View source for Bird-of-paradise

{{short description|Family of birds of the order Passeriformes}}
{{About|the bird family Paradisaeidae||Bird of paradise (disambiguation){{!}}bird of paradise}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Bird-of-paradise
| image = Raggiana Bird-of-Paradise wild 5.jpg
| image_caption = [[Raggiana bird-of-paradise]] (''Paradisaea raggiana'')
| taxon = Paradisaeidae
| authority = [[William Swainson|Swainson]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 17 genera, 45 species<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=January 2022 | title=Crows, mudnesters, melampittas, Ifrit, birds-of-paradise | work=IOC World Bird List Version 12.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/crows/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=1 February 2022 }}</ref>
| status = CITES_A2
| status_system = CITES
}}
The '''birds-of-paradise''' are members of the [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Paradisaeidae''' of the order [[Passeriformes]]. They are found mainly in [[New Guinea]], as well as eastern [[Australia]] and the [[Moluccas]]. The family has 45 species in 17 [[genera]]. The members of this family are perhaps best known for the [[plumage]] of the males of the species, the majority of which are [[sexually dimorphic]]. The males of these species tend to have very long, elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings, tail, or head. For the most part, they are confined to dense [[rainforest]] habitats. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extent [[arthropods]]. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging from [[Monogamy in animals|monogamy]] to [[Lek (mating arena)|lek]]-type<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ligon|first1=Russell A.|last2=Diaz|first2=Christopher D.|last3=Morano|first3=Janelle L.|last4=Troscianko|first4=Jolyon|last5=Stevens|first5=Martin|last6=Moskeland|first6=Annalyse|last7=Laman|first7=Timothy G.|last8=Iii|first8=Edwin Scholes|date=2018-11-20|title=Evolution of correlated complexity in the radically different courtship signals of birds-of-paradise|journal=PLOS Biology|language=en|volume=16|issue=11|page=9|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006962|issn=1545-7885|pmc=6245505|pmid=30457985 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Animal sexual behaviour#Polygamy|polygamy]].

A number of species are [[threatened]] by hunting and [[habitat loss]].

==Taxonomy==
The family Paradisaeidae is introduced (as Paradiseidae) in 1825 with ''Paradisaea'' as the [[type genus]] by the English naturalist [[William Swainson]].<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Swainson | first=William | author-link=William Swainson | year=1825 | title=On the characters and natural affinities of several new birds from Australasia; including some observations on the Columbidae | journal=Zoological Journal | volume=1 | pages=463–484 [480] | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13382330 }}</ref>{{efn|In 1758 in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'',  [[Carl Linnaeus]] spelled the genus name as both ''Paradisea'' and ''Paradisaea''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title=Systema Naturae | volume=1 | edition=10th | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin| pages=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726988 83], [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727015 110]  }}</ref> In 2012 the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] suppressed the spelling ''Paradisea''.<ref>{{ cite journal | author=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature | date=2012 | title=''Paradisaea'' Linnaeus, 1758 and PARADISAEIDAE Swainson, 1825 (Aves): names conserved | journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature | volume=69 | issue=1 | pages=77–78 | doi=10.21805/bzn.v69i1.a5 | s2cid=81167105 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/378027 }}</ref><ref name=schodde>{{Cite journal | last1=Schodde | first1=R. | last2=LeCroy | first2=M. | last3=Bock | first3=W.J. | date=2010 | title=Case 3500 ''Paradisae'' Linnaeus, 1758 and Paradisaeidae Swainson, 1825 (Aves): proposed conservation of usage | journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature | volume=67 | issue=1 | pages=57–63 | doi=10.21805/bzn.v67i1.a8| s2cid=84064906 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/377252 }}</ref>}}{{efn|The authority for the family Paradisaeidae has traditionally been attributed to the Irish zoologist [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Bock | first=Walter J. | year=1994 | title=History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names | series=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History | volume= 222 | publisher=American Museum of Natural History | location=New York | pages=158, 264 | hdl=2246/830 | url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/830 }}<!--Linked page allows download of the 48MB pdf--></ref> Vigors was constrained by the [[quinarian system]] and his use of ''Paradisaeae'' was not intended as a family name.<ref name=schodde/><ref>{{ cite journal | last=Vigors | first=Nicholas Aylward | author-link=Nicholas Aylward Vigors | year=1825 | title=Observations on the natural affinities that connect the orders and families of birds | journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London | volume=14 | issue=3 | pages=395–517 [449] | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1823.tb00098.x | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/752827 }}</ref>}} For many years the birds-of-paradise were treated as being closely related to the [[bowerbird]]s. Today while both are treated as being part of the Australasian lineage [[Corvida]], the two are now thought to be only distantly related. The closest evolutionary relatives of the birds-of-paradise are the crow and jay family [[Corvidae]], the monarch flycatchers [[monarch flycatcher|Monarchidae]], and the Australian mudnesters [[Australian mudnester|Struthideidae]].<ref name = "HBW"/>

