar]] (artificial); and [[gelatin]].<ref>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/536 EFSA.europa.eu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101033222/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/536 |date=1 November 2022 }} ''Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies'', 23 August 2007. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref> Beer marked "suitable for vegans" is clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents.<ref>[http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/consultationresponse/summrespvegi.pdf Food.gov.uk] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002104412/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/consultationresponse/summrespvegi.pdf |date=2 October 2008 }} ''Draft Guidance on the Use of the Terms 'Vegetarian' and 'Vegan' in Food Labelling: Consultation Responses'' pp71, 5 October 2005. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref>
[[File:Cerveceria Quilmes en 1910 - 07.jpg|thumb|[[Cerveza Quilmes|Quilmes]]' Brewery in the early 1900s, [[Argentina]].]]

=== Industry ===

[[File:Dreher Sörgyárak Zrt. (11).jpg|thumb|left|Industrial brewing]]

In the 21st century, larger breweries have repeatedly absorbed smaller breweries. In 2002, [[South African Breweries]] bought the North American [[Miller Brewing Company]] to found [[SABMiller]], becoming the second-largest brewery after North American [[Anheuser-Busch]]. In 2004, the Belgian [[Interbrew]] was the third-largest brewery by volume, and the Brazilian [[AmBev]] was the fifth-largest. They merged into [[InBev]], becoming the largest brewery. In 2007, SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser-Busch when it acquired [[Royal Grolsch]], the brewer of Dutch brand Grolsch.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/BUSINESS/05/30/sab.miller/ |title=Brewer to snap up Miller for $5.6B |work=CNN |date=30 May 2002 |access-date=4 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071207043821/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/BUSINESS/05/30/sab.miller/ |archive-date=7 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2008, when InBev (the second-largest) bought Anheuser-Busch (the third-largest), the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world.<ref>{{cite press release |title=InBev Completes Acquisition of Anheuser-Busch |url=http://www.ab-inbev.com/documents/press_release.pdf |publisher=AB-InBev |date=18 November 2008 |access-date=21 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325102821/http://www.ab-inbev.com/documents/press_release.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2012}}</ref>
{{As of|2020}}, according to the market research firm Technavio, AB InBev was the largest brewing company in the world, with [[Heineken N.V.|Heineken]] second, [[CR Snow]] third, [[Carlsberg Group|Carlsberg]] fourth, and [[Molson Coors]] fifth.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 May 2020 |title=Top 10 Largest Beer Companies and Their Beer Brands in the Global Beer Market 2020 |url=https://blog.technavio.com/blog/top-companies-global-beer-market |access-date=25 October 2020 |website=Technavio}}</ref>

[[File:Beer Consumption by Country (with legend).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Annual beer consumption per capita by country]]

A ''[[microbrewery]]'', or ''craft brewery'', produces a limited amount of beer. The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a 'microbrewery' varies by region and by authority; in the US, it is {{convert|15000|USbeerbbl|Ml e3impgal e3gal|abbr=off}} a year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Microbrewery |department=Market segments |year=2012 |publisher=Brewers Association |url=http://www.brewersassociation.org/pages/business-tools/craft-brewing-statistics/market-segments |access-date=21 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530044704/http://www.brewersassociation.org/pages/business-tools/craft-brewing-statistics/market-segments |archive-date=30 May 2012}}</ref> A ''brewpub'' is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a [[pub]] or other [[bar (establishment)|drinking establishment]]. The highest density of breweries in the world, most of them microbreweries, exists in [[Franconia]], Germany, especially in the district of [[Upper Franconia]], which has about 200&nbsp;breweries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bier und Franken |language=de |trans-title=Beer and Franconians |website=Bierfranken.de |type=main |url=http://www.bierfranken.eu/bierfranken.php }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bierland-Oberfranken |language=de |trans-title=Beer country – upper Franconia |type=main |url=http://www.bierland-oberfranken.de/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101033220/https://www.bierland-franken.de/ |archive-date=1 November 2022 }}</ref> The [[Benedictine]] [[Bayerische Staatsbrauerei Weihenstephan|Weihenstephan]] brewery in [[Bavaria]], Germany, can trace its roots to the year 768, as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery. It claims to be the oldest working brewery in the world.<ref name="Zeit">{{cite news |url=http://www.zeit.de/2012/23/Bier-Flaschenkunde/komplettansicht |title=Flaschenkunde |author1=Christof Siemes |author2=Georg Etscheit |author3=Claas Tatje |author4=Karin Ceballos Betancur |author5=Gunhild Lütge |date=2012-05-31 |newspaper=[[Die Zeit]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711213403/http://www.zeit.de/2012/23/Bier-Flaschenkunde/komplettansicht |access-date=2017-01-05 |archive-date=11 July 2012 }}</ref>

== Varieties ==

{{Main|Beer style}}

[[File:HandPumps.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Cask ale [[Beer engine|hand pumps]] with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweries]]

=== Top-fermented beers ===

Top-fermented beers are most commonly produced with ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', a [[top-fermenting yeast]] which [[Yeast flocculation|clumps]] and rises to the surface,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8RwjqUKLygC&q=top%20fermenting&pg=PA222 |title=Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets |publisher=Wiley |access-date=7 August 2010 |isbn=978-3-527-31674-8 |date=4 June 2009}}</ref> typically between {{convert|15|and|25|C|F}}. At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of [[ester]]s and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, [[Banana beer|banana]], plum, or prune, among others.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=allg4XxlOM4C&dq=beer+fruity+esters&pg=PA13 Google Books] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101033216/https://books.google.com/books?id=allg4XxlOM4C&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=beer+fruity+esters&sig=ACfU3U3y2dmIwcGJCI9sZPpXzWfNHax3Vg |date=1 November 2022 }} Lalli Nykänen, Heikki Suomalainen, ''Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages'' p. 13, Springer (1983), {{ISBN|90-277-1553-X}}.</ref> After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century, "ale" came to mean an unhopped fermented brew, while "beer" meant a brew with an infusion of hops.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&dq=term+ale+-+unhopped+beer&pg=PA2 Google books] F. G. Priest, Graham G. Stewart, ''Handbook of Brewing'' p. 2, CRC Press (2006), {{ISBN|0-8247-2657-X}}.</ref> The term '[[real ale]]' was coined by the [[Campaign for Real Ale]] (CAMRA) in 1973 for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by [[Brewing#Secondary fermentation|secondary fermentation]] in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of [[carbonation|extraneous carbon dioxide]]". It is applied to both [[bottle conditioned]] and [[cask conditioned]] beers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/4810832/Still-bitter-after-all-these-years.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/4810832/Still-bitter-after-all-these-years.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Still bitter after all these years |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |access-date=13 October 2008|first=Peter |last=Oborne |date=9 November 2000}}{{cbignore}}</ref> 

