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{{Short description|Method of execution in Norse literature}}
{{for|the novel by Craig Russell|Blood Eagle (novel){{!}}''Blood Eagle'' (novel)}}
[[File:Sacrificial scene on Hammars (II) crop.png|thumbnail|upright=1.1|Detail from [[Stora Hammars stones#Stora Hammars I|Stora Hammars I]], Sweden shows a figure lying on his belly with another man using a weapon on his back. Note the triangular [[valknut]] symbol above, which is theorized to represent an [[Ecstasy (philosophy)|ecstatic state]].]]
The '''blood eagle''' was a method of ritual [[execution]] as detailed in late [[skald|skaldic poetry]]. According to the two instances mentioned in the Christian [[saga]]s, the victims (in both cases members of royal families) were placed in a [[prone position]], their ribs severed from the spine with a sharp tool, and their lungs pulled through the opening to create a pair of "wings". There has been continuing debate about whether the rite was a literary invention of the original texts, a mistranslation of the texts themselves, or an authentic historical practice.<ref name="Frank">{{cite journal | last =Frank | first =Roberta | title =Viking atrocity and Skaldic verse: The Rite of the Blood-Eagle | journal =English Historical Review | volume =XCIX | issue =CCCXCI | pages =332–343 | publisher =Oxford Journals | date =1984 | doi =10.1093/ehr/XCIX.CCCXCI.332 | doi-access =free }}</ref><ref name="Tracy">{{cite book| last =Tracy| first =Larissa| title =Torture and Brutality in Medieval Literature: Negotiations of National Identity| publisher =DS Brewer| date =2012| pages =109–111| url =http://www.boydellandbrewer.com/store/viewitem.asp?idproduct=13853| isbn =9781843842880| access-date =2015-03-30| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194210/http://www.boydellandbrewer.com/store/viewitem.asp?idproduct=13853| archive-date =2015-09-23| url-status =dead}}</ref><ref name="Dash">{{cite web| last =Dash| first =Mike| author-link =Mike Dash| title =The Vengeance of Ivarr the Boneless| website =Smithsonian.com| publisher =Smithsonian| date =18 March 2013| url =http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-vengeance-of-ivarr-the-boneless-4002654/| access-date = 30 March 2015}}</ref>

==Accounts==
The blood-eagle ritual-killing rite appears in just two instances in Norse literature, plus oblique references some have interpreted as referring to the same practice. The primary versions share certain commonalities: the victims are both noblemen (Halfdan Haaleg or "Long-leg" was a prince; [[Ælla of Northumbria]] a king), and both of the executions were in retaliation for the murder of a father.

===Einarr and Halfdan ===
{{wikisource|Heimskringla/Harald Harfager's Saga#Halfdan Haleg's Death.}}
There are two sources that purport to describe [[Torf-Einarr]]'s ritual execution of [[Harald Fairhair]]'s son, [[Halfdan Long-Leg]], in the late 9th century. Both were written several centuries after the events they depict, and exist in various versions known to have influenced each other.{{sfnp|Pálsson|Edwards|1981|p=10|loc=Introduction|ps=none}}

In the ''[[Orkneyinga saga]]'', the blood eagle is described as a sacrifice to [[Odin]].

{{blockquote|
''Þar fundu þeir Hálfdan hálegg, ok lèt Einarr rísta örn á baki honum með sverði, ok skera rifin öll frá hrygginum ok draga þar út lúngun, ok gaf hann Óðni til sigrs sèr.''<ref>{{cite book |first1=Guðbrandur |last1=Vigfússon |translator-first=George Webbe |translator-last=Dasent |year=1887 |title=Orkneyinga saga and Magnus saga |quote=with appendices |volume=1 |publisher=His Majesty's Stationery Office / Oxford University |language=en |url=https://archive.org/details/orkneyingasagaa00dasegoog}}</ref>