A 2009 study examining the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of all species to examine the relationships within the family and to its nearest relatives estimated that the family emerged 24&nbsp;million years ago, earlier than previous estimates. The study identified five [[clade]]s within the family, and placed the split between the first clade, which contains the monogamous [[manucode]]s and [[paradise-crow]], and all the other birds-of-paradise, to be 10 million years ago. The second clade includes the [[parotia]]s and the [[King of Saxony bird-of-paradise]]. The third clade provisionally contains several genera, including ''Seleucidis'', the ''Drepanornis'' sicklebills, ''Semioptera'', ''Ptiloris,'' and ''Lophorina'', although some of these are questionable. The fourth clade includes the ''Epimachus'' sicklebills, ''Paradigalla,'' and the astrapias. The final clade includes the ''Cicinnurus'' and the ''Paradisaea'' birds-of-paradise.<ref name=irestedt>{{Cite journal | last1=Irestedt | first1=M. | last2=Jønsson | first2=K.A. | last3=Fjeldså | first3=J. | last4=Christidis | first4=L. | last5=Ericson | first5=P.G. | date=2009 | title=An unexpectedly long history of sexual selection in birds-of-paradise | journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume=9 | issue=1 | page=235 | doi=10.1186/1471-2148-9-235 | pmid=19758445 | pmc=2755009 | doi-access=free}}</ref>

The exact limits of the family have been the subject of revision as well. The three species of [[satinbird]] (the genera ''[[Cnemophilus]]'' and ''[[Loboparadisea]]'') were treated as a subfamily of the birds-of-paradise, Cnemophilinae. In spite of differences in the mouth, foot morphology, and nesting habits they remained in the family until a 2000 study moved them to a separate family closer to the berrypeckers and longbills ([[Melanocharitidae]]).<ref name="Cracraft">
{{cite journal
|doi=10.1098/rspb.2000.0992
|pmid=10714877
|last1=Cracraft
|first1=J.
|year=2000
|title=What is not a bird of paradise? Molecular and morphological evidence places ''Macgregoria'' in the Meliphagidae and the Cnemophilinae near the base of the corvoid tree
|journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society#Proceedings of the Royal Society B|Proc. R. Soc. B]]
|volume=267
|issue=1440
|pages=233–241
|last2=Feinstein
|first2=J.
|pmc=1690532
}}
</ref> The same study found that the [[MacGregor's honeyeater|Macgregor's bird-of-paradise]] was actually a member of the large Australasian [[honeyeater]] family. In addition to these three species, a number of systematically enigmatic species and genera have been considered potential members of this family. The two species in the genus ''[[Lesser melampitta|Melampitta]]'', also from New Guinea, have been linked with the birds-of-paradise,<ref>Sibley, . & Ahlquist, J. (1987). "The Lesser Melampitta is a Bird of Paradise" ''[[Emu (journal)|Emu]]'' '''87''': 66–68</ref> but their relationships remain uncertain, more recently being linked with the Australian mudnesters.<ref name = "HBW"/> The [[silktail]] of [[Fiji]] has been linked with the birds-of-paradise many times since its discovery, but never formally assigned to the family. Recent molecular evidence now places the species with the [[fantail]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.038|last1=Irested|first1=Martin|year=2009|title=The systematic affinity of the enigmatic ''Lamprolia victoriae'' (Aves: Passeriformes) – An example of avian dispersal between New Guinea and Fiji over Miocene intermittent land bridges? |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|last2=Fuchs |first2=J |last3=Jønsson |first3=KA |last4=Ohlson |first4=JI |last5=Pasquet |first5=E |first6=Per G.P. |last6=Ericson |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=1218–1222 |url=http://www.nrm.se/download/18.7d9d550411abf68c801800012645/Irestedt%2Bet%2Bal%2BLamprolia.pdf|pmid=18620871}}</ref>

