View source for Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement

{{short description|Units of measurement in Jewish religious texts}}
'''Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement''' were used primarily by ancient [[Israelites]] and appear frequently within the [[Hebrew Bible]] as well as in later [[rabbinic]] writings, such as the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]]. These units of measurement continue to be used in functions regulating Orthodox Jewish contemporary life, based on [[halacha]]. The specificity of some of the units used and which are encompassed under these systems of measurement (whether in linear distance, weight or volume of capacity) have given rise, in some instances, to disputes, owing to the discontinuation of their Hebrew names and their replacement by other names in modern usage.

Note: The listed measurements of this system range from the lowest to highest acceptable halakhic value, in terms of conversion to and from contemporary systems of measurement.

== Unit conversion ==
===Archaeological===
While documentation on each unit's relation to another's is plentiful, there is much debate, both within Judaism and in [[Jewish studies|academia]], about the exact relationship between measurements in the system and those in other [[system of measurement|measurement systems]]. Classical definitions, such as that an ''etzba'' was seven [[barley]]corns laid side by side, or that a ''log'' was equal to six medium-sized eggs, are also open to debate.
Nevertheless, the entire system of measurement bears profound resemblance to the [[Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement|Babylonian]] and the ancient [[Ancient Egyptian units of measurement|Egyptian]] systems, and is currently understood to have likely been derived from some combination of the two.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia">''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''</ref> Scholars commonly infer the absolute sizes based on the better-known Babylonian units' relations to their contemporary counterparts.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/>

[[Ezekiel]] refers to an "''amah'' (cubit) which is an ''amah'' plus a ''tefah'' (palm breadth)",<ref>{{bibleverse|Ezekiel|40:5|HE}}; {{bibleverse|Ezekiel|43:13|HE}}</ref> and thus is one sixth larger than the standard ''amah''. An explanation for this discrepancy seems to be suggested by the [[Book of Chronicles]], which states that Solomon's Temple was built according to "cubits following the first measure",<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Chronicles|3:3|HE}}</ref> suggesting that over the course of time the original ''amah'' was supplanted by a smaller one.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> The Egyptians also used two different [[cubits]], one of which—the ''royal'' cubit—was a sixth larger than the common cubit;<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> this ''royal'' measurement was the earlier of the two in Egyptian use, and the one which the [[Pyramid]]s of the 3rd and 4th Dynasties seem to be measured in integer multiples of.<ref name="Peakes">''[[Peake's commentary on the Bible]]''</ref>

The smaller of the Egyptian cubits measured {{convert|17.72|in|cm|sp=us|abbr=on|0}}, but the standard Babylonian cubit, cast in stone on one of the [[statues of Gudea]], was 49.5&nbsp;cm (19.49&nbsp;in), and the larger Egyptian cubit was between 52.5 and 52.8&nbsp;cm (20.67 and 20.79&nbsp;in).<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> The [[Books of Samuel]] portray the Temple as having a [[Phoenicia]]n architect, and in Phoenicia it was the Babylonian cubit which was used to measure the size of parts of ships.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> Thus scholars are uncertain whether the standard Biblical cubit would have been 49.5 or 52.5&nbsp;cm (19.49 or 20.67&nbsp;in), but are fairly certain that it was one of these two figures.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> From these figures for the size of a Biblical cubit, that of the basic unit—the finger-breadth (''Etzba'')—can be calculated to be either 2.1 or 2.2&nbsp;cm (0.83 or 0.87&nbsp;in).

===Halakhic===
Rabbinic scholars have also attempted to calculate these measurements. The most accepted approaches are those of Rav [[Avraham Chaim Naeh]],<ref>''Shiurei Torah'' 1:3</ref> who approximates the ''etzba'' at 2&nbsp;cm (0.79&nbsp;in), and [[Chazon Ish]]<ref>Moed 39: Kuntres Hashiurim</ref> at 2.38&nbsp;cm (0.94&nbsp;in). A third opinion, in Rabbi Chaim P. Benish's "Midos V'Shiurei Torah", provides an alternative understanding of the ''Rambam'' and suggests that the {{transliteration|he|etzba}}, according to the ''Rambam'', is 0.748–0.756&nbsp;in (1.90–1.92&nbsp;cm).

In the below tables, the range of values shown is that between the calculations of Naeh and Chazon Ish. The archaeological estimate is in the middle of this range.

== Length and distance <span class="anchor" id="Length"></span>==
The original measures of length were derived from the human body—the finger, hand, arm, span, foot, and pace—but since these measures differ between individuals, they are reduced to a certain standard for general use.

