View source for Bernard Williams

{{short description|English philosopher (1929–2003)}}
{{Other people}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox philosopher
|region           = [[Western philosophy]]
|era              = [[Contemporary philosophy]]
|name             = Bernard Williams
|honorific_prefix = [[Sir]]
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FBA|size=100%}}
|image            = BernardWilliams.jpg
|image_upright    = yes
|caption          =
| children = 3
|alt              = Black and white photograph
|birth_name       = Bernard Arthur Owen Williams
|birth_date       = {{birth date|df=yes|1929|09|21}}
|birth_place      = [[Westcliff-on-Sea]], England
|death_date       = {{death date and age|df=yes|2003|06|10|1929|09|21}}
|death_place      = [[Rome]], Italy
|education        = [[Chigwell School]]
|alma_mater       = [[Balliol College, Oxford]]
|spouse           = {{ubl|{{marriage|[[Shirley Williams|Shirley Brittain Catlin]]|1955|1974|end=div}}|{{marriage|Patricia Law Skinner<br/>|1974}}}}
|school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy]]
|main_interests   = [[Moral philosophy|Ethics]]
|notable_ideas    = [[Internalism and externalism#Reasons|Internal reasons for action]], [[moral luck]], [[dirty hands]]
|institutions     = {{hlist|[[All Souls College, Oxford]]|[[New College, Oxford]]|[[University College, London]]|[[Bedford College (London)|Bedford College, London]]|[[King's College, Cambridge]]|[[University of California, Berkeley]]|[[Corpus Christi College, Oxford]]}}
|academic_advisors = [[Gilbert Ryle]]
|notable_students = [[Myles Burnyeat]]
}}
'''Sir Bernard Arthur Owen Williams''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FBA}} (21 September 1929&nbsp;– 10 June 2003) was an English [[Ethics|moral philosopher]]. His publications include ''Problems of the Self'' (1973), ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' (1985), ''Shame and Necessity'' (1993), and ''Truth and Truthfulness'' (2002). He was knighted in 1999.

As [[Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and Deutsch Professor of Philosophy at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], Williams became known for his efforts to reorient the study of moral philosophy to psychology, history, and in particular to the [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Greeks]].<ref name=Jenkins2014p3>Mark P. Jenkins, ''Bernard Williams'', Abingdon: Routledge, 2014 [2006], 3.</ref><ref name=Koopman>Colin Koopman, "Bernard Williams on Philosophy's Need for History,"  ''The Review of Metaphysics'', 64(1), September 2010, 3–30. {{JSTOR|29765339}}</ref> Described by [[Colin McGinn]] as an "[[analytic philosophy|analytical philosopher]] with the soul of a general [[humanist]],"<ref name="NYbooks1">{{Cite news |last=McGinn |first=Colin |date=10 April 2003 |title=Isn't It the Truth? |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/isnt-it-the-truth/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210508221534/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/isnt-it-the-truth/ |archive-date=8 May 2021 |access-date=2024-02-03 |work=[[New York Review of Books]] |language=en |issn=0028-7504}}</ref> he was skeptical about attempts to create a foundation for moral philosophy. [[Martha Nussbaum]] wrote that he demanded of philosophy that it "come to terms with, and contain, the difficulty and complexity of human life."<ref name=Nussbaum2009p213>Martha C. Nussbaum, "Tragedies, hope, justice," in Daniel Callcut (ed.), ''Reading Bernard Williams'', Abingdon: Routledge, 2009, 213.</ref>

Williams was a strong supporter of women in academia; according to Nussbaum, he was "as close to being a feminist as a powerful man of his generation could be."<ref name=Nussbaum2003>Martha C. Nussbaum, [http://www.bostonreview.net/BR28.5/nussbaum.html "Tragedy and Justice"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041208185831/http://bostonreview.net/BR28.5/nussbaum.html |date=8 December 2004 }}, ''Boston Review'', October/November 2003.</ref> He was also famously sharp in conversation. [[Gilbert Ryle]], one of Williams's mentors at [[Oxford University]], said that he "understands what you're going to say better than you understand it yourself, and sees all the possible objections to it, and all the possible answers to all the possible objections, before you've got to the end of your own sentence."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |url=http://archive.org/details/confessionsofphi0000mage |title=Confessions of a philosopher |date=1998 |publisher=London : Phoenix |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-7538-0471-1 |pages=104 |author-link=Bryan Magee |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

==Life==
===Early life and education===
[[File:Chigwell School - geograph.org.uk - 93130.jpg|thumb|[[Chigwell School]], [[Epping Forest]], Essex]]
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|quote=The young Bernard was in perpetual intellectual motion, like a dragonfly hovering above a sea of ideas. Everyone he encountered, every event that occurred were material for his insight and his wit.<ref name=SWilliams2009p90>Shirley Williams, ''Climbing the Bookshelves'', London: Virago, 2009, 90.</ref>
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Williams was born in [[Westcliff-on-Sea]], a suburb of [[Southend-on-Sea|Southend]], Essex, to Hilda Amy Williams, née Day, a personal assistant, and Owen Pasley Denny Williams, chief maintenance surveyor for the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Works]].<ref name=NYT2003>Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/14/obituaries/14WILL.html "Sir Bernard Williams, 73, Oxford Philosopher, Dies"], ''The New York Times'', 14 June 2003.</ref><ref>[https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/42370/supplement/4157/data.pdf ''Supplement to the London Gazette''], 10 June 1961, 4157.</ref> He was educated at [[Chigwell School]], an independent school, where he first discovered philosophy.<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002>Stuart Jeffries, [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/nov/30/academicexperts.highereducation "The Quest for Truth"], ''The Guardian'', 30 November 2002.</ref><ref name=Williams2009/> Reading [[D. H. Lawrence]] led him to ethics and the problems of the self.<ref name="Davies1996">{{Cite web |last=John |first=Davies |date=1996-11-01 |title=A fugitive from the pigeonhole |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/a-fugitive-from-the-pigeonhole/91157.article |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=[[Times Higher Education]] (THE) |language=en}}</ref> In his first book, ''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'' (1972), he quoted with approval Lawrence's advice to "[f]ind your deepest impulse, and follow that."<ref name=Williams1972p79>Bernard Williams, ''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, 79.</ref>