===Phylogeny===
A genus level phylogeny of the family has been determined by Martin Irestedt and collaborators.<ref name=irestedt/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Irestedt | first1=M. | last2=Batalha-Filho | first2=H. | last3=Ericson | first3=P.G.P. | last4=Christidis | first4=L. | last5=Schodde | first5=R. | date=2017 | title=Phylogeny, biogeography and taxonomic consequences in a bird-of-paradise species complex, ''Lophorina''–''Ptiloris'' (Aves: Paradisaeidae) | journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume=181 | issue=2 | pages=439–470 | doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx004 | doi-access= }}</ref>
{{Clade
|label1=Paradisaeidae
|1={{clade
 |label1=Manucodiinae
   |1={{clade
      |1=''[[Lycocorax]]'' – paradise-crows (2 species)
      |2={{clade
         |1=''[[Phonygammus]]'' – trumpet manucode
         |2=''[[Manucodia]]'' – manucodes (5 species)
         }}
      }}
   |2={{clade
     |label1=Parotiinae
     |label2=Paradisaeinae
      |1={{clade
         |1=''[[Pteridophora]]'' – King of Saxony bird-of-paradise
         |2=''[[Parotia]]'' – parotias (6 species)
         }}
      |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
            |1={{clade
               |1=''[[Seleucidis]]'' – twelve-wired bird-of-paradise
               |2=''[[Drepanornis]]'' – sicklebills (2 species)
               }}
            |2={{clade
               |1=''[[Semioptera]]'' – standardwing bird-of-paradise
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Lophorina]]'' – lophorinas (3 species)
                  |2=''[[Ptiloris]]'' – riflebirds (4 species)
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         |2={{clade
            |1={{clade
               |1=''[[Epimachus]]'' – sicklebills (2 species)
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Paradigalla]]'' – paradigallas (2 species)
                  |2=''[[Astrapia]]'' – astrapias (5 species)
                  }}
               }}
            |2={{clade
               |1={{clade
                  |1=''[[Cicinnurus]]'' – King bird-of-paradise
                  |2=''[[Diphyllodes]]'' – birds-of-paradise (2 species)
                  }}
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Paradisornis]]'' – blue bird-of-paradise
                  |2=''[[Paradisaea]]'' – birds-of-paradise (6 species)
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

===Species=== <!-- do not rename section without updating forward ref in taxobox -->
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''genus''': ''[[Lycocorax]]''
:*[[Halmahera paradise-crow]], ''Lycocorax pyrrhopterus''
:*[[Obi paradise-crow]], ''Lycocorax obiensis''

'''genus''': ''[[Manucodia]]''
:* [[Glossy-mantled manucode]], ''Manucodia ater''
:* [[Tagula manucode]], ''Manucodia alter''
:* [[Jobi manucode]], ''Manucodia jobiensis''
:* [[Crinkle-collared manucode]], ''Manucodia chalybatus''
:* [[Curl-crested manucode]], ''Manucodia comrii''

'''genus''': ''Phonygammus''
:* [[Trumpet manucode]], ''Phonygammus keraudrenii''

'''genus''': ''[[Paradigalla]]''
:* [[Long-tailed paradigalla]], ''Paradigalla carunculata''
:* [[Short-tailed paradigalla]], ''Paradigalla brevicauda''

'''genus''': ''[[Astrapia]]''
:* [[Arfak astrapia]], ''Astrapia nigra''
:* [[Splendid astrapia]], ''Astrapia splendidissima''
:* [[Ribbon-tailed astrapia]], ''Astrapia mayeri''
:* [[Stephanie's astrapia]], ''Astrapia stephaniae''
:* [[Huon astrapia]], ''Astrapia rothschildi''