As for the types of top-fermented beers, [[pale ale]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beer-pages.com/protz/features/ipa.htm |title=Roger Protz on India Pale ale|publisher=beer-pages.com |access-date=3 October 2010 |archive-date=8 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608150337/http://www.beer-pages.com/protz/features/ipa.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> predominantly uses pale malt. It is one of the world's major beer styles and includes [[India pale ale]] (IPA).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Beer and Ale Glossary {{!}} The Deluxe Food Lover's Companion - Credo Reference |url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/barronflc/beer_and_ale_glossary/0 |access-date=2023-07-24 |website=search.credoreference.com}}</ref> [[Mild ale]] has a predominantly malty palate. It is usually dark, with an [[Alcohol by volume|abv]] of 3% to 3.6%.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutula|first=David |title=Mild ale : history, brewing techniques, recipes |year=1999 |publisher=Brewers Publications |location=Boulder, Colorado |isbn=978-0937381687 |pages=35–37}}</ref> [[Wheat beer]] is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of [[malted barley]]. Wheat beers are usually [[top-fermented]].<ref name="Warner">{{cite book |last=Warner |first=Eric |title=German Wheat Beer |location=Boulder, Colorado |publisher=Brewers Publications |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-937381-34-2}}</ref> [[Stout]] is a dark beer made using roasted barley, and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast. There are a number of variations including dry stout (such as [[Guinness]]), sweet stout, and Imperial (or Russian) stout.<ref name=":1" /> Stout was originally the strongest variety of [[Porter (beer)|porter]], a dark brown beer popular with the street and river [[Porter (carrier)|porters]] of eighteenth century London.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.camra.org.uk/page.php?id=231 |title=Porter and Stout |publisher=[[CAMRA]] |access-date=24 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319235233/http://www.camra.org.uk/page.php?id=231 |archive-date=19 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Porter Versus Stout: What's the Difference? |url=https://www.foodnetwork.com/how-to/packages/food-network-essentials/porter-vs-stout |access-date=2023-07-24 |website=Food Network}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000041.html |title=Porter casts a long shadow on ale history |publisher=beerhunter.com |access-date=24 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403081327/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000041.html |archive-date=3 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Bottom-fermented beers ===

[[File:Kriek Beer 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Kriek lambic|Kriek]], a lambic beer brewed with cherries]]

[[Lager]] is cool-fermented beer. [[Pale lager]]s are the most commonly drunk beers in the world. Many are of the "[[pilsner]]" type. The name "lager" comes from the German "lagern" for "to store", as brewers in Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars during the warm summer months, allowing the beers to continue to ferment, and to clear any sediment.<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000255.html Beerhunter.com] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906031705/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000255.html |date=6 September 2016 }} Michael Jackson, ''BeerHunter'', "The birth of lager", 1 March 1996. Retrieved 16 September 2008.</ref> Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast (''[[Saccharomyces pastorianus]]''). Lager typically undergoes primary fermentation at {{convert|7|–|12|C|F}}, and then a long secondary fermentation at {{convert|0|–|4|C|F}} (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions inhibit the natural production of [[ester]]s and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer.<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-09/cshl-bbb090308.php Eurekalert.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607144649/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-09/cshl-bbb090308.php |date=7 June 2011 }} Gavin Sherlock, EurekAlert, ''Brewing better beer: Scientists determine the genomic origins of lager yeasts'', 10 September 2008. Retrieved 16 September 2008.</ref> With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically no more than 2 weeks. Some traditional lagers are still stored for several months.<ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Rourke |first1=Tim |title=Science: Warm maturation and cold stabilisation |url=https://www.brewersjournal.info/science-warm-maturation-and-cold-stabilisation/ |website=Brewers Journal |access-date=22 November 2024 |date=15 June 2022}}</ref>

=== Lambic ===

[[Lambic]], a beer of [[Belgian beers|Belgium]], is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as ''[[Brettanomyces bruxellensis]]'' and ''[[Brettanomyces lambicus]]'' are common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as ''[[Lactobacillus]]'' bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness.<ref>Webb, Tim; Pollard, Chris; and Pattyn, Joris; ''Lambicland: Lambikland'', Rev Ed. (Cogan and Mater Ltd, 2004), {{ISBN|0-9547789-0-1}}.</ref>

=== Non-barley beers ===

{{See also|Category:Types of beer}}

Around the world, many traditional and ancient starch-based drinks are classed as beer. In Africa, there are ethnic beers made from [[sorghum]] or [[millet]], such as [[Oshikundu]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2100/268/5/05Section3toBib.pdf |title=Recuperation |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002104412/http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2100/268/5/05Section3toBib.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> in Namibia and [[Tella]] in Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethnomed.org/ethnomed/cultures/ethiop/ethiop_foods.html |title=Traditional Foods of the Central Ethiopian Highlands |publisher=Ethnomed.org |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411224116/http://ethnomed.org/ethnomed/cultures/ethiop/ethiop_foods.html|archive-date=11 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Kyrgyzstan]] also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Surina |first1=Asele |last2=Mack |first2=Glenn Randall |title=Food culture in Russia and Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7MTx_zcIR0C&q=Kyrgyzstan+bozo&pg=PA101 |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=978-0-313-32773-5 |page=101}}</ref> [[Bhutan]], Nepal, [[Tibet]] and [[Sikkim]] also use millet in [[Chhaang]], a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern [[Himalaya]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trek2himalaya.com/nepal/research_culture_tourism.php |title=Research & Culture, Kathmandu rich in Culture, Machchhendranath Temple, Akash Bhairav Temple, Hanumandhoka Durbar Square, Temple of Kumari Ghar, Jaishi Dewal, Martyr's Memorial (Sahid) Gate, Singha Durbar |publisher=Trek2himalaya.com |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013021707/http://www.trek2himalaya.com/nepal/research_culture_tourism.php |archive-date=13 October 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> 

The [[Andes]] in South America has [[Chicha]], made from germinated maize (corn); while the [[indigenous peoples in Brazil]] have [[Cauim]], a traditional drink made since pre-Columbian times by chewing [[manioc]] so that an enzyme ([[amylase]]) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars;<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5GPthV9MyccC&dq=Cauim+chewed&pg=PA143 Books.google.co.uk], Lewin Louis and Louis Levin, ''Phantastica: A Classic Survey on the Use and Abuse of Mind-Altering Plants'', Inner Traditions / Bear & Company (1998), {{ISBN|0-89281-783-6}}</ref> this is similar to [[Masato (beverage)|Masato]] in [[Peru]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Anthropological Review|url=https://archive.org/details/anthropological01londgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/anthropological01londgoog/page/n48 41] |quote=Masato yuca |year=1863 |publisher=[[Trübner & Co|Trübner]] |author=Anthropological Society of London}}</ref>

[[Beer from bread|Beers made from bread]], among the earliest forms of the drink, are [[Sahti]] in Finland, [[Kvass]] in Russia and [[Ukraine]], and [[Bouza (beer)|Bouza]] in Sudan. 4000 years ago fermented bread was used in Mesopotamia. [[Food waste]] activists got inspired by these ancient recipes and use leftover bread to replace a third of the malted barley that would otherwise be used for brewing their craft ale.<ref>{{Cite news |first1=Oli |last1=Bloor |first2=Ed |last2=Scott-Clarke |first3=Katy |last3=Scott |date=18 December 2017 |title=The brewery that turns bread into beer |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/14/world/toast-ale/index.html |access-date=19 November 2020 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref>

== Measurement ==

{{Main|Beer measurement}}

Beer is measured and assessed by colour, by strength and by bitterness. The strength of modern beer is usually around 4% to 6%, measured as [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV).<ref name="BBC News 2010">{{cite news |title=World's strongest beer reclaimed |website=[[BBC News]] |date=16 February 2010 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/north_east/8517607.stm |access-date=5 August 2015}}</ref> The perceived [[bitter (taste)|bitterness]] is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale (IBU), defined in co-operation between the [[American Society of Brewing Chemists]] and the [[European Brewery Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europeanbreweryconvention.org/EBCmain/commiteesgroups/index.php |title=The Analysis Committee |access-date=5 August 2009 |author=European Brewery Convention |quote=The EBC Analysis Committee also works closely together with the 'American Society of Brewing Chemists' (ASBC) to establish so-called 'International methods' with world-wide recognition of applicability. A partnership declaration between EBC and ASBC has been signed. The integration of the IOB methods of analysis and EBC methods is nearing completion. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519041640/http://www.europeanbreweryconvention.org/EBCmain/commiteesgroups/index.php|archive-date=19 May 2009}}</ref> The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale, often abbreviated as EBU, and the bitterness values should be identical.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lehighvalleyhomebrewers.org/glossary.html |title=Beer and Brewing Glossary|access-date=5 August 2009 |author=Lehigh Valley Homebrewers |year=2007 |quote=IBUs (International Bittering Units) – The accepted worldwide standard for measuring bitterness in beer, also known as EBU, based on the estimated alpha acid percentage of the hops used and the length of time they are boiled. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924090107/http://www.lehighvalleyhomebrewers.org/glossary.html |archive-date=24 September 2008}}</ref>