Awarded a scholarship to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], Williams read [[Literae Humaniores|Greats]] (pure Classics followed by Ancient History and philosophy) at [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol]]. Among his influences at Oxford were W. S. Watt, [[Russell Meiggs]], [[R. M. Hare]], [[Elizabeth Anscombe]], [[E. R. Dodds|Eric Dodds]], [[Eduard Fraenkel]], [[David Pears]] and [[Gilbert Ryle]].<ref name=ODNB>A. W. Moore, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/90066 "Williams, Sir Bernard Arthur Owen (1929–2003), philosopher"], ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', January 2007.</ref> He shone in the first part of the course, the pure classics (being particularly fond of writing Latin verses in the style of [[Ovid]]) and graduated in 1951 with a congratulatory [[first-class honours|first]] in the second part of the course and a prize fellowship at [[All Souls College, Oxford|All Souls]].<ref name="Williams2009">Bernard Williams, "A Mistrustful Animal: A Conversation with Bernard Williams," ''Harvard Review'' 12.1: 2004. Reprinted in Alex Voorhoeve (ed.), ''Conversations on Ethics'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FpwUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 196–197].</ref><ref name="Times14June2003">{{Cite web |date=2011-05-13 |title=Professor Sir Bernard Williams |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article1141892.ece |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=[[The Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513235039/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article1141892.ece |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref>

After Oxford, Williams spent his two-year [[Conscription in the United Kingdom|national service]] flying [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]]s in Canada for the [[Royal Air Force]]. While on leave in New York, he became close to [[Shirley Williams|Shirley Brittain Catlin]] (born 1930), daughter of the novelist [[Vera Brittain]] and the political scientist [[George Catlin (political scientist)|George Catlin]].<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/> They had already been friends at Oxford. Catlin had moved to New York to study economics at [[Columbia University]] on a [[Fulbright scholarship]].<ref name=SWilliams2009p90/>

Williams returned to England to take up his fellowship at All Souls and in 1954 became a fellow at [[New College, Oxford]], a position he held until 1959.<ref name=Cal>
Alan Code, Samuel Scheffler, Barry Stroud, [http://senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/inmemoriam/bernardaowilliams.htm "In Memoriam: Bernard A. O. Williams"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416205626/http://senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/inmemoriam/bernardaowilliams.htm |date=16 April 2015 }}, University of California.</ref> He and Catlin continued seeing each other. She began working for the ''Daily Mirror'' and sought election as a Labour MP. Williams, also a member of the Labour Party, helped her with the [[1954 Harwich by-election|1954 by-election]] in [[Harwich]] in which she was an unsuccessful candidate.<ref>Shirley Williams 2009, 104, 114.</ref><ref name=ODNB/>

===First marriage, London===
[[File:Shirley Williams -NHS Confederation annual conference, Manchester-11July2011 (2).jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=photograph|[[Shirley Williams]], née Catlin, 2011]]
Bernard Williams and Shirley Catlin were married in London in July 1955 at [[St James's, Spanish Place]], near [[Marylebone High Street]], followed by a honeymoon in [[Lesbos]], Greece.<ref>Shirley Williams 2009, 116–117.</ref>

The couple moved into a very basic ground-floor apartment in London, on [[Clarendon Road]], [[Notting Hill]]. Given how hard it was to find decent housing, they decided instead to share with [[Helge Rubinstein]] and her husband, the literary agent [[Hilary Rubinstein]], who at the time was working for his uncle, [[Victor Gollancz]]. In 1955, the four of them bought a four-storey, seven-bedroom house in [[Phillimore Place]], [[Kensington]], for £6,800, a home they lived in together for 14 years.<ref>Shirley Williams 2009, 120, 136, 154.</ref> Williams described it as one of the happiest periods of his life.<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/>

In 1958, Williams spent a term teaching at the [[University of Ghana]] in [[Legon]]. When he returned to England in 1959, he was appointed lecturer in philosophy at [[University College London]].<ref>Shirley Williams 2009, 132.</ref> In 1961, after four miscarriages in four years, Shirley Williams gave birth to their daughter, Rebecca.<ref>Shirley Williams, ''God and Caesar: Personal Reflections on Politics and Religion'', A&C Black, 2004, 17; Shirley Williams 2009, 132, 139.</ref>