'''genus''': ''[[Parotia]]''
:* [[Western parotia]], ''Parotia sefilata''
:* [[Carola's parotia]], ''Parotia carolae''
:* [[Bronze parotia]], ''Parotia berlepschi''
:* [[Lawes's parotia]], ''Parotia lawesii''
:* [[Eastern parotia]], ''Parotia helenae'' (Disputed)
:* [[Wahnes's parotia]], ''Parotia wahnesi''

'''genus''': ''Pteridophora''
:* [[King of Saxony bird-of-paradise]], ''Pteridophora alberti''

'''genus''': ''[[Lophorina]]''
:* [[Greater lophorina]], ''Lophorina latipennis''
:* [[Vogelkop lophorina]], ''Lophorina superba''
:* [[Lesser lophorina]], ''Lophorina minor'' 
{{col-2}}
'''genus''': ''[[Ptiloris]]''
::* [[Magnificent riflebird]], ''Ptiloris magnificus''
::* [[Growling riflebird]], ''Ptiloris intercedens''
::* [[Paradise riflebird]], ''Ptiloris paradiseus''
::* [[Victoria's riflebird]], ''Ptiloris victoriae''

'''genus''': ''[[Epimachus]]''
:* [[Black sicklebill]], ''Epimachus fastosus''
:* [[Brown sicklebill]], ''Epimachus meyeri''

'''genus''': ''[[Drepanornis]]''
:* [[Black-billed sicklebill]], ''Drepanornis albertisi''
:* [[Pale-billed sicklebill]], ''Drepanornis bruijnii''

'''genus''': ''Cicinnurus''
::* [[King bird-of-paradise]], ''Cicinnurus regius''
::* [[Magnificent bird-of-paradise]], ''Cicinurrus magnificus/Diphyllodes magnificus''
::* [[Wilson's bird-of-paradise]], ''Cicinnurus respublica/Diphyllodes respublica''

'''genus''': ''[[Diphyllodes]]''
::* [[Magnificent bird-of-paradise]], ''Diphyllodes magnificus''
::* [[Wilson's bird-of-paradise]], ''Diphyllodes respublica''

'''genus''': ''Semioptera''
:* [[Standardwing bird-of-paradise]], ''Semioptera wallacii''

'''genus''': ''Seleucidis''
:* [[Twelve-wired bird-of-paradise]], ''Seleucidis melanoleucus''

'''genus''': ''[[Paradisaea]]''
::* [[Lesser bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea minor''
::* [[Greater bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea apoda''
::* [[Raggiana bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea raggiana''
::* [[Goldie's bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea decora''
::* [[Red bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea rubra''
::* [[Emperor bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea guilielmi''

:'''genus''': ''Paradisornis''
::* [[Blue bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisornis rudolphi''
{{col-end}}

===Hybrids===
{{main|List of hybrid birds-of-paradise}}
Hybrid birds-of-paradise may occur when individuals of different species, that look similar and have overlapping ranges, confuse each other for their own species and crossbreed.

When [[Erwin Stresemann]] realised that hybridisation among birds-of-paradise might be an explanation as to why so many of the described species were so rare, he examined many controversial specimens and, during the 1920s and 1930s, published several papers on his hypothesis. Many of the species described in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are now generally considered to be hybrids, though some are still subject to dispute; their status is not likely to be settled definitely without genetic examination of museum specimens, which will come soon in summer 2021 in North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia, and some birds in an aviary in [[Central Park Zoo]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}{{Update inline|date=March 2025}}

==Description==
[[File:Epimachus meyeri -Papua New Guinea -male-8.jpg|thumb|left|Sicklebills such as this [[brown sicklebill]] have decurved bills.]]
Birds-of-paradise are closely related to the [[Corvidae|corvids]]. Birds-of-paradise range in size from the [[king bird-of-paradise]] at {{convert|50|g|oz|abbr=on}} and {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}}  to the [[curl-crested manucode]] at {{convert|44|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|430|g|oz|abbr=on}}. The male [[black sicklebill]], with its long tail, is the longest species at {{convert|110|cm|in|abbr=on}}. In most species, the tails of the males are larger and longer than those of the females, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and, in some species, structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard to [[beak|bill]] shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like the [[Astrapia]]s. As with body size, bill size varies between the sexes, although species where the females have larger bills than the males are more common, particularly in the insect-eating species.<ref name ="HBW"/>