The Hebrew Bible mentions the '''[[Palm (measurement)|palm]]''' or handbreadth (Hebrew: טפח, ''{{lang|he-Latn|tefakh}}''; plural ''{{lang|he-Latn|tefakhim}}''),<ref>e.g. {{Bibleverse|1 Kings|7:26|HE}}</ref> the '''[[span (measurement)|span]]''' (Hebrew: זרת, {{transliteration|he|zeret}}),<ref>e.g. {{Bibleverse|Exodus|28:16|HE}}</ref> and the '''[[cubit#Biblical cubit|cubit]]''' or [[ell]] (Hebrew: אמה, ''Amah'', plural ''Amot'').<ref>e.g. {{Bibleverse|Genesis|6:15|HE}}</ref> In later periods, more measures are recorded: the '''[[digit (unit)|digit]]''' or fingerbreadth (Hebrew: אצבע, ''etzba''; plural ''etzba'ot''),<ref name="ToseftaKelim" /> the '''[[Biblical mile|mile]]''' (Hebrew: מיל, ''mil''; plural ''milim''), and the '''parasang''' (Hebrew: פרסה, ''parasa''). The latter two are [[loan word]]s into the Hebrew language, and borrowed measurements - the [[Roman mile|Latin ''mille'']], and [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] ''[[parasang]]'', respectively; both were units of [[wikt:itinerant|itinerant]] distance, and thus varied according to terrain and stride length, and, in the case of the ''parasang'', also on the speed of travel.

The measurements were related as follows:
* 1 palm [handbreadth] ({{transliteration|he|tefach}}) = 4 digits (''etzba'ot'')<ref name="ToseftaKelim">[[Tosefta]] [https://www.sefaria.org/Tosefta_Kelim_Metzia.6.4 Kelim Metsia 6:4]</ref><ref>[[Maimonides]], [https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Kilayim.6?lang=bi&p2=Rambam_on_Mishnah_Kilayim.6.6.1&lang2=bi Commentary to Mishnah Kila'im 6:6]</ref>
* 1 span ({{transliteration|he|zeret}}) = 3 palms ({{transliteration|he|tefahim}})<ref name="ToseftaKelim"/>{{efn|According to some sources, a {{transliteration|he|zeret}} is 2 or 2.5 {{transliteration|he|tefahim}} instead of 3.<ref>[https://www.yeshiva.org.il/wiki/index.php/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%93%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA:%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%AA מיקרופדיה תלמודית:זרת]</ref>}}
* 1 cubit [ell] ({{transliteration|he|amah}}) = 2 spans ({{transliteration|he|zeret}}), or 6 palms [handbreadths]<ref name="ToseftaKelim"/><ref>Maimonides, [https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Middot.3.1?lang=bi&p2=Rambam_on_Mishnah_Middot.3.1.1 Commentary to Mishnah Middot 3:1]</ref>
* 1 [[Biblical mile|mil]] ({{transliteration|he|mil}}) = 2000 cubits [ells] ({{transliteration|he|amot}})<ref name=rambam64>Maimonides, [https://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Yoma.6.4?lang=bi&p2=Rambam_on_Mishnah_Yoma.6.4.1 Commentary on Mishnah Yoma 6:4]</ref><ref>[[Rashi]], Yoma 67a; [[Mishneh Torah]], Tefilah 4:2; etc.</ref>{{efn|However, some modern scholars suggest that a ''mil'' equals a [[Mile#Roman|Roman mile]] (1.479 km).<ref>[[:he:יהודה אליצור|Yehudah Elitzur]], ''Makom Beparashah''</ref>}}
* 1 parasang ({{transliteration|he|parasa}}) = 4 mils ({{transliteration|he|milin}}){{efn|Distance covered by an average man in a day's walk is 10 ''parsa'ot''. Time to walk a ''parasa'' is 72–96 minutes.<ref name="ZmanSource">{{cite web|title=MyZmanim Sources|url=http://www.myzmanim.com/messagebox.aspx?messageid=sources|publisher=MyZmanim.com|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Name (plural)
! Hebrew name (plural)
! Translation
! English equivalent
! SI equivalent
|-
| ''Etzba'' (''Etzba'ot'')
| (אצבע (אצבעות
| ''thumb-breadth''
| 0.79–0.94&nbsp;in
| 2.0–2.38&nbsp;cm
|-
| ''Tefach'' (''Tefachim'')
| (טפח (טפחים
| [[hand-breadth]]
| 3.16–3.76&nbsp;in
| 8.02–9.55&nbsp;cm
|-
| ''Zeret'' (''Zarot'')
| (זרת (זרות
|[[Span (unit)|span]]
| 9.48–11.28&nbsp;in
| 24.08–28.65&nbsp;cm
|-
| ''Amah'' (''Amot'')
| (אמה (אמות
| [[cubit]]
| 18.96–22.56&nbsp;in
| 48.16–57.30&nbsp;cm
|-
| ''[[Biblical mile|Mil]]'' (''Milin'')
|מיל
| [[mile]]
| 0.598–0.712&nbsp;mi
| 0.963–1.146&nbsp;km
|-
| ''parasa'' (''parsa'ot'')
|פרסה
| [[parasang]]
| 2.41–2.85&nbsp;mi
| 3.87–4.58&nbsp;km
|}