Williams was a visiting professor at [[Princeton University]] in 1963,<ref name=ODNB/> and was appointed Professor of Philosophy at [[Bedford College (London)|Bedford College]], London, (now [[Royal Holloway, University of London]]) in 1964. His wife was elected to parliament that year as the Labour member for [[Hitchin]] in Hertfordshire.<ref>Shirley Williams 2009, 143, 155.</ref> ''The Sunday Times'' described the couple two years later as "the New Left at its most able, most generous, and sometimes most eccentric." Andy Beckett wrote that they "entertained refugees from eastern Europe and politicians from Africa, and drank sherry in noteworthy quantities."<ref name=Beckett2005>Andy Beckett, [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/apr/02/featuresreviews.guardianreview16 "Centre forward"], ''The Guardian'', 2 April 2005.</ref> Shirley Williams became a junior minister and, in 1971, [[Shadow Home Secretary]]. Several newspapers saw her as a future prime minister.<ref>Maya Oppenheim, [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/dame-shirley-williams-the-lib-dem-co-founder-predicted-to-become-the-first-female-prime-minister-of-a6865641.html "Baroness Shirley Williams: The Lib Dem co-founder once predicted to become the first female prime minister of Britain"], ''The Independent'', 11 February 2016.</ref> She went on to co-found a new centrist party in 1981, the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]; Williams left the Labour Party to join the SDP, although he later returned to Labour.<ref name=ODNB/>

===Cambridge, second marriage===
[[File:View from Great St Mary's Cambridge - 10.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph|Williams spent over 20 years at [[King's College, Cambridge]], eight of them as provost.]]
In 1967, at the age of 38, Williams became the [[Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and a fellow of [[King's College, Cambridge|King's College]].<ref name=Cal/>

According to Jane O'Grady, Williams was central to the decision by King's in 1972 to admit women, one of the first three all-male Oxbridge undergraduate colleges to do so.<ref name=OGrady>Jane O'Grady, [https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jun/13/guardianobituaries.obituaries "Professor Sir Bernard Williams"], ''The Guardian'', 13 June 2003.</ref> In both his first and second marriages, he supported his wives in their careers and helped with the children more than was common for men at the time.<ref name=Nussbaum2003/> In the 1970s, when Nussbaum's thesis supervisor, [[Gwilym Ellis Lane Owen|G. E. L. Owen]], was harassing female students, and she decided nevertheless to support him, Williams told her, during a walk along [[The Backs|the backs]] at Cambridge: "[Y]ou know, there is a price you are paying for this support and encouragement. Your dignity is being held hostage. You really don't have to put up with this."<ref>Martha C. Nussbaum, "'Don't smile so much': Philosophy and Women in the 1970s," in Linda Martín Alcoff (ed.), ''Singing in the Fire: Stories of Women in Philosophy'', Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2003 (93–108), 100.</ref>

Shirley Williams's political career (the House of Commons regularly sat until 10 pm) meant that the couple spent a lot of time apart. They bought a house in [[Furneux Pelham]], Hertfordshire, near the border with south Cambridgeshire, while she lived in Phillimore Place during the week to be close to the Houses of Parliament. Sunday was often the only day they were together.<ref name=SWilliams2009p156>Shirley Williams 2009, 156–157.</ref><ref>[http://www.hertfordshirelife.co.uk/people/celebrity-interviews/shirley_williams_views_from_the_peer_1_1634896 "Shirley Williams: Views from the peer"], ''Hertfordshire Life'', 13 January 2010.</ref> The differences in their personal values&nbsp;– he was an atheist, she a [[Catholic]]&nbsp;– placed a further strain on their relationship.{{refn|group=n|[[Shirley Williams]], 2002: "Ours was a very alive marriage, but there was something of a strain that comes from two things. One is that we were both too caught up in what we were respectively doing&nbsp;– we didn't spend all that much time together; the other, to be completely honest, is that I'm fairly unjudgmental and I found Bernard's capacity for pretty sharp putting-down of people he thought were stupid unacceptable.&nbsp;... He can be very painful sometimes. He can eviscerate somebody. Those who are left behind are, as it were, dead personalities."<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/>}} It reached breaking point in 1970 when Williams formed a relationship with Patricia Law Skinner, a commissioning editor for [[Cambridge University Press]] and wife of the historian [[Quentin Skinner]].<ref name=NYT2003/><ref>Mike Peel, ''Shirley Williams: The Biography'', London: Biteback Publishing, 2013, 157.</ref> She had approached Williams to write the opposing view of utilitarianism for ''Utilitarianism: For and Against'' with [[J. J. C. Smart]] (1973), and they had fallen in love.<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/>

Williams and Skinner began living together in 1971.<ref name=ODNB/> He obtained a divorce in 1974 (at Shirley Williams' request, the marriage was later annulled).<ref name=SWilliams2009p156/><ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/> Patricia Skinner married him that year, and the couple went on to have two sons, Jacob in 1975 and Jonathan in 1980.<ref name=NYT2003/><ref name=ODNB/> Shirley Williams married the political scientist [[Richard Neustadt]] in 1987.<ref name=Beckett2005/>

===Berkeley and Oxford===
[[File:UCBerkeleyCampus.jpg|thumb|left|alt=photograph|[[University of California, Berkeley]]]]
In 1979 Williams was elected [[Provost (education)|Provost]] of King's, a position he held until 1987. He spent a semester in 1986 at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] as Mills Visiting Professor and in 1988 left England to become Monroe Deutsch Professor of Philosophy there, announcing to the media that he was leaving as part of the "[[brain drain]]" of British academics to America. He was also Sather Professor of Classical Literature at Berkeley in 1989; ''Shame and Necessity'' (1995) grew out of his six Sather lectures.<ref name=Cal/><ref name=Davies1996/>