There they found Hálfdan Hálegg, and Einarr had an eagle carved on his back with a sword, and cut all the ribs from the spine and pulled out a lung, and he gave it to Odin for his victory.<ref name="Dasent">{{cite journal |last=Dasent |first=G.W. |year=1894 |title=Icelandic Sagas and other Historical Documents Relating to the Settlements and Descents of the Northmen on the British Isles – Volume&nbsp;III – The Orkneyinger's Saga |journal=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores, or, Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland During the Middle Ages |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=xxvi, 8–9 |location=London, UK |publisher=Public Record Office of Great Britain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqlEAQAAMAAJ |access-date=30 March 2015}}</ref>
|sign=|source=}}

[[Snorri Sturluson]]'s ''[[Heimskringla]]'' contains an account of the same event described in ''Orkneyinga saga'', with Einarr actually performing the deed himself:

{{blockquote|
''Þá gékk Einarr jarl til Hálfdanar; hann reist örn á baki honum með þeima hætti, at hann lagði sverði á hol við hrygginn ok reist rifin öll ofan alt á lendar, dró þar út lungun; var þat bani Hálfdanar.''<ref name="Heimskingla.no">{{cite web |last=Sturluson |first=Snorri |title=Heimskringla in Old Norse |website=heimskringla.no  |url=http://heimskringla.no/wiki/Haralds_saga_hins_h%C3%A1rfagra}}</ref>

Afterwards, Earl Einarr went up to Halfdan and cut the "blood eagle" on his back, in this fashion that he thrust his sword into his chest by the backbone and severed all the ribs down to the loins, and then pulled out the lungs; and that was Halfdan's death.<ref name="Hollander">
{{cite book |last=Hollander |first=Lee |year=2009 |orig-year=1964 |title=Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway |edition=7th |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=9780292786967 |page=84 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71U7xXIBbUgC}}</ref>
|sign=|source=}}

=== Ragnar Lodbrok's sons and King Ælla of Northumbria===
In ''[[Tale of Ragnar's Sons|Þáttr af Ragnars sonum]]'' (the "Tale of Ragnar's sons"), [[Ivar the Boneless]] has captured king [[Ælla of Northumbria]], who had killed Ivar's father [[Ragnar Loðbrók]]. The killing of Ælla, after a battle for control of [[York]], is described thus:
 
{{blockquote|They caused the bloody eagle to be carved on the back of Ælla, and they cut away all of the ribs from the spine, and then they ripped out his lungs.}}

The blood eagle is referred to by the 11th-century poet [[Sigvatr Þórðarson]], who, some time between 1020 and 1038, wrote a skaldic verse named ''[[Knútsdrápa]]''<ref name="Knútsrápra-nd">Matthew Townend (ed.) 2012, ‘Sigvatr Þórðarson, ''Knútsdrápa'' 1’ in Diana Whaley (ed.), ''Poetry from the Kings’ Sagas 1: From Mythical Times to c. 1035''. [[Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages]] 1. Turnhout: Brepols, p. 651. [https://skaldic.org/m.php?p=verse&i=3809]<br />see also: ''[[Knútsdrápa]]''</ref> that recounts and establishes Ivar the Boneless as having killed Ælla and subsequently cutting his back.

Sighvatr's skaldic verse:
:{|
|- style="text-align:left;"
!width=25%| Original
!width=35%| Literal translation
!width=30%| Suggested reordering
|-
| style="padding-right:1em" | {{lang|non|<poem>Ok Ellu bak, 
at, lét, hinns sat, 
Ívarr ara, 
Jórvík, skorit.<ref name=Knútsrápra-nd/></poem>}}
| style="padding-right:1em" |<poem>And Ella's back,
at, had, the one who dwelt,
Ívarr, with eagle,
York, cut.</poem>
|<poem>And Ívarr, the one
who dwelt at York,
had Ella's back
cut with [an] eagle.<ref name="Frank"/></poem>
|}

Skaldic verse, a common medium of Norse poets, was meant to be cryptic and allusive, and the idiomatic nature of Sighvatr's poem as a description of what has become known as the blood eagle is a matter of historical contention, particularly since in Norse imagery the eagle was strongly associated with blood and death.