=== Colour ===

[[File:Paulaner.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Paulaner Brewery|Paulaner]] [[dunkel]]&nbsp;– a dark lager]]

Beer colour is determined by the malt.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5PVTAAAAMAAJ&q=The+color+of+beer+is+first+of+all+determined+by+the+malt+type. Google Books] Fritz Ullmann, ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' Vol A-11 pp455, VCH (1985), {{ISBN|3-527-20103-3}}</ref> The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. ''Pale lager'' and ''pale ale'' are terms used for beers made from malt dried and roasted with the fuel [[Coke (fuel)|coke]]. Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term ''pale ale'' was used.<ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer-News/Article-579.htm British Bitter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203045718/http://ratebeer.com/Beer-News/Article-579.htm |date=3 February 2010 }} "A beer style or a way of life?", RateBeer (January 2006). Retrieved 30 September 2008.</ref><ref>Martyn Cornell, ''Beer: The Story of the Pint'', Headline (2004), {{ISBN|0-7553-1165-5}}</ref>

In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the city of [[Plzeň]] in the present-day [[Czech beer|Czech Republic]].<ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000262.html BeerHunter] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712053442/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000262.html |date=12 July 2010 }} Michael Jackson, "A Czech-style classic from Belgium", Beer Hunter Online (7 September 1999). Retrieved 20 September 2008.</ref> The modern pale lager is light in colour due to use of coke for kilning, which gives off heat with little smoke.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qO76CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |page=18 |title=The Beer Wench's Guide to Beer: An Unpretentious Guide to Craft Beer |first=Ashley |last=Routson |publisher=[[Voyageur Press]] |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-7603-4730-0 }}</ref>

Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as [[stout]], use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gtKOyU9ci1MC&dq=roasted+malts+color+beer&pg=PA320 Google Books] Costas Katsigris, Chris Thomas, ''The Bar and Beverage Book'' pp320, John Wiley and Sons (2006), {{ISBN|0-471-64799-3}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QDpi_6VnhegC&dq=roasted+malts+color+beer&pg=PA228 Google Books] J. Scott Smith, Y. H. Hui, ''Food Processing: Principles and Applications'' pp228, Blackwell Publishing (2004), {{ISBN|0-8138-1942-3}}</ref>

=== Strength ===

{{See also|Beer measurement#Strength}}

Beer ranges from less than 3% [[alcohol by volume]] (abv) to around 14% abv, though this strength can be increased to around 20% by re-pitching with champagne yeast,<ref name=Mill/> and to 55% ABV by the freeze-distilling process.<ref name=End/> The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ron |last=Pattinson |date=6 July 2007 |title=European Beer Statistics: Beer production by strength |publisher=European Beer Guide |url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#gravity |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223173711/http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm|archive-date=23 December 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[pale lager]]s that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical ABVof 5%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bendbrewfest.com/index.php?page=glossary |title=Fourth Annual Bend Brew Fest |publisher=Bendbrewfest.com |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929085617/http://bendbrewfest.com/index.php?page=glossary |archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many [[session beer]]s being around 4% abv.<ref>{{cite book|date=6 January 2004 |title=Beer Facts 2003 |publisher=The Brewers of Europe |url=http://www.brewersofeurope.org/docs/publications/beerfacts2003.pdf |access-date=23 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227092024/http://www.brewersofeurope.org/docs/publications/beerfacts2003.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2008 }}</ref> In Belgium, some beers, such as [[Belgian beer#Table beer|table beer]] are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of [[soft drink]]s in some schools.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Andrew |last=Osborn|date=21 June 2001 |title=School dinner? Mine's a lager, please |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,3604,510202,00.html |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221181424/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C510202%2C00.html |archive-date=21 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> The weakest beers are described as [[dealcoholized beer|'alcohol-free']], typically containing 0.05% ABV; this compares to low alcohol beers which may contain 1.2% ABV or less, and conventional beers which average 4.4% ABV.<ref name="DrinkAware">{{cite web |title=What are 'alcohol-free' and 'low alcohol' beers? |url=https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/information-about-alcohol/alcohol-and-the-facts/difference-between-alcoholic-and-alcohol-free-beers |website=DrinkAware |access-date=22 November 2024}}</ref>