Williams returned to England in 1990 as [[White's Professor of Moral Philosophy]] at Oxford and fellow of [[Corpus Christi College, Oxford|Corpus Christi]]. His sons had been "at sea" in California, he said, not knowing what was expected of them, and he had been unable to help.<ref name=Davies1996/> He regretted having made his departure from England so public; he had been persuaded to do so to highlight Britain's relatively low academic salaries.{{refn|group=n|Bernard Williams, 2002: "I was persuaded that there was a real problem about academic conditions and that if my departure was publicized this would bring these matters to public attention. It did a bit, but it made me seem narky, and when I came back again in three years it looked rather absurd. I came back for personal reasons&nbsp;– it's harder to live out there with a family than I supposed."<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/>}} When he retired in 1996, he took up a fellowship again at All Souls.<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/>

===Royal commissions, committees===
[[File:All-Souls-College-Oxford.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph|[[All Souls College, Oxford]]]]
Williams served on several [[royal commission]]s and government committees: the Public Schools Commission (1965–1970), drug abuse (1971), gambling (1976–1978), the [[Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship]] (1979), and the Commission on Social Justice (1993–1994). "I did all the major vices," he said.<ref name=Times14June2003/><ref>{{Cite news |title=Bernard Williams |url=https://www.economist.com/obituary/2003/06/26/bernard-williams |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221115151220/https://www.economist.com/obituary/2003/06/26/bernard-williams |archive-date=15 November 2022 |access-date=2024-02-04 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> While on the gambling commission, one of his recommendations, ignored at the time, was for a [[National Lottery (United Kingdom)|national lottery]].<ref name=Davies1996/> (John Major's government introduced one in 1994.)

[[Mary Warnock]] described Williams's report on pornography in 1979, as chair of the Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship, as "agreeable, actually compulsive to read."<ref>Mary Warnock, "The Williams Report on Obscenity and Film Censorship", ''The Political Quarterly'', 51(3), July 1980 (341–344), 341.</ref> It relied on a "harm condition" that "no conduct should be suppressed by law unless it can be shown to harm someone," and concluded that so long as children were protected from pornography, adults should be free to read and watch it as they see fit.<ref>Bernard Williams (ed.), ''Obscenity and Film Censorship: An Abridgement of the Williams Report'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015 [1981], 69.</ref><ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/><ref name=Telegraph14June2003>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1432917/Professor-Sir-Bernard-Williams.html "Professor Sir Bernard Williams"], ''The Daily Telegraph'', 14 June 2003.</ref> The report rejected the view that pornography tends to cause sexual offences.<ref>Anthony Skillen, "Offences Ranked: The Williams Report on Obscenity," ''Philosophy'', 57(220), April 1982 (237–245), 237. {{JSTOR|4619562}}</ref> Two cases in particular were highlighted, the [[Moors Murders]] and the [[Cambridge Rapist]], where the influence of pornography had been discussed during the trials. The report argued that both cases appeared to be "more consistent with pre-existing traits being reflected both in a choice of reading matter and in the acts committed against others."<ref>Williams report, 6.7, 85.</ref>

===Opera===
Williams enjoyed opera from an early age, particularly [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]. Patricia Williams writes that he attended performances of the [[Carl Rosa Company]] and [[Sadler's Wells]] as a teenager.<ref>Patricia Williams, "Editorial preface," ''On Opera'', New Haven, Yale University Press, 2006, 1.</ref> In an essay on Wagner, he described having been reduced to a "virtually uncontrollable state" during a performance by [[Jon Vickers]] as [[Tristan und Isolde|Tristan]] at [[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden]].<ref>Williams, ''On Opera'', 165; also see Bernard Williams, [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2000/11/02/wagner-politics/ "Wagner & Politics"], ''The New York Review of Books'', 2 November 2000.</ref> He served on the board of the [[English National Opera]] from 1968 to 1986,<ref name=ODNB/> and wrote an entry, "The Nature of Opera," for ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Opera]]''.<ref name=Davies1996/><ref name=Baker22Sept2002>Kenneth Baker, [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/09/22/RV77987.DTL "Bernard Williams: Carrying the torch for truth"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 22 September 2002.</ref> A collection of his essays, ''On Opera'', was published posthumously in 2006, edited by Patricia Williams.<ref name=Nussbaum2015/><ref>Jerry Fodor, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070208080315/http://tls.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25342-2552013,00.html "Life in tune"], ''The Times Literary Supplement'', 17 January 2007.</ref>

===Honours and death===
Williams became a member of the Institut international de philosophie in 1969, a fellow of the [[British Academy]] in 1971, and an honorary member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1983. The following year, he was made a [[syndic]] of the [[Fitzwilliam Museum]] in Cambridge and later the chair. In 1993, he was elected to a fellowship of the [[Royal Society of Arts]], and in 1999, he was knighted. Several universities awarded him honorary doctorates, including [[Yale]] and [[Harvard University|Harvard]].<ref name=ODNB/><ref name=Cal/>

Williams died of heart failure on 10 June 2003 while on holiday in Rome; he had been diagnosed in 1999 with [[multiple myeloma]], a form of cancer.<ref name=ODNB/><ref name="Moore2003">{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=A. W. |date=2003 |title=Bernard Williams (1929-2003) |url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/42/Bernard_Williams_1929-2003 |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=[[Philosophy Now]]}}</ref> He was survived by his wife, their two sons, and his first child, Rebecca.<ref name=Times14June2003/> He was cremated in Rome.<ref name=ODNB/>

==Writing==
===Approach to ethics===
[[A. W. Moore (philosopher)|A. W. Moore]] writes that Williams' work lies within the analytic tradition, although less typical of it "in its breadth, in its erudition, and above all in its profound humanity":