===Talmudic additions===
To the somewhat simple system of distance, the Talmud adds a few more units, namely the '''double palm''' (Hebrew: חסיט, {{transliteration|he|hasit}}),{{efn|According to [[Nathan ben Abraham]]'s Mishnah commentary, ''Melo Heseiṭ'' is the distance between the thumb and index finger when outstretched (little span).}} the '''pace''' (Hebrew: פסיעה, {{transliteration|he|pesiah}}), the '''cord''' (Hebrew: חבל, {{transliteration|he|hebel}}), the '''stadion''' (Hebrew: ריס, {{transliteration|he|ris}}), the '''day's journey''' (Hebrew:דרך יום, {{transliteration|he|derekh yom}}), and an undetermined quantity named the {{transliteration|he|garmida}} (Hebrew: גרמידא). The ''stadion'' appears to have been adopted from Persia, while the ''double palm'' seems to have been derived from the Greek {{transliteration|grc|[[dichas]]}}.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/>
The relationship between four of these ''additional'' units and the earlier system is as follows:
* 1 double palm ({{transliteration|he|hasit}}) = 2 palms ({{transliteration|he|tefah}})
* 1 pace ({{transliteration|he|pesiah}}) = 1 ell ({{transliteration|he|amah}})
* 1 [[Stadion (unit)|stadion]] ({{transliteration|he|ris}}) = 1600 palms ({{frac|2|15}} mile) ({{transliteration|he|tefah}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/74950445/Index|title=Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement|access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref>{{efn|According to [[Rashi]],<ref>Rashi, ''Baba Kama'' 79b, s.v. שלושים ריס</ref> thirty ''ris'' is equivalent to 4 ''[[Biblical mile|mil]]''. [[Maimonides]] concurs, equating 90 ''ris'' to 12 ''[[Biblical mile|mil]]''.<ref name=rambam64/>}} Others say that 1 stadion equalled 470–500 [[cubits]].<ref>[[Josephus]] (''[[Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]]'' 15.11.3; XV.415–416) described the [[Temple Mount]] as follows: "This hill was walled all round, and in perimeter four furlongs; [each side measuring] a furlong (Gr. ''stadion'')." Compare [[Mishnah]] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Middot.2.1?lang=bi ''Middot'' 2:1] which states that the Temple Mount measured 500 by 500 cubits. Elsewhere (''[[The Life of Flavius Josephus|Vita]]'' §12) Josephus states that [[Bethmaus]] was distant from [[Tiberias]] four ''stadia'' or one [[biblical mile]]; meaning each ''stadion'' equalled roughly 500 cubits. [[Saadia Gaon]], on the other hand, holds that a ''stadion'' equalled 470 cubits (Uziel Fuchs, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24174679?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ''"Millot HaMishnah" by R. Saadia Gaon – the First Commentary to the Mishnah''], Sidra: A Journal for the Study of Rabbinic Literature, pub. [[Bar-Ilan University]] Press (2014), p. 66).</ref>
* 1 [[day's journey]] (''derekh yom'') = 10 parasangs (''parasa'')

Two additional units are more ambiguous. The ''garmida'' is mentioned repeatedly but without its size being indicated; it is even sometimes treated as an area,<ref>''[[Baba Batra]]'' 27a</ref> and as a volume.<ref>''[[Erubin]]'' 14b</ref> The ''cord'' is given two different definitions; in the [[Mishnah]] it is 50 cubits,<ref>''Erubin'' 5:4</ref> but in the [[Gemara]] it is only 4 cubits.<ref>''Erubin'' 58b</ref>