{{anchor|Strongest beer}}
The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% ABV (33 [[Plato scale|degrees Plato]], hence Vetter "33") [[doppelbock]], was listed in the 1994 ''[[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records]]'' as the strongest beer at that time,<ref>{{cite book |title=Vetter Brauhaus |publisher=Vetter Brauhaus |url=http://www.brauhaus-vetter.de/|access-date=22 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116135105/http://www.brauhaus-vetter.de/|archive-date=16 January 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=In 1994, the 33 Plato gave it the world's highest gravity. Though the beer can no longer make this claim, it is still one of the world's most renowned strong lagers |publisher =Rate Beer |url=http://www.ratebeer.com/Ratings/Beer/Beer-Ratings.asp?BeerID=13030 |access-date=14 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205042743/http://www.ratebeer.com/Ratings/Beer/Beer-Ratings.asp?BeerID=13030 |archive-date=5 February 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> though [[Samichlaus]], by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the ''Guinness Book of World Records'' as the strongest at 14% ABV.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schloss-eggenberg.at/site/en_srt_samichlaus.asp?id=87 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928164201/http://www.schloss-eggenberg.at/site/en_srt_samichlaus.asp?id=87 |archive-date=28 September 2011 |title=Schloss Eggenberg |publisher=Schloss-eggenberg.at |access-date=28 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000100.html |title=Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter&nbsp;— Mine's a pint of Santa Claus|publisher=Beerhunter.com|access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917204316/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000100.html |archive-date=17 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hurlimann-samichlaus/2399/ |title=Hurlimann Samichlaus from Hürlimann (Feldschlösschen), a Doppelbock style beer: An unofficial page for Hurlimann Samichlaus from Hürlimann (Feldschlösschen) in Zürich, Switzerland |publisher=Ratebeer.com |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914100453/http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hurlimann-samichlaus/2399/ |archive-date=14 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since then, some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. [[Samuel Adams (beer)|Samuel Adams]] reached 20% ABV with ''Millennium'',<ref name=Mill>{{cite news |date=13 February 2002 |title=The 48 proof beer |periodical=Beer Break |publisher=Realbeer |volume=2 |issue=19 |url=http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20020214.php |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226230401/http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20020214.php |archive-date=26 December 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% ABV with [[Utopias (beer)|Utopias]]. The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz's Super Brew by Parish Brewery, a 23% ABVbeer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beermad.org.uk/brewery/751 |title=Parish: brewery detail from Beermad|publisher=beermad.org.uk|access-date=21 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829183922/http://www.beermad.org.uk/brewery/751|archive-date=29 August 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brewerysouvenirs.co.uk/parishbrewery/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208054934/http://www.brewerysouvenirs.co.uk/parishbrewery/index.htm |archive-date=8 December 2008 |title=Brewery Souvenirs – Parish Brewery |publisher=brewerysouvenirs.co.uk |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 February 2009}}</ref> In September 2011, the Scottish brewery [[BrewDog]] produced Ghost Deer, which, at 28%, they claim to be the world's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone.<ref name="ghostdeer">{{cite web |url=http://www.brewdog.com/blog-article/ghost-deer |title=BrewDog&nbsp;— Ghost Deer |publisher=brewdog.com |access-date=19 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924083057/http://www.brewdog.com/blog-article/ghost-deer |archive-date=24 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbräu's 2011 ''Schorschbock 57'' with 57,5% ABV.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brewdog.com/blog-article/the-battle-to-brew-the-worlds-strongest-ever-beer |title=BrewDog Blog |author=MTC Media |work=BrewDog |access-date=18 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204170417/http://www.brewdog.com/blog-article/the-battle-to-brew-the-worlds-strongest-ever-beer |archive-date=4 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.benz-weltweit.de/derbraeuvomberch/index_eng.html |title=Welcome to Schorschbräu – Home of the Strongest Beers on Earth |work=benz-weltweit.de |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225145026/http://www.benz-weltweit.de/derbraeuvomberch/index_eng.html |archive-date=25 December 2012}}</ref> It was preceded by ''The End of History'', a 55% [[Belgian ale]],<ref name=End>{{cite web |url=http://news.stv.tv/scotland/north/187819-scots-brewery-releases-worlds-strongest-and-most-expensive-beer/ |title=Scots brewery releases world's strongest and most expensive beer |publisher=news.stv.tv|access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723194406/http://news.stv.tv/scotland/north/187819-scots-brewery-releases-worlds-strongest-and-most-expensive-beer/ |archive-date=23 July 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> made by BrewDog in 2010. The same company had previously made ''Sink The Bismarck!'', a 41% ABV [[India pale ale|IPA]],<ref name=Sink>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/7250444/Strongest-beer-in-the-world-Brewdog-produces-41pc-ale.html |title=Strongest beer in the world: Brewdog produces 41pc ale|work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=24 February 2010 |date=16 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218131428/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/7250444/Strongest-beer-in-the-world-Brewdog-produces-41pc-ale.html |archive-date=18 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> and ''Tactical Nuclear Penguin'', a 32% ABV [[Imperial stout]]. Each of these beers are made using the [[eisbock]] method of [[fractional freezing]], in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed, until the desired strength is reached,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/north_east/8380412.stm |title='World's strongest' beer with 32% strength launched|work=BBC News |access-date=27 November 2009|date=26 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091127053016/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/north_east/8380412.stm |archive-date=27 November 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brewdog.com/product.php?id=46 |title=Buy Tactical Nuclear Penguin |work=BrewDog Beer|access-date=26 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129120007/http://www.brewdog.com/product.php?id=46 |archive-date=29 November 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> a process that may class the product as [[Distilled drink|spirits]] rather than beer.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/all-we-can-eat/beer/beer-anchors-away.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004165607/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/all-we-can-eat/beer/beer-anchors-away.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 October 2012 |title=All We Can Eat&nbsp;– Beer: Anchors away |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=24 July 2010 }}</ref> The German brewery Schorschbräu's ''Schorschbock'', a 31% ABV eisbock,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2009/nov/26/worlds-strongest-beer-scottish-brewdog|title=Scottish brewer claims world's strongest beer &#124; Society &#124; guardian.co.uk |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |access-date=27 November 2009 |first=Severin |last=Carrell |date=26 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130153519/http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2009/nov/26/worlds-strongest-beer-scottish-brewdog |archive-date=30 November 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schorschbraeu.de/schorschbraeu/site/ |title=Willkommen beim Schorschbräu&nbsp;– Die handwerkliche Kleinbrauerei im Fränkischen Seenland |publisher=schorschbraeu.de |access-date=26 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217014231/http://www.schorschbraeu.de/schorschbraeu/site/ |archive-date=17 December 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ratebeer.com/beer/schorschbrau-schorschbock-31/97069/|title=Schorschbräu Schorschbock 31% from Kleinbrauerei Schorschbräu&nbsp;– Ratebeer|publisher=ratebeer.com|access-date=26 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207083823/http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/schorschbrau-schorschbock-31/97069/|archive-date=7 December 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Hair of the Dog Brewing Company|Hair of the Dog]]'s ''Dave'', a 29% abv [[barley wine]] made in 1994, used the same fractional freezing method.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hair-of-the-dog-dave/23897/|title=Hair of the Dog Dave from Hair of the Dog Brewing Company|publisher=ratebeer.com|access-date=4 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129144911/http://ratebeer.com/beer/hair-of-the-dog-dave/23897/|archive-date=29 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> A 60% ABV [[beer cocktail|blend of beer with whiskey]] was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE66S3SR20100729 |title=Brewer claims world's strongest beer |work=Reuters |access-date=8 September 2010 |first=Ben |last=Berkowitz |date=29 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906063036/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE66S3SR20100729 |archive-date=6 September 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brouwerijhetkoelschip.nl/cms/ |title=Welkom bij Brouwerij Het Koelschip |publisher=brouwerijhetkoelschip.nl |access-date=8 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803063820/http://www.brouwerijhetkoelschip.nl/cms/|archive-date=3 August 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Serving ==

===Draught ===

{{Main|Draught beer|Cask ale}}

[[File:Cask Ales.jpg|thumb|A selection of [[cask beer]]s]]

Draught (also spelt "draft") beer from a pressurised [[keg]] using a lever-style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing [[beer tap|tap]] or faucet. Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. [[Nitrogen]] produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense [[Beer head|head]] and a creamy [[mouthfeel]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Draft Beer Quality Manual |url=https://cdn.brewersassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/13094643/Draught-Beer-Quality-Manual-2019.pdf |publisher=Brewers Publications |access-date=22 November 2024 |location=Boulder, Colorado |pages=3–4 |chapter=Draught Equipment and System Configurations |date=2019}}</ref> In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the [[Widget (beer)|beer widget]], a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a moderately dense, tight head. This approximates the effect of serving from a keg, at least for a British-style beer which does not have a specially large head.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/question446.htm |title=How does the widget in a beer can work? |publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]] |access-date=5 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102214918/http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/question446.htm |archive-date=2 November 2007 |url-status=live |date=16 August 2000}}</ref> 

Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and [[Pasteurization|unpasteurised]] beers. These beers are termed "[[real ale]]" by the [[Campaign for Real Ale|CAMRA]] organisation. When a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a "[[stillage]]" frame, designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between {{convert|11|–|13|C|F|disp=or}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cask-marque.co.uk/beer-information/beer-temperature?highlight=YToxOntpOjA7czoxMToidGVtcGVyYXR1cmUiO30=|title=Beer Temperature |publisher=cask-marque.co.uk |access-date=21 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027200750/http://www.cask-marque.co.uk/beer-information/beer-temperature?highlight=YToxOntpOjA7czoxMToidGVtcGVyYXR1cmUiO30=|archive-date=27 October 2012 |df=dmy-all |date=7 July 2014 }}</ref> before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a rubber bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard [[spile]] is used to open a hole in the uppermost side of the cask. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period of hours to days to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully [[Brewing#Conditioning|condition the beer]]. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass.<ref>{{cite book |title=Draft Beer Quality Manual |url=https://cdn.brewersassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/13094643/Draught-Beer-Quality-Manual-2019.pdf |publisher=Brewers Publications |access-date=22 November 2024 |location=Boulder, Colorado |pages=95 to 97 |chapter=Appendix D: Notes on Serving Cask Ale |date=2019}}</ref>

Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences.<ref>{{cite web |title=Draught Beats Bottled in Life Cycle Analysis |url=http://www.treehugger.com/clean-technology/draught-beer-beats-bottled-in-life-cycle-assessment.html#ch01 |publisher=treehugger.com |access-date=15 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=LCA of an Italian lager |journal=The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=133–139 |doi=10.1065/lca2007.02.306 |year=2007 |last1=Cordella |first1=Mauro |last2=Tugnoli |first2=Alessandro |last3=Spadoni |first3=Gigliola |last4=Santarelli |first4=Francesco |last5=Zangrando |first5=Tullio |s2cid=111273627 }}</ref> A life cycle study of one beer brand, including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management, shows that the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds).<ref name="newbelgium">{{cite web |title=Carbon Footprint of Fat Tire Amber Ale |url=http://www.newbelgium.com/files/shared/the-carbon-footprint-of-fat-tire-amber-ale-2008-public-dist-rfs_0.pdf |publisher=newbelgium.com |access-date=15 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224214330/http://www.newbelgium.com/files/shared/the-carbon-footprint-of-fat-tire-amber-ale-2008-public-dist-rfs_0.pdf |archive-date=24 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square metres (26 square feet).<ref>{{cite web |title=Ecological effects of beer |url=http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Beer |publisher=ecofx.org |access-date=15 January 2008 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511150428/http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Beer |url-status=dead }}</ref> Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<ref name="newbelgium" /> Where legal, the use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar, rather than buying pre-bottled beer, can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption.<ref>{{cite web |title=When Passions Collide … |url=http://terrapass.com/society/when-passions-c-1/ |publisher=terrapass.com |access-date=15 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111200646/http://www.terrapass.com/society/when-passions-c-1/ |archive-date=11 November 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

=== Packaging ===

{{Main|Beer bottle|Drink can}}

[[File:Dutch beers.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A selection of Belgian, Danish, Dutch, German, and Irish beers]]

Most beers are cleared of yeast by [[filtered beer|filtering]] when packaged in bottles and cans.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-FviAgcmo90C&dq=beer+classification+ale+lager&pg=PA59 Google books] Charles W. Bamforth, ''Beer: Tap into the Art and Science of Brewing'' pp. 58–59, Oxford University Press US (2003), {{ISBN|0-19-515479-7}}. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref> However, [[bottle conditioning|bottle conditioned]] beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GG-60Vtl81EC&dq=beer+bottle+conditioned&pg=PA370 Google Books] T. Boekhout, Vincent Robert, ''Yeasts in Food: Beneficial and Detrimental Aspects'' pp. 370–371, Behr's Verlag DE (2003), {{ISBN|3-86022-961-3}}. Retrieved 29 September 2008.</ref> 

Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Beer Statistics—beer sales by package type|publisher=European Beer Guide|url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#package|access-date=5 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070426040130/http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm|archive-date=26 April 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by [[Crown Holdings]] for the 2010 [[FIFA World Cup]] is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.packwebasia.com/design/packaging-materials-innovation/695-full-aperture-end-technology-makes-drinking-easy |title=Pack Web Asia – Full aperture end technology makes drinking easy |work=Pack Web Asia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202230222/http://www.packwebasia.com/design/packaging-materials-innovation/695-full-aperture-end-technology-makes-drinking-easy|archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing spoilage) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allaboutbeer.com/features/packaging.html |title=Beer Packaging Secrets |publisher=All About Beer Magazine |access-date=5 November 2007 |quote=From a quality point of view, cans are much like bottles. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928060803/http://www.allaboutbeer.com/features/packaging.html |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> Plastic ([[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]]) bottles are used by some breweries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.packaging-gateway.com/projects/holsten/ |title=Holsten-Brauerei Pet Line for Bottled Beer, Brunswick, Germany |publisher=Packaging-Gateway.com |access-date=5 November 2007}}</ref>

=== Temperature ===

The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer [[pale lager]] to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength [[pale ale]] to be served cool, while a strong [[barley wine]] or [[imperial stout]] to be served at room temperature.<ref>[http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20000921.php RealBeer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511050203/http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20000921.php |date=11 May 2010 }} ''Beyond the coldest beer in town'', 21 September 2000. Retrieved 11 October 2008.</ref>

Beer writer [[Michael Jackson (writer)|Michael Jackson]] proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled ({{convert|7|°C|°F|abbr=on|disp=or}}) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled ({{convert|8|°C|°F|abbr=on|disp=or}}) for [[Berliner Weisse]] and other wheat beers; lightly chilled ({{convert|9|°C|°F|abbr=on|disp=or}}) for all dark lagers, [[altbier]] and German wheat beers; cellar temperature ({{convert|13|°C|°F|abbr=on|disp=or}}) for regular British [[ale]], [[stout]] and most [[Belgian beer|Belgian specialities]]; and room temperature ({{convert|15.5|°C|°F|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) for strong dark ales (especially [[trappist beer]]) and [[barley wine]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jackson|2000}}</ref>

Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial [[refrigeration]] and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BuzNzm-x0l8C&dq=history+of+lager+refrigeration&pg=PA95 Google Books] Jack S. Blocker, David M. Fahey, Ian R. Tyrrell, ''Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History'' pp95, ABC-CLIO (2003), {{ISBN|978-1-57607-833-4}}</ref> Chilling beer makes it more refreshing,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMB1zH16Q-wC&q=chilled%20drink%20is%20more%20refreshing&pg=PA463 |title=Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation |publisher=Cengage Learning |access-date=7 August 2010 |isbn=978-0-618-30499-8 |year=2004}}</ref> though below 15.5&nbsp;°C (60&nbsp;°F) the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BCLT3hH84GoC&dq=temperature+on+taste&pg=PA178 Google Books] Howard Hillman, ''The New Kitchen Science'' pp178, Houghton Mifflin Books (2003), {{ISBN|0-618-24963-X}}</ref> and reduces it significantly below {{convert|10|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GepCDssW1FYC&dq=taste+perception+temperature+below+50+F&pg=PA27 Google Books] Robert J. Harrington, ''Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience'' pp. 27–28, John Wiley and Sons (2007), {{ISBN|0-471-79407-4}}</ref> Beer served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature—reveal more of their flavours. [[Cask Marque]], a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°–14&nbsp;°C (53°–57&nbsp;°F) for cask ales to be served.<ref>[http://www.cask-marque.co.uk/cmoffer/standards.php Cask Marque] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024050245/http://www.cask-marque.co.uk/cmoffer/standards.php |date=24 October 2008 }} Standards & Charters. Retrieved 11 October 2008.</ref>

=== Vessels ===

{{Main|Beer glassware}}

Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a [[beer stein]], a mug, a [[pewter]] [[tankard]], a beer bottle or a can; or at [[music festival]]s and some bars and nightclubs, from a plastic cup. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style.<ref>F. G. Priest, Graham G. Stewart, ''Handbook of Brewing'' (2006), 48</ref> Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales of their product.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepublican.com/story.asp?storycode=64595 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724020628/http://www.thepublican.com/story.asp?storycode=64595 |archive-date=24 July 2011 |title=How Miller Brands partners with licensees to drive sales |publisher=thepublican.com |access-date=17 October 2009}}</ref>

The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the [[beer tap|tap]] or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and the release of [[carbonation]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xnLeJAPYzGkC&dq=pouring+beer&pg=PA211 Google Books] Ray Foley, Heather Dismore, ''Running a Bar For Dummies'' pp. 211–212, For Dummies (2007), {{ISBN|0-470-04919-7}}.</ref>

A [[beer tower]] or portable beer tap is sometimes used in bars and restaurants to allow a group of customers to serve themselves. The device consists of a tall container with a cooling mechanism and a beer tap at its base.<ref >{{cite web | url=http://www.boston.com/yourtown/news/allston_brighton/2011/03/boston_licensing_officials_ban.html |last=Rocheleau |first=Matt |title=Boston licensing officials suspend use of large, portable "beer towers" |publisher=Boston.com |date=29 March 2011 |accessdate=24 April 2014}}</ref>