{{quote|Although he was never a vigorous apologist for that tradition, he always maintained the standards of clarity and rigour which it prizes, and his work is a model of all that is best in the tradition. It is brilliant, deep, and imaginative. It is also extraordinarily tight. There cannot be many critics of his work who have not thought of some objection to what he says, only to find, on looking for a relevant quotation to turn into a target, that Williams carefully presents his views in a way that precisely anticipates the objection.<ref name=Moore2003/>}}

Williams did not produce any ethical theory or system; several commentators noted, unfairly in the view of his supporters, that he was largely a critic. Moore writes that Williams was unaffected by this criticism: "He simply refused to allow philosophical system-building to eclipse the subtlety and variety of human ethical experience."<ref name=ODNB/> He equated ethical theories with "a tidiness, a systematicity, and an economy of ideas," writes Moore, that were not up to describing human lives and motives. Williams tried not to lose touch "with the real concerns that animate our ordinary ethical experience," unlike much of the "arid, ahistorical, second-order" debates about ethics in philosophy departments.<ref name=Moore2003/><ref>Larissa MacFarquhar, [http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/09/05/how-to-be-good "How to be good"], ''The New Yorker'', 5 September 2011 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160615154218/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/09/05/how-to-be-good archived]).</ref>

In his first book, ''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'' (1972), Williams wrote that whereas "most moral philosophy at most times has been empty and boring&nbsp;... [c]ontemporary moral philosophy has found an original way of being boring, which is by not discussing moral issues at all."<ref>Williams, ''Morality'', 1972, xvii.</ref><ref>Onora Nell, "Review: ''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'' by Bernard Williams," ''The Journal of Philosophy'' 72(12), 1975, 334–339. {{JSTOR|2025133}}</ref> He argued that the study of ethics should be vital, compelling and difficult, and he sought an approach that was accountable to psychology and history.<ref name=Koopman/><ref>Bernard Williams, ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', Abingdon: Routledge, 2011 [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985], 193.</ref>

Williams was not an [[Moral realism|ethical realist]], holding that, unlike scientific knowledge, which can approach an "absolute conception of reality," an ethical judgment rests on a point of view.<ref>Williams, ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', 139, 154.</ref><ref>A. W. Moore, "Realism and the Absolute Conception," in Alan Thomas (ed.), ''Bernard Williams'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 24–26.</ref> He argued that the [[Thick concept|"thick"]] ethical concepts, such as kindness and cruelty, express a "union of fact and value."<ref>Williams, ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', 143–144.</ref><ref>A. W. Moore, "Bernard Williams: ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy''," in John Shand (ed.), ''Central Works of Philosophy, Volume 5: The Twentieth Century: Quine and After'', Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, 2006, 217.</ref> The idea that our values are not "in the world" was liberating: "[A] radical form of freedom may be found in the fact that we cannot be forced by the world to accept one set of values rather than another" said Williams.<ref>Williams, ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', 142.</ref><ref>Carol Rovane, "Did Williams Find the Truth in Relativism?" in Daniel Callcut (ed.), ''Reading Bernard Williams'', Abingdon: Routledge, 2009.</ref><ref>Bernard Williams, "The Truth in Relativism," in ''Moral Luck: Philosophical Papers 1973–1980'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. First published in ''Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society'', LXXV, 1974–1975, 215–228.</ref>

Williams frequently emphasised what he saw as the ways in which luck pervades ethical life. He coined and developed the term [[moral luck]], and illustrated the idea of moral luck via a number of enormously influential examples. One of Williams's famous examples of moral luck concerns the painter [[Paul Gauguin|Paul Gauguin's]] decision to move to Tahiti.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aeon.co/essays/living-the-life-authentic-bernard-williams-on-paul-gauguin|title=Living the life authentic: Bernard Williams on Paul Gauguin – Daniel Callcut {{!}} Aeon Essays|website=Aeon|language=en|access-date=18 December 2018}}</ref>

===Critique of Kant===
[[File:Immanuel Kant portrait c1790.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Painting of Kant looking downward|[[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804)]]
Williams's work throughout the 1970s and 1980s, in ''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'' (1972), ''Problems of the Self'' (1973), ''Utilitarianism: For and Against'' with [[J. J. C. Smart]] (1973), ''Moral Luck'' (1981) and ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' (1985), outlined his attacks on the twin pillars of ethics: [[utilitarianism]] and the moral philosophy of the 18th-century German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]]. Martha Nussbaum wrote that his work "denounced the trivial and evasive way in which moral philosophy was being practised in England under the aegis of those two dominant theories."<ref name=Nussbaum2003/> "Both theories simplified the moral life," she wrote, "neglecting emotions and personal attachments and how sheer luck shapes our choices."<ref>Nussbaum 2009, 213.</ref><ref>Bernard Williams, "Moral Luck," in ''Moral Luck'', 1981, 20–39. First published in ''Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society'', supplementary volume 1, 1976, 115–135.</ref> (Williams said in 1996: "Roughly, if it isn't about obligation or consequences, it doesn't count.")<ref name=Davies1996/>

Kant's ''[[Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals|Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten]]'' (1785) expounded a moral system based on the [[categorical imperative]], one formulation of which is: "Act only according to that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law."{{refn|group=n|Kant: "Der categorische Imperativ ist also nur ein einziger, und zwar dieser: "''handle nur nach derjenigen Maxime, durch die du zugleich wollen kannst, daß sie ein allgemeines Gesetz werde''."<ref>Immanuel Kant, ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: A German-English edition'', 1786 [1785], [[Mary Gregor]] and [[Jens Timmermann]] (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, 4:421, 70–71.</ref>}} Rational agents must act on "principles of pure rational agency," writes Moore; that is, principles that regulate all rational agents. But Williams distinguished between thinking and acting. To think rationally is to think in a way compatible with belief in the truth, and "what it takes for one to believe the truth is the same as what it takes for anyone else to believe the truth," writes Moore. But one can ''act'' rationally by satisfying one's own desires (internal reasons for action), and what it takes to do that may not be what it takes for anyone else to satisfy theirs. Kant's approach to treating thinking and acting alike is wrong, according to Williams.<ref>Moore 2006, 213.</ref>