[[Saxo Grammaticus]] in {{Lang|la|[[Gesta Danorum]]}} tells the following about Bjørn and Sigvard, sons of Ragnar Lodbrok and king Ælla:
{{blockquote|''Idque statuto tempore exsecuti, comprehensi ipsius dorsum plaga aquilam figurante affici iubent, saevissimum hostem atrocissimi alitis signo profligare gaudentes. Nec vulnus impressisse contenti, laceratam salivere carnem.''<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Saxo Grammaticus]] |title=Gesta Danorum |at=book&nbsp;9, chapter&nbsp;5, section&nbsp;5 |url=http://www2.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/9/5/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902091457/http://www2.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/9/5/index.htm |archive-date=2010-09-02 |access-date=2019-11-18 }}</ref>
:
... This they did at the appointed time; and when they had captured him, they ordered the figure of an eagle to be cut in his back, rejoicing to crush their most ruthless foe by marking him with the cruellest of birds. Not satisfied with impressing a wound on him, they salted the mangled flesh.<ref>
{{cite book |title=The Danish History |section=Book&nbsp;IX |via=Wikisource |section-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Danish_History/Book_IX }}</ref>}}

===Other accounts===
Another possible oblique reference to the rite appears in {{Lang|is|[[Norna-Gests þáttr]]}}. There are two stanzas of verse near the end of its section&nbsp;6, "[[Sigurd]] Felled the Sons of Hunding", where a character describing previous events says:<ref name=snerpa-is-nornages>
{{cite web |title=''Norna-Gests þáttr'' |url=http://www.snerpa.is/net/forn/nornages.htm}}<br/>''see also'' [[Norna-Gests þáttr]]</ref><ref name=Hardman-nornages>{{cite web |translator=Hardman |title=''Norna-Gests þáttr'' |url=http://www.northvegr.org/lore/oldheathen/077.php |url-status=dead  <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323030754/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/oldheathen/077.php |archive-date=2010-03-23}}</ref>
:{|
|style="padding-right:1em;"| {{lang|non|<poem>Nú er blóðugr örn
breiðum hjörvi
bana Sigmundar
á baki ristinn.
Fár var fremri,
sá er fold rýðr,
hilmis nefi,
ok hugin gladdi.<ref name=snerpa-is-nornages/> &emsp; &emsp; </poem>}}
|style="padding-left:1em;"|<poem>Now is the bloody eagle
with a broad sword
carved on the back
of the killer of Sigmund.
Few were better
kinsmen of kings,
who rule land
and gladden the raven.

</poem>
|}
{{small|(The word translated "raven" is not ''hrafn'' but ''[[Huginn|hugin]]'', the personal name of one of [[Odin]]'s ravens.)}}

==Authenticity==
There is debate about whether the blood eagle was historically practiced, or whether it was a literary device invented centuries later by the Christian Norse authors who transcribed the sagas. No contemporary accounts of the rite exist, and the scant references in the sagas are several hundred years after the [[Christianization of Scandinavia]].

In the 1970s, [[Alfred P. Smyth|Alfred Smyth]] supported the historicity of the rite, stating that it is clearly [[human sacrifice]] to the Norse god [[Odin]]. He characterized St. Dunstan's description of Ælla's killing as an "accurate account of a body subjected to the ritual of the blood eagle".<ref>[[Alfred P. Smyth]], ''Scandinavian Kings in the British Isles, 850–880'' (1977), Oxford, pp. 212–213</ref>