==Chemistry==
{{main|Beer chemistry}}
[[File:Fluorescence in beer @ 450nm illumination.jpg|thumb|Organic [[aromatic acid]]s found naturally in beer, such as [[tryptophan]], [[tyrosine]], and [[phenylalanine]], absorb blue light and [[fluorescence|fluoresce]] in green under 450 nm laser light.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dramićanin |first1=Tatjana |last2=Zeković |first2=Ivana |last3=Periša |first3=Jovana |last4=Dramićanin |first4=Miroslav D. |date=8 August 2019 |title=The parallel factor analysis of beer fluorescence |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10895-019-02421-0 |journal=[[Journal of Fluorescence]] |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=1103–1111 |doi=10.1007/s10895-019-02421-0 |pmid=31396828 |s2cid=199507550 |via=springer.com|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]
Beer contains the phenolic acids [[4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid]], [[vanillic acid]], [[caffeic acid]], [[syringic acid]], [[p-Coumaric acid|''p''-coumaric acid]], [[ferulic acid]], and [[sinapic acid]]. [[Alkaline hydrolysis]] experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nardini |first1=M. |year=2004 |title=Determination of free and bound phenolic acids in beer |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=84 |pages=137–143 |doi=10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00257-7}}</ref> [[Hops]], and beer made with it, contain [[8-prenylnaringenin]] which is a potent [[phytoestrogen]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nikolic |first1=D. |last2=Li |first2=Y. |last3=Chadwick |first3=L.R. |last4=Grubjesic |first4=S. |last5=Schwab |first5=P. |last6=Metz |first6=P. |last7=van&nbsp;Breemen |first7=R.B. |year=2004 |title=Metabolism of 8-prenylnaringenin, a potent phytoestrogen from hops (Humulus lupulus), by human liver microsomes |journal=Drug Metabolism and Disposition |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=272–279 |doi=10.1124/dmd.32.2.272 |pmid=14744951 |s2cid=17486431}}</ref> Hop also contains [[myrcene]], [[humulene]], [[xanthohumol]], [[isoxanthohumol]], [[myrcenol]], [[linalool]], tannins, and [[resin]]. The alcohol [[2-Methyl-2-butanol|2M2B]] is a component of hops brewing.<ref name="Herb2K">{{cite web |title=Hops: Humulus lupulus |url=http://www.herbs2000.com/herbs/herbs_hops.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215172952/http://www.herbs2000.com/herbs/herbs_hops.htm |archive-date=15 February 2009 |access-date=14 February 2009 |website=herbs2000.com}}</ref>

Barley, in the form of malt, brings the condensed [[tannin]]s [[prodelphinidin B3|prodelphinidins B3]], [[Prodelphinidin B9|B9]] and [[Prodelphinidin C2|C2]] into beer. [[Tryptophol]], [[tyrosol]], and [[phenethyl alcohol|phenylethanol]] are aromatic higher alcohols ([[congener (alcohol)|congeners]]) produced by yeast during the brewing process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szlavko |first1=Clara M. |year=1973 |title=Tryptophol, tyrosol, and phenylethanol - the aromatic higher alcohols in beer |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=283–288 |doi=10.1002/j.2050-0416.1973.tb03541.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> as secondary products of [[alcoholic fermentation]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ribéreau-Gayon |first1=P. |last2=Sapis |first2=J.C. |year=1965 |title=On the presence in wine of tyrosol, tryptophol, phenylethyl alcohol and gamma-butyrolactone, secondary products of alcoholic fermentation |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |series=Série D |volume=261 |issue=8 |pages=1915–1916 |pmid=4954284 |language=fr}}
</ref>

=== Nutrition ===

Beers vary in their nutritional content.<ref name="Sugar">{{cite web |first=Jenny |last=Sugar |url=http://www.fitsugar.com/Calories-Popular-Beers-1504697 |title=Calories in Popular Beers |publisher=Fitsugar.com |date=25 October 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013 |archive-date=20 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820153709/http://www.fitsugar.com/Calories-Popular-Beers-1504697 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ingredients used to make beer, including the [[Yeast#Beer|yeast]], provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including [[magnesium]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]], [[phosphorus]], [[biotin]], [[chromium]] and [[B vitamins]]. Beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid [[bread]]",<ref>{{cite conference |first=Charles W. |last=Bamforth |title=Beer as liquid bread: Overlapping science. |book-title=World Grains Summit 2006: Foods and Beverages |date=17–20 September 2006 |location=San Francisco, California |url=http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/Documents/Pre2009Abstracts/2006Abstracts/O-76.htm |access-date=6 November 2006 |archive-date=17 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217052902/http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/Documents/Pre2009Abstracts/2006Abstracts/O-76.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> though beer is not a meal in itself.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eHArQOTf_WQC&pg=PA137 |page=137 |title=Beer: Health and Nutrition |first=Charles W. |last=Bamforth |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |date=15 April 2008 |isbn=978-1405147972}}</ref>

{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable col1left" style=text-align:right;
|+ '''Nutrition from different beers<br/>(serving size: 12 oz./355 ml)'''
|-
! Beer Brand !! Carbohydrate <br/> (g) !! Alcohol <br/> (%) !! Energy <br/> (kcal) 
|-
| [[Anheuser-Busch brands#Budweiser Select 55|Budweiser Select 55]] || 1.8 || 2.4 || 55 
|-
| [[Coors Light]] || 5 || 4.2 || 102 
|-
| [[Guinness]] Draught || 10 || 4.0 || 126 
|-
| [[Sierra Nevada Brewing Company|Sierra Nevada]] Bigfoot || 30.3 || 9.6 || 330 
|}

==Health effects==

{{See also|Health effects of alcohol|Alcohol (drug)#Adverse effects|Short-term effects of alcohol consumption}}

A 2018 systematic analysis found that ethanol consumption increases [[mortality rate]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Griswold |first=Max G. |last2=Fullman |first2=Nancy |last3=Hawley |first3=Caitlin |last4=Arian |first4=Nicholas |last5=Zimsen |first5=Stephanie R. M. |last6=Tymeson |first6=Hayley D. |last7=Venkateswaran |first7=Vidhya |last8=Tapp |first8=Austin Douglas |last9=Forouzanfar |first9=Mohammad H. |last10=Salama |first10=Joseph S. |last11=Abate |first11=Kalkidan Hassen |last12=Abate |first12=Degu |last13=Abay |first13=Solomon M. |last14=Abbafati |first14=Cristiana |last15=Abdulkader |first15=Rizwan Suliankatchi |display-authors=5 |date=2018 |title=Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31310-2/fulltext |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=392 |issue=10152 |pages=1015–1035 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=30146330|pmc=6148333 }}</ref> Alcohol use is the third leading cause of early deaths in the United States.<ref name="Kee2014" /> In the United States, a total of 88,000 deaths per year (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol.<ref name="NIH2015Stats">{{cite web |title=Alcohol Facts and Statistics |url=http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |access-date=9 May 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081638/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |url-status=dead}}</ref> No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking alcoholic beverages.<ref name="Kee2014" /><ref>[http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyEating/Alcohol-and-Heart-Health_UCM_305173_Article.jsp ''Alcohol and Heart Health''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119121521/http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyEating/Alcohol-and-Heart-Health_UCM_305173_Article.jsp |date=19 January 2016 }} American Heart Association</ref> Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men, per day) is associated with a ''decreased'' risk of [[heart disease]], [[stroke]], [[diabetes mellitus]], and early death,<ref name="Kee2014">{{cite journal |last1=O'Keefe|first1=J.H. |last2=Bhatti |first2=S.K. |last3=Bajwa|first3=A. |last4=DiNicolantonio|first4=J.J. |last5=Lavie|first5=C.J. |title=Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy. |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |date=March 2014 |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=382–93 |pmid=24582196 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005 |doi-access=free}}</ref> but some of these studies combined former ethanol drinkers and lifelong abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, which obscures the health benefits of lifelong abstention from ethanol. The [[Long-term effects of alcohol consumption|long-term health effects]] of continuous, moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing [[alcoholism]] and [[alcoholic liver disease]]. In addition, like all alcoholic drinks, it is an [[IARC group 1]] carcinogen.<ref name="FOOTNOTEIARC20091102">{{cite web |title=IARC Strengthens Its Findings on Several Carcinogenic Personal Habits and Household Exposures |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2009/pdfs/pr196_E.pdf |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)|accessdate=August 1, 2014 |format=Press release |quote=November 2, 2009 ‐‐ IARC has updated the cancer assessments of several personal habits and household exposures that cause cancer, including tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, and household coal smoke. The update was conducted with the advice of 30 scientists from 10 countries who met at IARC in October 2009. [...] The Working Group concluded that acetaldehyde associated with alcohol consumption is carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) and confirmed the classification in Group 1 of alcohol consumption and of ethanol in alcoholic beverages.}}</ref> 