==Area==
The Israelite system of measuring area was fairly informal; the biblical text merely measures areas by describing how much land could be sown with a certain volume measure of seed, for example the amount of land able to be sown with 2 [[Seah (unit)|''seah'']]s of barley.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Kings|18:32|HE}}</ref> The closest thing to a formal area unit was the '''yoke''' ({{Langx|he|'''צמד'''}} {{transliteration|he|tsemed}})<ref>{{bibleref||Isaiah|5:10|HE}}</ref> (sometimes translated as ''acre''), which referred to the amount of land that a pair of yoked oxen could plough in a single day; in [[Mesopotamia]] the standard estimate for this was 6,480 square cubits, which is roughly equal to a third of an [[acre]].<ref name="Peakes"/>

The following units appear in rabbinic sources:
* ''Se'arah'' ({{Langx|he|'''שערה'''}}, pl. {{transliteration|he|searot}}), "[[hair]]", square {{frac|1|36}} of a {{transliteration|he|geris}}
* ''Adashah'' ({{Langx|he|'''עדשה'''}}, pl. {{transliteration|he|adashot}}), "[[lentil]]", {{frac|1|9}} of a {{transliteration|he|geris}}
* ''Geris'' ({{Langx|he|'''גריס'''}}, pl. {{transliteration|he|gerisin}}), [[Fava bean|hulled fava bean]], a circle with a diameter of about 2 centimeters (0.8&nbsp;in)
* ''Amah al amah'' ({{Langx|he|'''אמה על אמה'''}}), square cubit, 0.232 to 0.328&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup> (2.50-3.53&nbsp;ft<sup>2</sup>)
* ''Beit rova'' ({{Langx|he|'''בית רובע'''}}, pl. {{transliteration|he|batei rova}}), space of 10.5 cubits x 10.5 cubits for sowing {{1/4}} ''kav'' of seed ({{1/4}} ''kav'' containing the volume of 6 eggs).<ref>See [https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/page/798/mode/1up Appendix II - D] (Liquid and Dry Measure) in [[Herbert Danby|Danby]]'s translation of the [[Mishnah]]. There, it says explicitly that 1 ''log ''is the equivalent of 6 eggs, and that 4 ''logs ''is the equivalent of 1 ''kab''. This would mean that one-fourth of a ''kab ''is equivalent to the volume of 6 eggs.</ref> Area varies between 24 and 34.5 m<sup>2</sup> (258–372&nbsp;ft<sup>2</sup>)
* ''Beit seah'' ({{Langx|he|'''בית סאה'''}}, pl. {{transliteration|he|batei seah}}) space for sowing a {{transliteration|he|seah}} 576 to 829.5 m<sup>2</sup> (689-992 yd<sup>2</sup>)
* ''Beit kor'' ({{Langx|he|'''בית כור'''}}, pl. {{transliteration|he|batei kor}}) space for sowing a {{transliteration|he|kor}} of seed, or what is 30 {{transliteration|he|seah}} in volume; the area needed is appx. 1.73 to 2.48 hectares (4.27-6.15 acres), or about 23,000 m<sup>2</sup> in area.<ref>''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', vol. 2, Jerusalem 1971, s.v. Agricultural Methods and Implements in Ancient Ereẓ Israel (p. 395).</ref>

==Volume==
The Israelite system of powder/liquid volume measurements corresponds exactly with the Babylonian system. Unlike the Egyptian system, which has units for multiples of 1, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 of the base unit, the Babylonian system is founded on multiples of 6 and 10, namely units of 1, 12, 24, 60, 72 (60 plus 12), 120, and 720.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> The basic unit was the ''mina'', which was defined as 1 sixtieth of a ''maris'', which itself was the quantity of water equal in weight to a light royal [[talent (measurement)|talent]]; the ''maris'' was thus equal to about 30.3 litres, and hence the ''mina'' is equal to about 0.505 litres.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> In the Israelite system, the term ''log'' is used in place of the Babylonian ''mina'' but the measurement is otherwise the same.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/>

Although they both use the ''log'' as the basic unit, the Israelites differentiated their systems of volume measure between dry and liquid states.

===Dry measure===
For dry measurement, or more specifically a measure of capacity rather than of weight,<ref>''The Mishnah with Maimonides' Commentary'', [[Yosef Qafih]] (ed.), vol. 1, [[Mossad Harav Kook]]: Jerusalem 1963, s.v. ''[[Hallah (Talmud)|Hallah]]'' 2:6 (p. 240).</ref> the smallest unit is the ''beitza'' (egg), followed by the ''log'' (לג), followed by the ''kab'' (קב), followed by the ''se'ah'' (סאה), followed by the ''ephah'' (איפה), followed by the ''lethek'' (לתך), and finally by the ''kor'' (כור). The ''lethek'' is mentioned only once in the [[Masoretic Text]], and the [[Septuagint]] translates it by the Greek term ''nebeloinou'' (νέβελ οἴνου), meaning ''wine-skin''. These measurements were related as follows:

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! English name
! Hebrew name
! Equals
! Notes
|-
| ''[[Kezayit]]''
| כזית
| 1/2 or 1/3 egg, or unrelated to eggs
| 
|-
| Egg
| ביצה
| 
| 
|-
| ''Log''
| לוג
| 6 eggs<ref name= "ShimonKiara1972">{{cite book |last=Kiara |first=S. |author-link=Shimon Kiara |title=Sefer Halachot Gedolot|editor=Ezriel Hildesheimer |volume=3 |date=1987 |location=Jerusalem|page=402 |language=he|title-link=Halachot Gedolot }}, s.v. '''הלכות חלה'''</ref><ref name=danby>[[Herbert Danby]] (ed.), ''[[The Mishnah]]'', Oxford University Press: Oxford 1977, Appendix II (Liquid and Dry Measure), p. [https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/page/n827/mode/1up 798] {{ISBN|0 19 815402 X}}  Cf. ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', ''Bikkurim'' 6:15.</ref><ref>According to [[Maimonides]] in Mishnah ''[[Pe'ah]]'' 8:5, it is possible to test the trigonometric calculations for the volume of one ''log'' (= the volume of 6 eggs), by filling up a space 4 fingerbreadths x 4 fingerbreadths in breadth (the finger's breadth being appx. 2.5 cm), with a depth of 2 fingerbreadths and {{frac|7|10}} of another fingerbreadth.</ref>
| 
|-
| ''Kab''
| קב
| 4 ''log'', 24 eggs<ref name= "ShimonKiara1972"/><ref name=danby/>
| 
|-
|| ''[[Omer (unit)|Omer]]''
| עמר
| 1/10 ''ephah'',<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:36|HE}}</ref> 43.2 eggs
| Also called ''isaron'' ("tenth"), ''asirit ha'efah'' (tenth of the ''ephah'').<ref>[https://mg.alhatorah.org/Dictionary/6241 עִשָּׂרוֹן  (שם עצם)]</ref>  Its dry weight was between 1.560&nbsp;kg to 1.770&nbsp;kg, the minimal quantity of flour required to separate the [[dough offering]].<ref>[[Maimonides]], commentary to [[Mishnah]] ''Eduyot'' 1:2: "...And I found the rate of the dough-portion in that measurement to be approximately 520 ''dirhams'' of wheat flour, while all these ''dirhams'' are the Egyptian [''dirham'']." This view is repeated by the ''[[Shulhan Arukh]]'' ([[Yoreh Deah]] 324:3) in the name of the [[Arba'ah Turim|Tur]]. In Maimonides' commentary of the Mishnah (''Eduyot'' 1:2, note 18), Rabbi [[Yosef Qafih]] explains that the weight of each Egyptian ''dirham'' was approximately 3.333 grams, which total weight of flour requiring the separation of the dough-portion comes to approximately 1.733 kg. Rabbi [[Ovadiah Yosef]] (''Sefer Halikhot ʿOlam'', vol. 1, pp. 288-291) states that the Egyptian ''dirham'' weighed approximately 3 grams, meaning the minimum requirement for separating the priest's portion is 1.560 kg. Others (e.g. Rabbi [[Avraham Chaim Naeh]]) say the Egyptian ''dirham'' weighed approximately 3.205 grams, which total weight for the requirement of separating the dough-portion comes to 1 kilo and 666 grams. Rabbi Shelomo Qorah (Chief Rabbi of [[Bnei Barak]]) brings down the traditional weight used in Yemen for each ''dirham'', saying that it weighed 3.36 grams, making the total weight for the required separation of the dough-portion to be 1.77072 kg.</ref>
|-
| ''Se'ah''
| סאה
| 6 ''kab'', 144 eggs<ref name= "ShimonKiara1972"/><ref name=danby/>
| 
|-
| ''Ephah''
| איפה
| 3 ''se'ah'', 432 eggs
| 
|-
| ''Letek''
| לתך
| 5 ''ephah''
| 
|-
| ''Kor'', ''[[Homer (unit)|Homer]]''
| כור
| 2 ''letek'', 10 ''eiphah''<ref>According to {{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|45:11|HE}} both the ''eiphah'' and the ''bath'' were one tenth of a ''homer''</ref>
| Boadt notes the word ''homer''  (חומר, not be confused with ''omer'') comes from the Hebrew for a donkey, and thus equals "one ass-load."<ref>The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Brown, Fitzmyer, and Murphy, Printice Hall, 1990 ISMN 0-12-614934, p. 327</ref>
|}

