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{{Short description|Foundational text of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}

The '''''Brahma Sūtras''''' ({{langx|sa|ब्रह्मसूत्राणि}}), also known as the '''Vedanta Sūtra''' (Sanskrit: वेदान्त सूत्र),{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=124}}{{refn|group=note|From ''Vedanta'' which literally means the "final aim of the [[Vedas]]".{{sfnp|Deussen|2015|pp=3–4}}}} or as '''Shariraka Sūtra''',{{refn|group=note|''Shariraka'' means "that which lives in the body (''Sharira''), or the Self, Soul."{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnote 2}} The name Sariraka Sutras is found, for example, in the works of [[Adi Shankara]].{{sfnp|Isaeva|1992|p=35, with footnote 30}}}}  and '''Bhikshu-sūtra''' (latter two in monastic traditions),{{refn|group=note|Which literally means "Sutras for monks or mendicants".{{sfnp|Isaeva|1992|p=35, with footnote 30}}}} are a [[Sanskrit]] text which criticizes the metaphysical dualism of the influential [[Samkhya]] philosophy,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=12}} and instead synthesizes and harmonizes divergent [[Upanishadic]] ideas and practices about the essence of existence, postulating [[Brahman]] as the only origin and essence of everything. It is attributed to the sages [[Bādarāyaṇa]], who is also called [[Vyāsa]] (arranger), but probably an accumulation of incremental additions and changes by various authors to an earlier work, completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE.{{sfnp|Nakamura|1989|p=436}}{{refn|group=note|:{{sfnp|Nakamura|1989|p=436}} "...we can take it that 400–450 is the period during which the ''Brahma Sūtras'' was compiled in its extant form."}} The oldest version may be composed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE,{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=746}}{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2010|p=501}} with 200 BCE being the most likely date.{{sfnp|Collinson|Wilkinson|1994|p=48}}

The ''Brahma Sūtras'' consist of 555 aphoristic verses ([[sutra]]s) in four chapters,{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}} dealing with attaining knowledge of Brahman.{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=124}}{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=21}} Rejecting the ''smriti'' as a base of knowledge, it declares that the Vedic [[Upanishads]] are the only acceptable source of truth, infallible revelations describing the same metaphysical Reality, [[Brahman]], which cannot be different for different people. The text attempts to synthesize and harmonize diverse and sometimes apparently conflicting ''[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidyas]]'' ("knowledges") of, and ''[[upasana]]s'' (meditation, worship) of the essence of existence, stating they are actually synonyms for [[Brahman]]. It does so from a [[bhedabheda]]-perspective,{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=124}} arguing, as John Koller states: "that Brahman and Atman are, in some respects, different, but, at the deepest level, non-different (advaita), being identical."{{sfnp|Koller|2013|p=99}} 

The first chapter rejects Samkhya's view on [[pradhana]], stating that an inert first principle cannot account for a universe which reflects purpose and intelligence. It harmonizes different views of Absolute Reality found in the Upanishads, subsuming them under the concept of Brahman. The second chapter reviews and addresses the objections raised by samkhya and other competing orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, [[Nyaya]], [[Yoga]], [[Vaisheshika]] and [[Mimamsa]], as well as heterodox schools such as [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{sfnp|Darling|2007|pp=161–164}} The third chapter compares the ''vidyas'' and ''upasanas'' found in the Upanishads, deciding which are similar and can be combined, and which are different.{{sfnp|Sivananda|1977|pp=465-467}} The last chapter states why such a knowledge is an important human need.{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=746}}

The ''Brahma Sūtras'' is one of three most important texts in [[Vedanta]] along with the [[Principal Upanishads]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita]].{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=124}}{{sfnp|Isaeva|1992|p=35, with footnote 30}}<ref group=web name=EB_Vedanta/> It has been influential to various schools of Indian philosophies, but interpreted differently by the non-dualistic [[Shiva Advaita]] and [[Advaita Vedanta]] sub-schools, and the Vaishnava theistic [[Vishishtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]] Vedanta sub-schools, as well as others.<ref group=web name=EB_Vedanta/> Several commentaries on the ''Brahma Sūtras'' are lost to history or yet to be found; of the surviving ones, the most well studied commentaries on the ''Brahma Sūtras'' include the [[bhashya]] by [[Adi Shankara]],{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=124}} The Vaishnava-exegetes [[Srinivasacharya|Srinivasa]], [[Ramanuja]], [[Madhvacharya]], [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhaskara]], [[Baladeva Vidyabhushana|Baladeva Vidyabhushan]], [[Ramananda|Ramanandacharya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=26–27}} and the only Shaiva exegete [[Shiva Advaita|Srikantha Sivacharya]].