[[Plumage]] variation between the sexes is closely related to the breeding system. The manucodes and paradise-crow, which are socially monogamous, are [[Sex#Sexual monomorphism|sexually monomorphic]]. So are the two species of ''[[Paradigalla]]'', which are polygamous. All these species have generally black plumage with varying amounts of green and blue [[iridescence]].<ref name ="HBW"/> The female plumage of the dimorphic species is typically drab to blend in with their habitat, unlike the bright attractive colours found on the males. Younger males of these species have female-like plumage, and sexual maturity takes a long time, with the full adult plumage not being obtained for up to seven years. This affords the younger males protection from predators of more subdued colours and also reduces hostility from adult males.<ref name ="HBW"/>

==Distribution and habitat==
The centre of bird-of-paradise [[biodiversity|diversity]] is the large island of [[New Guinea]]; all but two genera are found in New Guinea and Australia. Those other two are the monotypic genera ''[[Paradise-crow|Lycocorax]]'' and ''[[Standardwing|Semioptera]]'', both of which are endemic to the [[Maluku Islands]], to the west of New Guinea. Of the four riflebirds in the genus ''[[Ptiloris]]'', two are endemic to the coastal forests of eastern [[Australia]], one occurs in both Australia and New Guinea, and one is only found in New Guinea. The only other genus to have a species outside New Guinea is ''[[Phonygammus]]'', one representative of which is found in the extreme north of [[Queensland]]. The remaining species are restricted to New Guinea and some of the surrounding islands. Many species have very small ranges, particularly those with restricted habitat types such as mid-montane forest (like the [[black sicklebill]]) or island endemics (like the [[Wilson's bird-of-paradise]]).<ref name = "HBW"/>

The majority of birds-of-paradise live in tropical forests, including [[rainforest]]s, swamps, and [[moss forest]]s,<ref name = "HBW"/> nearly all of them solitary tree dwellers.<ref name="honoluluzoo.org">Honolulu Zoo {{cite web |url=http://www.honoluluzoo.org/birds_of_paradise.htm |title=Birds of Paradise |access-date=2011-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515130449/http://www.honoluluzoo.org/birds_of_paradise.htm |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}, ''Birds of Paradise'', Accessed Feb 3, 2011</ref> Several species have been recorded in coastal [[Mangrove|mangroves]].<ref name="Heads"/> The southernmost species, the [[paradise riflebird]] of [[Australia]], lives in sub-tropical and temperate wet forests. As a group the [[manucode]]s are the most plastic in their habitat requirements; in particular, the [[glossy-mantled manucode]], which inhabits both forest and open savanna woodland.<ref name = "HBW">{{cite book| first1 = Clifford B. | last1 = Firth | first2 = Dawn W. | last2 = Firth | editor-first = Josep | editor-last = del Hoyo | editor2-first = Andrew | editor2-last = Elliott | editor3-first = David | editor3-last = Christie | contribution = Family Paradisaeidae (Birds-of-paradise) | title = Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 14, Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows | year = 2009 | pages = 404–459| place = Barcelona | publisher = Lynx Edicions | isbn = 978-84-96553-50-7 }}</ref> Mid-montane habitats are the most commonly occupied habitat, with thirty of the forty species occurring in the {{Convert|1000-2000|m|abbr=on}} altitudinal band.<ref name="Heads">{{cite journal|last=Heads|first=M|year=2001|title=Birds of paradise, biogeography and ecology in New Guinea: a review|journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=28|issue=7|pages=893–925| doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2699.2001.00600.x|s2cid=83592452}}</ref>

==Behaviour and ecology==

===Diet and feeding===
[[File:Ribbon-tailed Astrapia.jpg|thumb|right|Fruits of the genus ''[[Heptapleurum]]'' are an important part of the diet of the [[ribbon-tailed astrapia]].]]
The diet of the birds-of-paradise is dominated by fruit and arthropods, although small amounts of nectar and small vertebrates may also be taken. The ratio of the two food types varies by species, with fruit predominating in some species, and arthropods dominating the diet in others. The ratio of the two will affect other aspects of the behaviour of the species; for example, [[frugivorous]] species tend to feed in the forest canopy, whereas [[insectivore]]s may feed lower down in the middle storey. Frugivores are more social than the insectivores, which are more solitary and [[territory (animal)|territorial]].<ref name ="HBW"/>