Williams argued that Kant had given the "purest, deepest and most thorough representation of morality,"<ref>Williams, ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', 194.</ref> but that the "honourable instincts of Kantianism to defend the individuality of individuals against the agglomerative indifference of Utilitarianism" may not be effective against the Kantian "abstract character of persons as moral agents." We should not be expected to act as though we are not who we are in the circumstances in which we find ourselves.<ref>Bernard Williams, "Persons, character and morality," in Amélie Oksenberg Rorty (ed.), ''The Identities of Persons'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976 (197–216), 200–201, 215.</ref>

===Critique of utilitarianism===
{{further|Act utilitarianism|Rule utilitarianism|Preference utilitarianism}}
Williams set out the case against [[utilitarianism]] – a [[Consequentialism|consequentialist]] position, the simplest version of which is that actions are right only insofar as they promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number&nbsp;– in ''Utilitarianism: For and Against'' (1973) with [[J. J. C. Smart]]. One of the book's [[thought experiment]]s involves Jim, a botanist doing research in a South American country led by a brutal dictator. Jim finds himself in a small town facing 20 captured Indian rebels. The captain who has arrested them says that if Jim will kill one, the others will be released in honour of Jim's status as a guest, but if he does not, they will all be killed. Simple [[act utilitarianism]] would favour Jim killing one of the men.<ref>J. J. C. Smart, Bernard Williams, ''Utilitarianism: For and Against'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973, 98–99.</ref>

Williams argued that there is a crucial distinction between a person being killed by Jim and being killed by the captain because of an act or omission of Jim's. The captain, if he chooses to kill, is not simply the medium of an effect ''Jim'' is having on the world. He is the moral actor, the person with the intentions and projects. The utilitarian loses that distinction, turning us into empty vessels by means of which consequences occur. Williams argued that moral decisions must preserve our psychological identity and integrity.<ref>Smart and Williams 1973, 109ff.</ref><ref>Daniel Markovits, "The architecture of integrity," in Daniel Callcut (ed.), ''Reading Bernard Williams'', Abingdon: Routledge, 2009.</ref> We should reject any system that reduces moral decisions to a few algorithms.<ref>Williams, ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', 117.</ref>

===Reasons for action===
{{Further|Internalism and externalism#Reasons}}
Williams argued that there are only internal reasons for action: "A has a reason to φ if A has some desire the satisfaction of which will be served by his φ-ing."<ref>Bernard Williams, "Internal and external reasons," in ''Moral Luck'', 1981 (101–113), 101. First published in Ross Harrison (ed.), ''Rational action'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979, 17–28.</ref><ref>John Skorupski, "Internal reasons and the scope of blame," in Alan Thomas (ed.), ''Bernard Williams'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 74.</ref> An external reason would be "A has reason to φ," even if nothing in A's "subjective motivational set" would be furthered by her φ-ing. Williams argued that it is meaningless to say that there are external reasons; reason alone does not move people to action.<ref>Bernard Williams, "Internal Reasons and the Obscurity of Blame," 1989, reprinted in Williams, ''Making Sense of Humanity, and Other Philosophical Papers 1982–1993'', Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1995, 35–45.</ref><ref>Bernard Williams, "Replies," in J. E. J. Altham, Ross Harrison (eds.), ''World, Mind and Ethics: Essays on the Ethical Philosophy of Bernard Williams'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref><ref>Bernard Williams, "Postscript: Some Further Notes on Internal and External Reasons," in Elijah Millgram (ed.), ''Varieties of Practical Reasoning'', Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001.</ref><ref>Jenkins 2014, 89.</ref>

[[Sophie-Grace Chappell]] argues that, without external reasons for action, it becomes impossible to maintain that the same set of moral reasons applies to all agents equally.<ref name=Chappell>Sophie Grace Chappell, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/williams-bernard/ "Bernard Williams"], ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 8 November 2013 [1 February 2006].</ref> In cases where someone has no internal reason to do what others see as the right thing, they cannot be blamed for failing to do it, because internal reasons are the only reasons, and blame, Williams wrote, "involves treating the person who is blamed like someone who had a reason to do the right thing but did not do it."<ref>Williams 1989, in ''[[iarchive:makingsenseofhum0000will|Making Sense of Humanity]]'', 42.</ref><ref>Skorupski 2007, 93–94.</ref>

===Truth===
In his final completed book, ''Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy'' (2002), Williams identifies the two basic values of truth as accuracy and sincerity, and tries to address the gulf between the demand for truth and the doubt that any such thing exists.<ref>David E. Cooper, ''Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy'' by Bernard Williams," ''Philosophy'', 78(305), July 2003, 411–414. {{JSTOR|3752065}}</ref> Jane O'Grady wrote in a ''Guardian'' obituary of Williams that the book is an examination of those who "sneer at any purported truth as ludicrously naive because it is, inevitably, distorted by power, class bias and ideology."<ref name=OGrady/>