===Liquid measure===
For liquid measure, the main units were the ''[[Log (unit)|Log]]'', ''Hin'', and ''Bath'', related as follows:
* 1 ''Log'' ({{lang|he|לֹג}}) = 4 ''Revi'ith'' ({{lang|he|רביעית}}, {{lit|quarter [Log]}})
* 1 ''Hin'' ({{lang|he|הין}}) = 12 ''Logs''<ref>''Mishnah - with a Commentary of Moses ben Maimon'' (ed. [[Yosef Qafih]]), vol. 3, [[Mossad Harav Kook]]: Jerusalem 1967, s.v. Introduction to Tractate ''Menahoth'', p. 67 (Hebrew); a ''log'' has the capacity of six eggs. A ''hin'' is the equivalent of 12 logs.</ref>
* 1 ''Bath'' ({{lang|he|בת}}) = 6 ''Hin''<ref name="Dever2001">{{cite book|author=William G. Dever|title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&pg=PA215|date=10 May 2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3|page=215}}</ref>

The ''[[:he:רביעית|revi'it]]'', or ''revi'it halog'', formed one quarter of a ''log''.

The ''Bath'', equal to 72 ''Logs'', is thus the liquid equivalent of the ''Ephah'', also equal to 72 ''Logs''. The liquid equivalent of the ''omer'', which appears without a special name, only being described as the tenth part of a bath,<ref>{{bibleref|Ezekiel|45:14}}</ref> is as much of an awkward fit as the ''omer'' itself, and is only mentioned by Ezekiel and the Priestly Code; scholars attribute the same explanation to it as with the ''Omer''—that it arose as a result of decimalisation.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/>

According to Herbert G. May, chief editor of two classic Bible-related reference books, the bath may be archaeologically determined to have been about 22 liters (5.75 US gal) from a study of jar remains marked 'bath' and 'royal bath' from [[Tell Beit Mirsim]].<ref>The Interpreter's Bible, Buttrick ed., Abingden Press, Nashville, 1956, volume VI, p. 317 (p155 in the Internet Archive copy of the text)</ref>
Based on this, a Revi'ith would measure (approx.) 76 ml or 2.7 fluid oz.

===Talmudic additions===
In Talmudic times many more measures of capacity were used, mostly of foreign origin, especially from Persia and Greece, which had both held dominance over [[Judea]] by this period. The definitions for many of these are disputed. Those that were certain (disputed) fractions of the ''Kab'' include, in increasing order of size, {{transliteration|he|ukla}} (עוכלא), {{transliteration|he|tuman}} (תומן), and {{transliteration|he|kapiza}} (קפיזא). Those that were larger, in increasing order of size, included the ''[[Ancient Roman units of measurement#Dry measure|modius]]'' (מודיא),<ref>[[Babylonian Talmud]], ''Gittin'' 57a; traditionally associated with the {{transliteration|he|seah}}.</ref> ''{{lang|he-Latn|geriwa}}'' ({{lang|he-Latn|geriwa}}), ''{{lang|he-Latn|garab}}'' (גרב). Of unidentified size were the {{transliteration|he|ardaba}} (אדרב), the {{transliteration|he|kuna}} (כונא), and the {{transliteration|he|qometz}} (קמץ); the latter two of these were said to equate to a ''handful''. Some dry measures were used for liquids as well, e.g. ''se'eh''. The ''{{lang|he-Latn|kortov}}'' (קורטוב) was used for very small amounts (1/64 of a ''log'').<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/>{{rp|p. 490}}

==Mass and money==
[[File:Figures Abraham Weighs Silver.jpg|thumb|[[Abraham]] weighs out 400 shekels of [[silver]] (about 4.4 kg, or 141 troy oz) in order to buy land for a cemetery at [[Machpelah]]. (1728 illustration, based on [[Genesis 23]])]]
The Babylonian system, which the Israelites followed, measured weight with units of the ''kikar'' ([[Talent (measurement)#Talent in late Hebrew antiquity|talent]]), ''[[Mina (unit)|mina]]'', ''[[shekel]]'', and ''giru'' (Hebrew ''[[Gerah]]''), related to one another as follows:
* 1 ''shekel'' = 24  ''gerah''
* 1 ''mina'' = 60 ''shekels''
* 1 ''kikar'' = 60 ''mina''