Even the birds-of-paradise that are primarily insect eaters will still take large amounts of fruit. The family is overall an important seed disperser for the forests of New Guinea, as they do not digest the seeds. Species that feed on fruit will range widely searching for fruit, and while they may join other fruit-eating species at a fruiting tree, they will not associate with them otherwise and will not stay with other species for long. Fruit is eaten while perched and not in the air, and birds-of-paradise are able to use their feet as tools to manipulate and hold their food, allowing them to extract certain capsular fruit. There is some niche differentiation in fruit choice by species and any one species will only consume a limited number of fruit types compared to the large choice available. For example, the [[trumpet manucode]] and [[crinkle-collared manucode]] will eat mostly figs, whereas the [[Lawes's parotia]] focuses mostly on berries and the [[greater lophorina]] and [[Raggiana bird-of-paradise]] take mostly capsular fruit.<ref name ="HBW"/>

===Breeding===
[[File:Victoria's Riflebird courtship - Lake Eacham - Queensland S4E8070 (22198704599).jpg|thumb|A male Victoria's riflebird displays and is inspected by a female.]]
Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with at least eight species exhibiting [[lek mating]] systems,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beehler|first1=Bruce|last2=Pruett-Jones|first2=Stephen G.|date=1983|title=Display dispersion and diet of birds of paradise: a comparison of nine species|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|volume=13|issue=3|pages=229–238|doi=10.1007/bf00299927|s2cid=21374280|issn=0340-5443}}</ref> including the genus ''Paradisaea''. Others, such as the ''[[Cicinnurus]]'' and ''[[Parotia]]'' species, have highly ritualised mating dances. Across the family (Paradisaeidae), female preference is incredibly important in shaping the courtship behaviors of males and, in fact, drives the evolution of ornamental combinations of sound, color, and behavior.<ref name="BOP2018">
{{cite journal
|last=Ligon
|first=Russell A.
|author2=Diaz, Christopher D.
|author3=Morano, Janelle L.
|author4=Troscianko, Jolyon
|author5=Stevens, Martin
|author6=Moskeland, Annalyse
|author7=Laman, Timothy G.
|author8=Scholes III, Edwin
|year=2019
|title=Evolution of correlated complexity in the radically different courtship signals of birds-of-paradise
|journal=PLOS Biology
|volume=16
|issue=11
|article-number=e2006962
|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006962
|pmid=30457985
|pmc=6245505
|doi-access=free
}}
[https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006962 Open access]
</ref> Males are [[Animal sexual behaviour#Polygamy|polygamous]] in the [[sexually dimorphic]] species, but [[Monogamy in animals|monogamous]] in at least some of the monomorphic species. [[Hybrid (biology)|Hybridisation]] is frequent in these birds, suggesting the polygamous species of bird of paradise are very closely related despite being in different genera. Many hybrids have been described as new species in the past,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=André|date=2018-05-31|title=Discovery of a rare hybrid specimen known as Maria's bird of paradise at the Staatliches Naturhistorisches Museum in Braunschweig|url=https://zse.pensoft.net/article/25139/|journal=Zoosystematics and Evolution|language=en|volume=94|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.3897/zse.94.25139|issn=1860-0743|doi-access=free}}</ref> and doubt remains regarding whether some forms, such as [[Rothschild's lobe-billed bird-of-paradise]], are valid.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Kimberly G.|last2=Fuller|first2=Errol|date=1997|title=The Lost Birds of Paradise|journal=The Condor|volume=99|issue=4|page=1016|doi=10.2307/1370166|jstor=1370166|issn=0010-5422|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Birds-of-paradise build their nests from soft materials, such as leaves, ferns, and vine tendrils, typically placed in a tree fork.<ref name=EoB/> The typical number of eggs in each [[Clutch (eggs)|clutch]] varies among the species and is not known for every species. For larger species, it is almost always just one egg, but smaller species may produce clutches of 2–3 eggs.<ref>
{{cite journal
|last=Mackay
|first=Margaret D.
|year=1990
|title=The Egg of Wahnes' Parotia ''Parotia wahnesi'' (Paradisaeidae)
|journal=Emu
|volume=90
|issue=4
|page=269
|doi=10.1071/mu9900269a
}}
[http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9900269.pdf PDF fulltext]
</ref> Eggs hatch after 16–22 days, and the young leave the nest at between 16 and 30 days of age.<ref name=EoB>
{{cite book
|editor=Forshaw, Joseph
|author= Frith, Clifford B.
|year=1991
|title=Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds
|publisher= Merehurst Press
|location=London
|pages= 228–231
|isbn= 1-85391-186-0
}}
</ref>