[[Roberta Frank]] reviewed the historical evidence for the rite in her "Viking Atrocity and Skaldic Verse: The Rite of the Blood-Eagle", where she writes: "By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the various saga motifs—eagle sketch, rib division, lung surgery, and 'saline stimulant'—were combined in inventive sequences designed for maximum horror."<ref name="Frank-II">{{harvnb|Frank|1984|p=334}}</ref> She concludes that the authors of the sagas misunderstood alliterative [[kenning]]s that alluded to leaving one's foes face down on the battlefield, their backs torn as carrion by scavenging birds. She compared the lurid details of the blood eagle to Christian [[martyr]]dom tracts, such as that relating the tortures of [[Saint Sebastian]], shot so full of arrows that his ribs and internal organs were exposed. She suggests that these tales of martyrdom inspired further exaggeration of the misunderstood skaldic verses into a grandiose torture and death rite with no actual historic basis. David Horspool in his book ''King Alfred: Burnt Cakes and Other Legends'', while not committing to the historical veracity of the rite, also saw parallels to martyrdom tracts.<ref name="Horspool">{{cite book |last=Horspool |first=David |title=King Alfred: Burnt Cakes and Other Legends |publisher=Profile Books |year=2006 |location=London |pages=44–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CdB584-MIhIC |isbn=067402320X}}</ref> Frank's paper sparked a "lively debate".<ref>{{cite book |last=Baraz |first=David |title=Medieval Cruelty: Changing Perceptions, Late Antiquity to the Early Modern Period |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2003 |location=Ithaca, NY |page=67 |isbn=978-0801438172}}, citing: Bjarni Einarsson, [http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Saga-Book%20XXII.pdf "''De Normanorum Atrocitate'', or on the Execution of Royalty by the Aqueline Method"], ''The Saga Book'', 22 (1988): 79–82; Roberta Frank, [http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Saga-Book%20XXII.pdf "The Blood-Eagle Again"], ''The Saga Book'', 22 (1988): 287–289; Bjarni Einarsson and Roberta Frank, [http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Saga-Book%20XXIII.pdf "The Blood-Eagle Once More: Two Notes"], ''The Saga Book'', 23 (1990): 80–83.</ref>

[[Ronald Hutton]]'s ''[[The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles]]: Their Nature and Legacy'' states that "the hitherto notorious rite of the 'Blood Eagle,' the killing of a defeated warrior by pulling up his ribs and lungs through his back, has been shown to be almost certainly a Christian myth resulting from the misunderstanding of some older verse."<ref>{{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy states |publisher=Blackwell |year=1991 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780631172888/page/282 282] |isbn=978-0631172888 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780631172888/page/282 }}</ref>

While taking no view on the historical authenticity of the ritual, the authors of a 2022 study concluded that the ritual as described was not inconsistent either with physiology or the tools available within the sociocultural context of the Viking era. They further concluded that, were it performed in the most extreme versions depicted in the sagas and the subject of the torture still lived at that point, death would have followed the severing of the ribs from the spine within seconds, due either to [[exsanguination]] or [[asphyxia]]tion.<ref>{{cite journal| title=An Anatomy of the Blood Eagle: The Practicalities of Viking Torture |first1=Luke John | last1=Murphy |first2=Heidi R. |last2=Fuller |first3=Peter L. T. |last3=Willan |first4=Monte A. |last4=Gates| journal=Speculum |year=2022 |volume=97 |number=1 |pages=1–39 |doi=10.1086/717332|s2cid=245220700 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Gruesome Viking "blood eagle" ritual is anatomically possible, study finds: But victims would have died long before the torturous execution concluded. |last=Ouellette |first=Jennifer |date=10 January 2022 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website=ArsTechnica |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/01/gruesome-viking-blood-eagle-ritual-is-anatomically-possible-study-finds/}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |translator-last1=Pálsson |translator-first1=Hermann |translator-last2=Edwards |translator-first2=Paul Geoffrey |date=1981 |title=[[Orkneyinga saga|Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney]] |publisher=[[Penguin Classics]] |isbn=978-0-14-044383-7| ref = {{SfnRef|PálssonEdwards|1981}}}}

{{Capital punishment}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Blood Eagle}}
[[Category:Torture]]
[[Category:Execution methods]]
[[Category:Viking practices]]
[[Category:Early Germanic law]]
[[Category:European instruments of torture]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]