[[Alcoholism]], also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] that results in problems.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jill |last=Littrell |title=Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism: Volume II: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=Hoboken |isbn=978-1317783145 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2k57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |quote=The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems}}</ref> It was previously divided into two types: [[alcohol abuse]] and [[alcohol dependence]].<ref name="NIH2003">{{cite journal |last1=Hasin |first1=Deborah |title=Classification of Alcohol Use Disorders |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-1/5-17.htm |journal=Alcohol Research & Health |access-date=28 February 2015 |date=December 2003 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=5–17 |pmid=15301396 |pmc=6676702 |archive-date=18 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318014903/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-1/5-17.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NIH2013">{{cite web |title=Alcohol Use Disorder: A Comparison Between DSM–IV and DSM–5 |url=https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/alcohol-use-disorder-comparison-between-dsm |access-date=9 May 2015 |date=November 2013}}</ref> In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, [[Alcohol withdrawal syndrome|withdrawal]] occurs when stopping, and [[alcohol tolerance]] has occurred with use.<ref name="NIH2013" /> Alcoholism reduces a person's [[life expectancy]] by around ten years.<ref name="Schu2014">{{cite journal |last1=Schuckit |first1=M.A. |title=Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens).|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |date=27 November 2014 |volume=371 |issue=22 |pages=2109–13 |pmid=25427113 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1407298 |s2cid=205116954 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th}}</ref>

Overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a [[beer belly]], rather than beer consumption, though a 2004 study found a link between [[binge drinking]] and a beer belly.<ref>{{cite news |title=Drink binges 'cause beer belly'|work=BBC News|date=28 November 2004|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4048969.stm|access-date=6 November 2006}}</ref> Some diet books in the past suggested that beer has an undesirably high [[glycemic index]] of 110, the same as [[maltose]]; however, the maltose in beer is [[Metabolism|metabolized]] by yeast during fermentation, thus beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bob |last=Skilnik|title=Is there maltose in your beer? |publisher=Realbeer |url=http://www.realbeer.com/edu/health/maltose.php |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071219202244/http://www.realbeer.com/edu/health/maltose.php |archive-date=19 December 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The multi-step process of beer production is effective at removing [[pesticide]] residues from grain. At each step (e.g. mashing or malting) pesticide levels are typically reduced by 50-90%, varying with the particular process and pesticide's chemical properties.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaczyński |first1=Piotr |last2=Iwaniuk |first2=Piotr |last3=Hrynko |first3=Izabela |last4=Łuniewski |first4=Stanisław |last5=Łozowicka |first5=Bożena |title=The effect of the multi-stage process of wheat beer brewing on the behavior of pesticides according to their physicochemical properties |journal=Food Control |date=June 2024 |volume=160 |article-number=110356 |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110356}}</ref>

== Society and culture ==

{{anchor|Beer culture}}
{{See also|Drinking culture|Category:Beer culture}}

[[File:Oktoberfest2.jpg|thumb|A tent at Munich's [[Oktoberfest]] in Germany. The event is known as the world's largest beer festival.]]

Some of the earliest writings mention the production and distribution of beer: the {{circa}} 1750 BC Babylonian [[Code of Hammurabi]] included laws regulating it,<ref>{{cite web |title=Beer before bread |department=Alaska Science Forum |id=1039 |editor-first=Carla |editor-last=Helfferich |publisher=[[University of Alaska]] |series=Geophysical Institute |place=Fairbanks, Alaska |url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF10/1039.html |access-date=13 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509121452/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF10/1039.html |archive-date=9 May 2008}}</ref> while "The Hymn to [[Ninkasi]]", a {{circa}} 1800 BC prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, a recipe for it.<ref name=Nin-kasi>{{cite web |title=Nin-kasi: Mesopotamian goddess of beer |department=Spotlight |website=Matrifocus |year=2006 |editor-first=Johanna |editor-last=Stuckey |url=http://www.matrifocus.com/SAM06/spotlight.htm |access-date=13 May 2008}}</ref><ref name=sumer>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy A. |last2=Cunningham |first2=Graham |last3=Robson |first3=Eleanor |author3-link=Eleanor Robson |year=2004 |title=The Literature of Ancient Sumer |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-926311-0}}</ref>

In many societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic drink. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, or other pub games; attending [[beer festival]]s; engaging in zythology (the study of beer);<ref>{{cite news |title=Don't worry, be hoppy: The Weekender's Guide to Beer |url=http://siouxcityjournal.com/weekender/community/don-t-worry-be-hoppy-the-weekender-s-guide-to/article_f7312865-b20b-59ef-8492-037060167bd8.html |access-date=17 August 2015 |work=Sioux City Journal |date=8 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=International Beer Day: 10 things you never knew about beer |url=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/food/international-beer-day-10-things-you-never-knew-about-beer/story-fneuz92c-1227010274449 |access-date=17 August 2015 |work=The News |date=1 August 2014 |archive-date=28 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028013448/http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/food/international-beer-day-10-things-you-never-knew-about-beer/story-fneuz92c-1227010274449 |url-status=dead}}</ref> visiting a [[pub crawl|series of pubs]] in one evening; visiting breweries; beer-oriented tourism; or [[rating beer]].<ref>[[Leslie Dunkling]] & Michael Jackson, ''The Guinness Drinking Companion'', Lyons Press (2003), {{ISBN|1-58574-617-7}}</ref> [[Drinking game]]s, such as [[beer pong]], accompany the drinking of beer.<ref name="Shott 2005">{{cite web |last=Shott |first=Chris |title=The Pong Arm of the Law |work=The Washington City Paper |date=7 October 2005 |url=http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/tell/2005/tell1007.html |access-date=27 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215656/http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/tell/2005/tell1007.html |archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> Even having a "[[shower beer]]" has developed a following.<ref name="dailydot1">Fleishman, Cooper (11 December 2013). [https://www.dailydot.com/irl/showerbeer-internet-history/ The Internet history of the showerbeer], ''[[The Daily Dot]]''</ref> A relatively new profession is that of the [[beer sommelier]], who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings. Some breweries have developed beers to [[Foodpairing|pair with food]].<ref name='Murphy'>{{cite news |first=Linda |last=Murphy |title=Chipotle beer heats up Cinco de Mayo |date=4 May 2006 |url =http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/05/04/WIGA7IJFVB1.DTL |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date =17 September 2007 }}</ref><ref name='Beervana'>{{cite news |first=John |last=Foyston |title=Fred Eckhardt 's Beer-and-Cheese Tasting |date=18 July 2007 |publisher=Oregonian |url=http://blog.oregonlive.com/thebeerhere/2007/07/fred_ecckhardt_s_beerand_chees.html |work=The Beer Here blog |access-date=17 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124213528/http://blog.oregonlive.com/thebeerhere/2007/07/fred_ecckhardt_s_beerand_chees.html |archive-date=24 November 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Janet |last=Fletcher |title=Forget wine and cheese parties – the true soul mate for fromage isn't made from grape juice. |date=17 February 2005 |url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/02/17/WIGHKBA1OC1.DTL |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date =17 September 2007 }}</ref> Wine writer [[Malcolm Gluck]] disputed the need to pair beer with food, while beer writers [[Roger Protz]] and Melissa Cole contested that claim.<ref>Protz, Roger, ''The Guardian'': Word of Mouth (15 January 2009). [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/jan/15/beer-wine-britain-drinking-habits Let's hear it for beer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101033319/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/jan/15/beer-wine-britain-drinking-habits |date=1 November 2022 }}</ref><ref>Cole, Melissa, ''The Guardian'': Word of Mouth (27 January 2009). [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/jan/23/gluck-cole-beer-wine-drink The eye of the ale storm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101033211/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/jan/23/gluck-cole-beer-wine-drink |date=1 November 2022 }}</ref><ref>''[[The Guardian]]'': Word of Mouth (6 February 2009). [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/feb/06/gluck-cole-beer-food-matching Beer-drinking sadsacks strike back] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305010931/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2009/feb/06/gluck-cole-beer-food-matching |date=5 March 2017 }}</ref>