==Relationship with humans==
[[File:Paradisaea apoda -Bali Bird Park-6.jpg|thumb|left|Male [[greater bird-of-paradise]]]]
Societies of New Guinea often use bird-of-paradise plumes in their [[Culture of Papua New Guinea|dress and rituals]], and the plumes were popular in Europe in past centuries as adornment for ladies' [[Hat|millinery]].  Hunting for plumes and [[habitat destruction]] have reduced some species to endangered status; habitat destruction due to [[deforestation]] is now the predominant threat.<ref name = "HBW"/>

Best known are the members of the genus ''[[Paradisaea]]'', including the [[type species]], the [[greater bird-of-paradise]], ''Paradisaea apoda''. This species was described from specimens brought back to Europe from trading expeditions in the early sixteenth century. These specimens had been prepared by native traders by removing their wings and feet so that they could be used as decorations. This was not known to the explorers, and in the absence of information, many beliefs arose about them. They were briefly thought to be the mythical [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]]. The often footless and wingless condition of the skins led to the belief that the birds never landed but were kept permanently aloft by their plumes. The first Europeans to encounter their skins were the voyagers in [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s [[circumnavigation]] of the [[Earth]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andaya|first=Leonard|title=Flights of fancy: The bird of paradise and its cultural impact|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/4622573F050E7B15FF75485C28AC9678/S0022463417000546a.pdf/flights_of_fancy_the_bird_of_paradise_and_its_cultural_impact.pdf|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|publication-date=October 2017|page=374}}</ref> [[Antonio Pigafetta]] wrote that "The people told us that those birds came from the terrestrial paradise, and they call them bolon diuata, that is to say, 'birds of God'."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/348872|last=Harrison|first=Thomas P.|year=1960|title=Bird of Paradise: Phoenix Redivivus |journal=Isis|volume=51|issue=2|pages=173–180 |s2cid=145329486}}</ref>  This is the origin of both the name "bird of paradise" and the specific name ''apoda'' – without feet.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jobling | first = James A.  | title = A Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 1991 | location = Oxford | pages = 15–16 | isbn = 0-19-854634-3 }}</ref> An alternate account by [[Maximilianus Transylvanus]] used the term Mamuco Diata, a variant of Manucodiata, which was used as a synonym for birds-of-paradise up to the 19th century.

===Birdwatching===
In recent years the availability of pictures and videos about birds of paradise on the internet has raised the interest of birdwatchers around the world. Many of them fly to [[Western New Guinea|West Papua]] to watch various species of birds of paradise from [[Wilson's bird-of-paradise]] (''Diphyllodes respublica'') and [[red bird-of-paradise]] (Paradisaea rubra) in [[Raja Ampat]] to [[lesser bird-of-paradise]] (''Paradisaea minor''), [[magnificent riflebird]] (''Ptiloris magnificus''), [[king bird-of-paradise]] (''Cicinnurus regius''), [[Vogelkop lophorina]] (''Lophorina niedda''),<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-14|title=Rare Footage of New Bird of Paradise Species Shows Odd Courtship Dance {{!}} Nat Geo Wild|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPhVOZiPokA|access-date=2020-09-20|website=YouTube}}</ref> and [[magnificent bird-of-paradise]] (''Diphyllodes magnificus'') in [[Susnguakti]] forest.