The debt to [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] is clear, most obviously in the adoption of a [[genealogy (philosophy)|genealogical method]] as a tool of explanation and critique. Although part of Williams's intention was to attack those he felt denied the value of truth, the book cautions that, to understand it simply in that sense, would be to miss part of its purpose; rather, as Kenneth Baker wrote, it is "Williams' reflection on the moral cost of the intellectual vogue for dispensing with the concept of truth."<ref name=Baker22Sept2002/>

==Legacy==
Williams did not propose any systematic philosophical theory; indeed, he was suspicious of any such attempt.<ref name=Callcut2009>Daniel Callcut, "Introduction," in Callcut 2009, 1–2.</ref> He became known for his dialectical powers, although he was suspicious of them too. [[Alan Code]] wrote that Williams had never been "impressed by the display of mere dialectical cleverness, least of all in moral philosophy":

{{quote|On the contrary, one of the most notable features of his philosophical outlook was an unwavering insistence on a series of points that may seem obvious but which are nevertheless all-too-frequently neglected: that moral or ethical thought is part of human life; that in writing about it, philosophers are writing about something of genuine importance; that it is not easy to say anything worth saying about the subject; that what moral philosophers write is answerable to the realities of human history, psychology, and social affairs; and that mere cleverness is indeed not the relevant measure of value."<ref name=Cal/>}}

{{quote box
|border=1px
|halign=left
|quote=Being in Williams's presence is at times painful because of that intensity of aliveness, which challenges the friend to something or other, and yet it was, and is, not terribly clear to what.  To authenticity, I now think: to being and expressing oneself more courageously and clearly than one had done heretofore.
|fontsize=98%
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|width=250px
|align=right
|salign=center
|style=margin–top:1.5em;margin-bottom:1.5em;padding:2.0em
|source= — [[Martha Nussbaum]], 2015<ref name=Nussbaum2015>Martha C. Nussbaum, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150304085127/http://newramblerreview.com/book-reviews/the-arts/essays-and-reviews-1959-2003 "Moral (and Musical) Hazard"], ''The New Rambler'', 2015.</ref>
}}
In 1996, [[Martin Hollis (philosopher)|Martin Hollis]] said that Williams had "a good claim to be the leading British philosopher of his day," but that, although he had a "lovely eye for the central questions," he had none of the answers.<ref name=Davies1996/> [[Alan Thomas (philosopher)|Alan Thomas]] identified Williams's contribution to ethics as an overarching scepticism about attempts to create a foundation for moral philosophy, explicitly articulated in ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' (1985) and ''Shame and Necessity'' (1993), in which he argued that moral theories can never reflect the complexities of life, particularly given the radical pluralism of modern societies.<ref name=Thomas1999>Alan Thomas, "Williams, Bernard," in Robert Audi (ed.), ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999 (2nd edition), 975.</ref>

Learning to be yourself, to be authentic and to act with integrity, rather than conforming to any external moral system, is arguably the fundamental motif of Williams's work, according to Sophie Grace Chappell.<ref name=Chappell/> "If there's one theme in all my work it's about authenticity and self-expression," Williams said in 2002. "It's the idea that some things are in some real sense really you, or express what you <are> and others aren't&nbsp;... The whole thing has been about spelling out the notion of inner necessity."<ref name=Jeffries30Nov2002/> He moved moral philosophy away from the Kantian question, "What is my duty?", and back to the issue that mattered to the Greeks: "How should we live?"<ref name=Nussbaum2003/>

==Publications==
{{refbegin|2}}
;Books
*(with Alan Montefiore, eds.) ''[[iarchive:britishanalytica0000will|British Analytical Philosophy]]'', London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966.
*''[[iarchive:moralityintroduc0000will|Morality: An Introduction to Ethics]]'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
*''[[iarchive:problemsofselfph0000will|Problems of the Self]]'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
*(with J. J. C. Smart) ''Utilitarianism: For and Against'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
*''Descartes: The Project of Pure Enquiry'', London: Pelican Books, 1978.
*''Moral Luck: Philosophical Papers 1973–1980'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
*(with [[Amartya Sen]]) ''Utilitarianism and Beyond'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
*''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985.
*''Shame and Necessity'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
*''Making Sense of Humanity'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
* ''[[iarchive:plato0000will|The Great Philosophers: Plato]]'', Abingdon: Routledge, 1998.
*''Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy'', Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 2002.

;Posthumously published
*''In the Beginning was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument'', ed. Geoffrey Hawthorn, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.
*''The Sense of the Past: Essays in the History of Philosophy'', ed. Myles Burnyeat, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.
*''Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline'', ed. A. W. Moore, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.
*''On Opera'', ed. Patricia Williams, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
*''Essays and Reviews: 1959–2002'', Princeton: Princeton University Press 2014.
{{refend}}