Beer is considered to be a [[social lubricant]],<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-76964204.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611094703/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-76964204.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 June 2014 |title=Beer Boss |first=Michael |last=Sherer |journal=Cheers |date=1 June 2001 |access-date=14 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dietler |first=Michael |title=Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=35 |pages=229–249 |year=2006|doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123120 }}</ref> and is [[Beer consumption by country|consumed in countries]] all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as [[Beer in Syria|Syria]], and in some [[Beer in Africa|African countries]]. Sales of beer are four times those of wine, which is the second most popular alcoholic drink.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beer Production Per Capita |work=European Beer Guide |url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#consumption |access-date=17 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061028165040/http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm |archive-date=28 October 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==

{{Portal|Beer|Food}}

<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* [[Beer and breweries by region]]
* [[List of barley-based drinks]]
* [[List of beer cocktails]]
* [[List of drinks]]
* [[List of countries by beer consumption per capita]]
* [[List of food and drink awards]]
* [[List of national drinks]]
}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->

==References==

{{reflist|25em}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{refbegin|colwidth=25em|small=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Jeffrey W. |year=2013 |title=Brewed in Japan: The evolution of the Japanese beer industry |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's work in a changing world, 1300–1600 |first=Judith M. |last=Bennett |date=26 January 1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-512650-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Dumper |first2=Bruce E. |last2=Stanley |year=2007 |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A historical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-919-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&q=tablets+of+ebla&pg=PA141 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Beer: The story of the pint |first=Martyn |last=Cornell |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Headline |isbn=978-0-7553-1165-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential wisdom for the discerning drinker, a useful miscellany |first=Jeff |last=Evans |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=CAMRA Books |isbn=978-1-85249-198-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The World Encyclopedia of Beer |first=Brian |last=Glover |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Lorenz Books |isbn=978-0-7548-0933-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Beer: An Illustrated History |first=Brian |last=Glover |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Hermes House |isbn=978-1-84038-597-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Beer Book |first=Tim |last=Hampson |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-1-4093-5347-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Beer and Britannia: An inebriated history of Britain |first=Peter |last=Haydon |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Sutton |isbn=978-0-7509-2748-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=A History of Beer and Brewing |first=I. |last=Hornsey |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |isbn=978-0-85404-630-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The World Guide to Beer |first=Michael |last=Jackson |date=6 November 1977 |publisher=Apple Press |author-link=Michael Jackson (writer) |isbn=1-85076-000-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The New World Guide to Beer |first=Michael |last=Jackson |date=26 January 1988 |publisher=Courage Books |author-link=Michael Jackson (writer) |isbn=0-89471-884-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Michael Jackson's Beer Companion |first=Michael |last=Jackson |author-link=Michael Jackson (writer) |isbn=0-7624-0772-7 |date=2000|publisher=Running Press}} <!--in use-->
* {{cite web |first=Thomas W. |last=Kavanagh |title=Archeological parameters for the origins of beer |website=morebeer.com |department=brewing techniques |id=issue&nbsp;2.5 |url=http://morebeer.com/brewingtechniques/library/backissues/issue2.5/kavanagh.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406154556/http://www.morebeer.com/brewingtechniques/library/backissues/issue2.5/kavanagh.html |archive-date=6 April 2017  |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Beer in America: The early years 1587–1840 — beer's role in the settling of America and the birth of a nation |first=Gregg |last=Smith |date=26 January 1998 |publisher=Siris Books |isbn=0-937381-65-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Farmhouse Ales: Culture and craftsmanship in the Belgian tradition |first=Phil |last=Marowski |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Brewers Publications |isbn=978-0-937381-84-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Barbarian's Beverage: A history of beer in ancient Europe |first=Max |last=Nelson |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-31121-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Brewmaster's Table |first=Garrett |last=Oliver |date=3 May 2005 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-06-000571-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Complete Joy of Homebrewing |first=Charlie |last=Papazian |date=August 1994 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-380-77287-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Roger |last=Protz |author-link=Roger Protz |year=2004 |title=The Complete Guide to World Beer |publisher=Carlton |isbn=978-1-84442-865-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/completeguidetow0000prot  |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Gone for a Burton: Memories from a great British heritage |first=Bob |last=Ricketts |date=January 2005 |publisher=Pen Press Publishers Limited |isbn=1-905203-69-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Country House Brewing in England, 1500–1900 |first=Pamela |last=Sambrook |date=2 August 2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=1-85285-127-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Big Book of Beer |first=Adrian |last=Tierney-Jones |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=CAMRA |isbn=978-1-85249-212-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=1001 Beers You Must Taste Before You Die |first=drian |last=Tierney-Jones |date=23 March 2010 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-0-7893-2025-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Bacchus and Civic Order: The culture of drink in early modern Germany |first=Ann |last=Tlusty |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0-8139-2045-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Beer and Breweries of the Czech Republic |first=Jan |last=Eliášek |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=Vydavatelství MCU |isbn=978-80-7339-328-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Good Beer Guide Prague & the Czech Republic |first=Evan |last=Rail |date=26 January 2024 |publisher=CAMRA |isbn=978-1-85249-233-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=J.G. |last2=Geissler |first2=C.A. |year=1997 |title=The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-854825-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/newoxfordbookoff00vaug_0 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin|colwidth=25em|small=yes}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia of Brewing |first =Christopher |last =Boulton |isbn=978-1-4051-6744-4 |date=August 2013 |location=Chichester, UK |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first1=Tom |last1=Colicchio |date=October 2011 |title=The Oxford Companion to Beer |editor1-first=Garrett |editor1-last=Oliver |editor-link1=Garrett Oliver |series=Oxford Companion To&nbsp;... |edition=1st hardcover |pages=960 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-536713-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor1-first=Christine P. |editor1-last=Rhodes |editor2-first=Pamela B. |editor2-last=Lappies |date=October 1997 |title=The Encyclopedia of Beer |edition=paperback reprint |pages=509 |publisher=[[Henry Holt & Co]] |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-8050-5554-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first1=Tim |last1=Webb |first2=Stephen |last2=Beaumont |title=The World Atlas of Beer: The essential guide to the beers of the world |date=October 2012 |edition=hardcover |location=New York, NY |publisher=Sterling Epicure |isbn=978-1-4027-8961-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first =David |last =Kenning |year=2010 |title=Beers of the World: Over 350&nbsp;classic beers, lagers, ales, and porters |edition=hardcover |location=Bath, UK |publisher=Parragon |isbn=978-1-4454-0878-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor1-first=Mark W. |editor1-last=Patterson |editor2-first=Nancy |editor2-last=Hoalst-Pullen |year=2023 |title=The Geography of Beer: Policies, perceptions, and place |edition=hardcover |location=Cham |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-031-39007-4 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikisource portal-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Beer (beverage)|Beer}}

{{Beer Styles}}
{{Beers of the world}}
{{Alcoholic beverages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Beer|Beer]]
[[Category:Brewing]]
[[Category:Alcoholic beverages]]
[[Category:Fermented drinks]]