This activity significantly reduces the number of local villagers who are involved in the hunting of paradise birds.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

===Hunting===
Hunting of birds of paradise has occurred for a long time, possibly since the beginning of human settlement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andaya|first=Leonard Y.|date=2017|title=Flights of fancy: The bird of paradise and its cultural impact|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|language=en|volume=48|issue=3|pages=372–389|doi=10.1017/S0022463417000546|issn=0022-4634|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is a peculiarity that among the most frequently hunted species, males start mating opportunistically even before they grow their ornamental plumage. This may be an adaptation to maintaining population levels in the face of hunting pressures, which have probably been present for hundreds of years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laska|first1=Mark S.|last2=Hutchins|first2=Michael|last3=Sheppard|first3=Christine|last4=Worth|first4=Wendy|last5=Hundgen|first5=Kurt|last6=Bruning|first6=Don|date=Jun 1992|title=Reproduction by Captive Unplumed Male Lesser Bird of Paradise Paradisaea minor: Evidence for an Alternative Mating Strategy?|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1071/MU9920108|journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology|language=en|volume=92|issue=2|pages=108–111|doi=10.1071/MU9920108|issn=0158-4197|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The naturalist, explorer, and author [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] spent six years in the region, which he chronicled in ''[[The Malay Archipelago]]'' (published in 1869). His expedition team shot, collected, and described many specimens of animals and birds, including the great, king, twelve-wired, superb, red, and six-shafted birds of paradise.<ref>Wallace, Alfred Russel. ''The Malay Archipelago''. London: Macmillan, 1869.</ref>

[[Plume hunting|Hunting to provide plumes]] for the millinery trade was extensive in the late 19th and early 20th century,<ref>{{cite book | last = Cribb | first = Robert | year = 1997 | chapter = Birds of paradise and environmental politics in colonial Indonesia, 1890–1931 | editor1-last = Boomgaard | editor1-first = Peter | editor2-last = Columbijn | editor2-first = Freek | editor3-last = Henley | editor3-first = David | title = Paper landscapes: explorations in the environmental history of Indonesia | pages = 379–408 | publisher = KITLV Press | location = Leiden, The Netherlands | isbn = 90-6718-124-2}}</ref> but today the birds have legal protection except for hunting at a sustainable level to fulfill the ceremonial needs of the local tribal population. In the case of ''[[Pteridophora]]'' plumes, scavenging from old [[bowerbird]] bowers is encouraged.

===Other examples===
* The southern hemisphere constellation [[Apus]] represents a bird-of-paradise.
* An adult-plumaged male bird-of-paradise is depicted on the [[flag of Papua New Guinea]], designed by [[Susan Karike]].
* The various members of the family were profiled by [[David Attenborough]] in ''[[Attenborough in Paradise]]''.
* The Indonesian Army has a Military Area Command named after "Cenderawasih", the local name for the bird.
* The plume from the bird of paradise was used in ''[[Shripech]]'', the royal crown worn by the [[King of Nepal]], before the establishment of a republic. Now, the crown is housed in [[Narayanhiti Palace|Naraynhiti Palace Museum]].

==See also==
* {{portal-inline|Birds}}
* [[Sexual selection]]
* [[Fisherian runaway]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | title=Birds of Paradise, Revealing the World's Most Extraordinary Birds | publisher=National Geographic Society |author1=Laman, Tim |author2=Scholes, Edwin | year=2012 |url=https://www1.goramblers.org/primo-explore/Book?ID=axm:5606&Academia=National_Geographic_Birds_Of_Paradise(2).pdf |isbn=978-1-426-20958-1 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Paradisaeidae}}
{{Wikispecies|Paradisaeidae}}

* [https://www.birdsofparadiseproject.org/ Birds-of-Paradise Project] website by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology 
* [https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/paradi7/cur/introduction Bird-of-paradise videos and images] at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology
* [http://birdsofparadiseproject.blogspot.com/2013/03/a-graphical-look-at-birds-of-paradise.html Birds-of-paradise infographic] produced for National Geographic
* [https://www.photographyaxis.com/photography-articles/bird-of-paradise-bird-photography Birds-of-paradise] from [[Papua New Guinea]], PhotographyAxis
* {{cite NSRW|short=x|wstitle=Birds-of-Paradise}}

{{Birds-of-paradise}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q179333}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Bird Of Paradise}}
[[Category:Paradisaeidae|.]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors]]