In the Israelite system, the ratio of the ''gerah'' to the ''shekel'' was altered to 20:1 ({{Bibleverse|Exodus|30:13|HE}}). In later generations, the ''minah'' was renamed to ''litra'', being the Greek form of the Latin ''libra'', meaning ''pound''.<ref name="Peakes"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Epiphanius|author-link=Epiphanius of Salamis|title=Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version |editor=James Elmer Dean |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1935|location=Chicago|page=57 (note 400)|language=en|oclc=912074 |title-link=On Weights and Measures}}</ref> Thus, the Jewish system was as follows:

* 1 ''shekel'' = 20 ''[[gerah]]''
* 1 ''litra'' = 60 ''shekels'' (later 100 zuz)
* 1 ''kikar'' = 60 ''litra''

There were, however, different versions of the ''talent''/''kikkar'' in use; a ''royal'' and a ''common'' version. In addition, each of these forms had a heavy and a light version, with the heavy version being exactly twice the weight of the lighter form; the light ''royal'' talent was often represented in the form of a duck, while the heavy ''royal'' talent often took the form of a lion. The ''mina'' for the heavy ''royal'' talent weighed 1.01 kilograms (2.23&nbsp;lbs), while that for the heavy ''common'' talent weighed only 984 grams (2.17&nbsp;lbs); accordingly, the heavy ''common'' shekel would be about 15.87 grams (0.56&nbsp;oz).<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/> According to [[Josephus]], it was the heavy ''common'' talent, and its ''mina'' and ''shekel'', that was the normal measure of weight in [[Syria]] and [[Judea]];<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', volume 14, 106</ref> Josephus also mentions an additional unit – the ''bekah'' – which was exactly half a shekel.

Gradually, the system was reformed, perhaps under the influence of Egypt, so that a ''mina'' was worth only 50 shekels rather than 60; to achieve this, the shekel remained the same weight, while the weight of the standard ''mina'' was reduced. [[Moses]] mandated that the standard coinage would be in single shekels of [[silver]]; thus each shekel coin would constitute about 15.86 grams (0.51 troy ounces) of pure silver. In Judea, the Biblical shekel was initially worth about 3⅓ [[denarii]], but over time the measurement had enlarged so that it would be worth exactly four denarii.<ref name="Jewish Encyclopedia"/>

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! Name (English)
! Name (Hebrew)
! Description
! Non-Jewish equivalent
! Weight
! Notes
|-
| ''[[Prutah]]'' (pl. ''prutot'')
| פרוטה
| Copper coin
| 
| 22 mg (0.34 troy grains)
| 
|-
| ''Issar'' (pl. issarim)
| 
| Roman copper coin
| [[As (coin)|As]] (assarion)
| 177 mg (2.732 troy grains)
| 
|-
| ''Pundion'' (pl. <br />pundionim)
| פונדיון
| Roman<br />copper coin
| [[Dupondius]]
| 349 mg (5.4 troy grains)
| 
|-
| ''Ma'ah'' (pl. ''ma'ot'' = "money") or ''gerah''
| גרה
| Silver coin
| 
| 699 mg (10.8 troy grains)
| Lit. [[Grain (unit)|grain]]. Twenty ''gerah'' form a shekel.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|30:13|HE}}</ref>
|-
| ''Dinar'' (pl. ''dinarim'') or ''[[Zuz (coin)|zuz]]''
| דינר
| Roman silver coin
| [[Denarius]]
| 4.26 grams (0.137 ozt)
| Called ''zuz'' to avoid confusion with the gold dinar (Aureus).
|-
| ''Pim''
| פים
| 
| 
| About 7.6 grams, or {{Fraction|2|3}} shekel.
| Discovered by archaeologists in the form of the [[pim weight]].
|-
| ''[[Shekel]]'' (pl. ''shkalim'')
| שקל
| Jewish silver coin
| 
| 14 g
| From 8.39 to 15.86 grams (0.27-0.51 troy ounces) of pure silver (Chazon Ish).
|-
| ''Sela'' (pl. ''selo'im'')
| סלע
| Silver coin
| [[tetradrachm]]
| 17.1 grams (0.55 ozt)<br />
| equals two [[shekel]]
|-
| ''Dinar'' (pl. ''dinarim'' or ''dinarei'')
| דינר
| Roman gold coin
| [[Aureus]]
| 7.99 grams (0.257 ozt) of gold (106.25 grams or 3.416 ozt in silver)
| Hebrew "Dinerei zahav" (gold dinar)
|-
| ''Minah''
| 
| Silver coin
| [[Ancient Roman units of measurement#Weight|Libra]]
| 424.87 grams (13.66 ozt)
| equivalent with ''maneh'' which equals 100 ''zuz''.
|-
| ''Kikar'' (pl. ''kikarim'')
| כיכר
| Gold weight
| Talent of gold
| 
| Equivalent to 3000 shekel
|}

== Time ==
{{main|Hebrew calendar}}

=== Year ===
The [[Hebrew calendar]] is a [[lunar calendar]] synchronised with the seasons by [[Intercalation (timekeeping)|intercalation]], i.e. a [[lunisolar calendar]]. There are thus 12 ordinary months plus an extra month that is added in (intercalated) every few years. Some months vary in length by a day, as well.