;Selected papers
{{refbegin|2}}
*[[iarchive:problemsofselfph0000will/page/207/mode/1up|"Morality and the emotions,"]] in Bernard Williams, ''Problems of the Self'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973, 207–229, first delivered in 1965 as Williams's inaugural lecture at Bedford College, London.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160528020748/http://stoa.org.uk/topics/death/the-makropulos-case-reflections-on-the-tedium-of-immortality-bernard-williams.pdf "The Makropulos Case: Reflections on the tedium of immortality"], in Bernard Williams, ''Problems of the Self'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
*"Pagan Justice and Christian Love," ''Apeiron'' 26(3–4), December 1993, 195–207.
*"Cratylus's Theory of Names and Its Refutation," in Stephen Everson (ed.), ''Language'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*[http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3621&context=penn_law_review "The Actus Reus of Dr. Caligari"], ''Pennsylvania Law Review'' 142, May 1994, 1661–1673.
*"Descartes and the Historiography of Philosophy," in John Cottingham (ed.), ''Reason, Will and Sensation: Studies in Descartes's Metaphysics'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
*"Acting as the Virtuous Person Acts," in Robert Heinaman (ed.), ''Aristotle and Moral Realism'', Westview Press, 1995.
*[[iarchive:philosophyguidet0000unse/page/545/mode/1up|"Ethics,"]] in A. C. Grayling (ed.), ''Philosophy: A Guide Through the Subject'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
*[[iarchive:identityessaysba0000unse/page/1/mode/1up|"Identity and Identities,"]] in Henry Harris (ed.), ''Identity: Essays Based on Herbert Spencer Lectures Given in the University of Oxford'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
*"Truth in Ethics," ''Ratio'', 8(3), December 1995, 227–236.
*[http://www.lrb.co.uk/v18/n08/bernard-williams/on-hating-and-despising-philosophy "On Hating and Despising Philosophy"], ''London Review of Books'', 18(8), 18 April 1996, 17–18 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160320101052/http://manwithoutqualities.com/2015/03/07/on-hating-and-despising-philosophy/ courtesy link]).
*"Contemporary Philosophy: A Second Look," in N. F. Bunnin (ed.), ''The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy'', Blackwell, 1996.
*"History, Morality, and the Test of Reflection," in Onora O'Neill (ed.), ''The Sources of Normativity'', Cambridge University Press, 1996.
*"Reasons, Values and the Theory of Persuasion," in Francesco Farina, Frank Hahn and Stafano Vannucci (eds.), ''Ethics, Rationality and Economic Behavior'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
*[[iarchive:geographyofident0000unse/page/368/mode/1up|"The Politics of Trust,"]] in Patricia Yeager (ed.), ''The Geography of Identity'', Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
*[[iarchive:greeksusessaysin0000unse q0c6/page/43/mode/1up|"The Women of Trachis: Fictions, Pessimism, Ethics,"]] in R. B. Louden and P. Schollmeier (eds.), ''The Greeks and Us'', Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1996.
*"Toleration: An Impossible Virtue?" in David Heyd (ed.), ''Toleration: An Exclusive Virtue'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
*"Truth, Politics and Self-Deception," ''Social Research'' 63.3, Fall 1996.
*"Moral Responsibility and Political Freedom," ''Cambridge Law Journal'' 56, 1997.
*"Stoic Philosophy and the Emotions: Reply to Richard Sorabji," in R. Sorabji (ed.), ''Aristotle and After'', ''Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies'', Supplement 68, 1997.
*[[iarchive:politicsoftolera0000unse/page/65/mode/1up|"Tolerating the Intolerable,"]] in Susan Mendus (ed.), ''The Politics of Toleration'', Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
*"Philosophy As a Humanistic Discipline," ''Philosophy'' 75, October 2000, 477–496.
*"Understanding Homer: Literature, History and Ideal Anthropology," in Neil Roughley (ed.), ''Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transdisciplinary Perspectives'', Walter de Gruyter, 2000.
*[https://archive.today/20200320105041/https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v24/n20/bernard-williams/why-philosophy-needs-history?referrer= "Why Philosophy Needs History"], ''London Review of Books'', 24(20), 17 October 2002 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160423112619/https://manwithoutqualities.com/2015/07/02/bernard-williams-why-philosophy-needs-history/ courtesy link]).
{{refend}}*[https://bernardwilliams.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/completebibliography.pdf Complete Bibliography] (as of 2011) by A.W. Moore and Jonathan Williams.<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 October 2011|title=Resources|url=https://bernardwilliams.wordpress.com/resources/|access-date=10 January 2022|website=Ethics and the Place of Philosophy|language=en}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=n}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Further reading==
*Nagel, Thomas. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141014002930/http://rintintin.colorado.edu/~vancecd/phil1100/Nagel1.pdf "Moral Luck"], ''Mortal Questions'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
*Nagel, Thomas. [http://www.britannica.com/biography/Bernard-Williams "Sir Bernard Williams"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.
*Perry, Alexandra; Herrera, Chris. ''The Moral Philosophy of Bernard Williams'', Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2011.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|d=Q345641|n=no|b=no|s=no|commons=no|wikt=no|v=no|voy=no|mw=no|species=no|m=no}}
* {{Sep entry|williams-bernard|Bernard Williams|Sophie-Grace Chappell, Nicholas Smyth}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=axoo2XSIoI0 "The Spell of Linguistic Philosophy"], Bryan Magee interviews Bernard Williams, BBC, 1977, from 00:03:32.
*[http://www.lrb.co.uk/search?subject=Philosophy&contributor=Williams,+Bernard "Bernard Williams"], ''London Review of Books''.
*[http://www.nybooks.com/contributors/bernard-williams/ "Bernard Williams"], ''The New York Review of Books''.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20200327221321/https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/bernard-williams-ethics-human-point-view/ "Bernard Williams: Ethics from a Human Point of View"], Paul Russell, ''Times Literary Supplement''. (Archived)
*[https://sites.google.com/site/bernardwilliamsphilosopher/home "Bernard Williams: Philosopher"], Links to articles, interviews, videos and more.
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|title = [[King's College, Cambridge|Provost of King's College, Cambridge]]
|years =1979–1987
|before =[[Edmund Leach]]
|after =[[Patrick Bateson]]
}}
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{{Ethics}}
{{Analytic philosophy}}
{{White's Professor of Moral Philosophy, Oxford}}

{{Authority control}}


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