==Author and chronology==
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' or ''Brahmasutra'' are attributed to [[Badarayana]].{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnote 3 and 4}} In some texts, Badarayana is also called ''Vyasa'', which literally means "one who arranges".{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnote 3 and 4}}

[[Badarayana]] was the [[Guru]] (teacher) of [[Jaimini]], the latter credited with authoring Mimamsa Sutras of the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnote 3 and 4}} This is likely, given that both Badarayana and Jaimini quote each other as they analyze each other's theories, Badarayana emphasizing knowledge while Jaimini emphasizes rituals, sometimes agreeing with each other, sometimes disagreeing, often anti-thesis of the other.<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, page 20</ref>

The ''Brahma Sūtras'' text is dated to centuries that followed [[Buddha]] and [[Mahavira]], because it mentions and critiques the ideas of Buddhism and Jainism in Chapter 2.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnote 6}} The text's relative chronology is also based on the fact that Badarayana quotes all major known orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy except [[Nyaya]].{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnote 6}}<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, page 21</ref> The exact century of its composition or completion in final form is unknown. 200 BCE seems to be the most likely date for its initial composition,{{sfnp|Collinson|Wilkinson|1994|p=48}} with scholars such as Lochtefeld suggesting that the text was composed sometime between 500 and 200 BCE,{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2002|p=746}}{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2010|p=501}} while [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] and Dasgupta independently suggest the 2nd century BCE as more likely.<ref name=nvisaeva36/>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=22 with footnotes 3 and 4}} [[Paul Deussen]] places it between 200 BCE and 400 CE.<ref name=nvisaeva36>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1281-7}}, page 36</ref>

[[Hermann Jacobi]] in early 20th century suggested that Madhyamaka Buddhist concepts such as ''[[Sunyavada]]'', acknowledged in the ''Brahma Sūtras'', may be a late invention, and suggests that both Sunyavada and ''Brahma Sūtras'' may therefore have emerged between 200 and 450 CE.<ref name=nvisaeva36/> [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]] disagreed with Jacobi chronology in his 1954 paper, critiquing Jacobi's assumptions and interpretation of sutras 2.2.28-32 in dating the entire document, and stating that "the ''Brahma Sūtras'' could not have been composed later than the start of the common era".<ref>Daniel Ingalls (1954), Sankara's Arguments Against the Buddhists, Philosophy East and West, Volume 3, Number 4, page 299</ref><ref>Gregory Darling (2007), An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803633}}, pages 6-7</ref> According to Hajime Nakamura, the ''Brahma Sūtras'' were likely complete in the current form between 400 and 450 CE.{{sfnp|Nakamura|1989|p=436}} The existence of earlier versions of the ''Brahma Sūtras'', and multiple authors predating Badarayana, is supported by textual evidence.{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=354 }}

Some scholars, such as Sengaku Mayeda, state that the ''Brahma Sūtras'' that have survived into the modern times may be the work of multiple authors but those who lived after Badarayana, and that these authors composed the currently surviving ''Brahma Sūtras'' starting about 300 BCE through about 400-450 CE.<ref name=mayeda12>Śaṅkarācārya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006), A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-8120827714}}, page 12</ref>{{refn|group=note|Belvalkar suggests that there once existed ''Brahma Sūtras'' style texts for all major Upanishads and Hindu texts, such as the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]], the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name=belvalkar30/> The currently surviving version of ''Brahma Sūtras'' is a composite version, states Belvakar, with the oldest layer consisting of Chandogya-Brahmasutra; the second layer that consolidated various ''Brahma Sūtras'' into one document and added the ''[[Smriti]]s-padas'' and ''Tarka-padas''; and the third stratum of the text was chronologically added last, defending the Vedanta philosophy from the new theories from opposing heterodox schools of Indian philosophies.<ref name=belvalkar30>[[S. K. Belvalkar]] (1936), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718034 Dṛṣṭāntas in The Brahmasūtras], Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 30-31</ref> About 15 sutras of the ''Brahma Sūtras'' may be very late insertions, states Belvalkar.<ref name=belvalkar30/> [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]], wrote in 1956, that Belvakar theory is plausible, but difficult to prove.<ref>J.A.B. van Buitenen (1956), Ramanuja's Vedārthasaṃgraha, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, {{oclc|1541182}}, page 28</ref>}} Nakamura states that the original version of ''Brahma Sūtras'' is likely very ancient and its inception coincides with the Kalpa Sutras period (1st-millennium BCE).<ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815735}}, page 53 with footnote 118</ref>

Natalia Isaeva states, "on the whole, scholars are rather unanimous, considering the most probable date for ''Brahma Sūtras'' sometime between the 2nd-century BCE and the 2nd-century CE.<ref name=nvisaeva36/>

Assigning a later date because of mention of concepts of Buddhism etc., is rejected by [[Madhvacharya]] in his work, Anuvyakhyana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarvamoola Grantha — Acharya Srimadanandatirtha |url=https://anandamakaranda.in/display/bhashya/Anuvyakyanam/devanagari#AV_C02_S02 |access-date=2022-05-21 |website=anandamakaranda.in}}</ref> He explains the mention of different philosophies and their criticism in the ''Brahma'' ''Sūtras'' as refutations of general ideas, which are eternal, and not of specific schools of thought like Buddhism etc. So, there is no necessity to assign a later date.