=== Week ===
The modern Hebrew calendar follows a seven-day [[Hebrew calendar#Weeks|weekly cycle]], which runs concurrently but independently of the monthly and annual cycles. The seven-day cycle is not seen as a cycle in nature, and is rather a custom biblically originating from {{bibleverse||Genesis|1:3-2:3|HE}} and other biblical references to [[Shabbat]].

=== Day ===
In addition to "tomorrow" ({{transliteration|he|machar}}) and "yesterday" ({{transliteration|he|etmol}}), the Israelite vocabulary also contained a distinct word for ''two days ago'' ({{transliteration|he|shilshom}}). ''Maḥaratayim'' ("the day after tomorrow", "over-morrow"), is a dual form of {{transliteration|he|machar}}, literally "two tomorrows". In the Bible, the day is divided up vaguely, with descriptions such as "midnight",<ref>{{bibleverse|Exodus|12:29|HE}}; {{bibleverse|Judges|16:3|HE}}; {{bibleverse|Psalms|119:62|HE}}</ref> "noontime",<ref>{{Bibleverse|Jeremiah|20:16|HE}}</ref> "eveningtime",<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|8:11|HE}}</ref> and "at the beginning of the middle night watch".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Judges|7:19|HE}}</ref> Nevertheless, it is clear that the day was considered to start at [[dusk]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|23:32|HE}}; {{Bibleverse|Nehemiah|13:19|HE}}. A noted contrarian position on the start of the day can be found in {{Alhatorah|Genesis|1:5|Rashbam}}.</ref>

By Talmudic times, the Babylonian system of dividing up the day (from sunset to sunrise, and sunrise to sunset), into '''hours''' (Hebrew: שעה, ''sha'ah''), '''parts''' (Hebrew: חלק, ''[[helek|heleq]]'', plural ''halaqim''), and '''moments''' (Hebrew: רגע, ''rega'', plural ''rega'im''), had been adopted; the relationship of these units was:

* 1 part  (''heleq'') = 76 moments  (''rega'im'') (each moment, ''rega'', is 0.04386 of a second; 22.8 ''rega'im'' is 1 second)
* 1 hour (''sha'ah'') = 1080 parts (''halaqim'') (each ''heleq'' is 3⅓ seconds)
* 1 day = 24 hours (''sha'ah'')

To complicate matters, [[Halakha]], speaking of the [[Relative hour (Jewish law)|relative hour]], states that there are always 12 hours between the break of [[dawn]] and sunset, so these measurements are averages. For example, in the summer, a day time hour is much longer than a night time hour.

== References ==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}
{{notelist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{EBD}}
*{{citation |last=Hirsch |first=Emil G. |author2=Immanuel Benzinger |author3=Joseph Jacobs |author4=Jacob Zallel Lauterbach |date=1906 |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Hirsch & al.|1906}} |contribution=Weights and Measures |contribution-url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14821-weights-and-measures |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/ |title=The Jewish Encyclopedia |volume=XII |pages=483 ff |editor=Cyrus Adler |editor2=Gotthard Deutsch |editor3=Louis Ginzberg |editor4=Richard Gottheil |editor5=Joseph Jacobs |editor6=Marcus Jastrow |editor7=Morris Jastrow, Jr. |editor8=Kaufmann Kohler |editor9=Frederick de Sola Mendes |editor10=Crawford H. Toy |editor11=Isidore Singer |display-editors=0 }}.

==Further reading==
*  {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Rabbi Yitzḥak|title=The Practical Talmud Dictionary|year=1991|publisher=The Ariel Institute|location= Jerusalem, Israel|isbn=978-0-87306-588-7}}

==External links==
* [http://www.torahcalc.com/unitconverter/ TorahCalc: Biblical and Talmudic Measurement Converter]
* [https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/toshba/halacha/berur-2.htm Ka-Zait]
* [http://www.dafyomi.co.il/general/info/units-of-measurement.pdf Summary table of Biblical & Talmudic units of measurement by Ronnie Figdor]
* [http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/resource/WeightsAndMeasures.xhtml Oxford Biblical Studies Online: Weights and Measures]

{{systems of measurement}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Biblical And Talmudic Units Of Measurement}}
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