==Structure==
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' consist of 555 aphorisms or sūtras, in four chapters (''adhyāya''), with each chapter divided into four parts (''pāda'').{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}} Each part is further subdivided into sections called ''Adhikaraņas'' with ''sutras''.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}} Some scholars, such as Francis Clooney, call the ''Adhikaraņas'' as "case studies" with a defined hermeneutic process.<ref>Francis Clooney (1998), Scholasticism: Cross-Cultural and Comparative Perspectives (Editor: Jose Ignacio Cabezon), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791437780}}, pages 178-179</ref><ref>Krishna Roy (2011), Phenomenology and Indian Philosophy (Editors: DP Chattopadhyaya, LE Embree and J Mohanty), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438436586}}, page 293-294</ref>

{| class="wikitable floatright" align=center style = " background: transparent; "
  |+ Sutras distribution in the ''Brahma Sūtras''<ref>[[S. K. Belvalkar]] (1936), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718034 Dṛṣṭāntas in The Brahmasūtras], Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 28-32</ref>
|-style="text-align: center;"
  | width=70px style="background: #ffad66;" | '''Section'''
  | width=50px style="background: #ffcc80;"  | '''1st Pada'''
  | width=50px style="background: #ffcc80;"  | '''2nd Pada'''
  | width=50px style="background: #ffcc80;"  | '''3rd Pada'''
  | width=50px style="background: #ffcc80;"  | '''4th Pada'''
  | width=50px style="background: #ffad66;"  | '''Total'''
|-style="text-align: center;"
  | width=70px | Adhyaya 1
  | width=50px | 31
  | width=50px | 32
  | width=50px | 43
  | width=50px | 28
  | width=50px | 134
|-style="text-align: center;"
  | width=70px | Adhyaya 2
  | width=50px | 37
  | width=50px | 45
  | width=50px | 53
  | width=50px | 22
  | width=50px | 157
|-style="text-align: center;"
  | width=70px | Adhyaya 3
  | width=50px | 27
  | width=50px | 41
  | width=50px | 66
  | width=50px | 52
  | width=50px | 186
|-style="text-align: center;"
  | width=70px | Adhyaya 4
  | width=50px | 19
  | width=50px | 21
  | width=50px | 16
  | width=50px | 22
  | width=50px | 78
|-style="text-align: center;"
  | colspan=5 style="text-align: right;" | Total Sutras:
  | width=50px style="background: #ffad66;" | 555
|}

Each ''Adhikaraņa'' of ''Brahma Sūtras'' has varying numbers of sutras, and most sections of the text are structured to address the following:{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}}<ref>Gregory Darling (2007), An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803633}}, pages 7-8</ref>{{refn|group=note|The earliest known roots of this methodology is described in Jaimini's texts on Purva-Mimamsa.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}}<ref>Francis X Clooney (1997), What's a God? The Quest for the Right Understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṇical Ritual Theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 337-385</ref><ref>Peter M Scharf (1996), The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 86, No. 3, pages i-x</ref>}}
# ''Sangati'' (सङ्गति): connection between sections, synthesis, or coming together of knowledge. Setting the context.
# ''Vishaya'' (विषय): subject, issue or topic
# ''Vismaya'' (विस्मय): doubt, uncertainty or perplexity. Also called ''Sandeha'' (संदेह)
# ''Purva-paksha'' (पूर्वपक्ष): prima facie view, or prior part and arguments
# ''Siddhanta'' (सिद्धान्त): theory and arguments presented, proposed doctrine, or conclusions

The ''Brahma Sūtras'' text has 189 ''Adhikaranas''.<ref name=thibautsummary>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), [[Oxford University Press]], pages xxxii-lxxvi</ref>{{refn|group=note|The monist, theist and other sub-traditions of Vedanta count the number of Adhikaranas differently. For example, [[Ramanuja]] counts sutras 2.2.28 to 2.2.32 as two Adhikaranas, while others count it as one. Thus, the total number of Adhikaranas in the ''Brahma Sūtras'' text varies slightly from 189 in some Vedanta sub-schools. See page li in Thibaut's Introduction.<ref name=thibautsummary/>}} Each section (case study) in the text opens with the ''Mukhya'' (chief, main) sutra that states the purpose of that section, and the various sections of the ''Brahma Sūtras'' include ''Vishaya-Vakyas'' (cite the text sources and evidence they use).{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}}

Sutras were meant to assist the memory of the student who had gone through long discussions with his guru, as memory aids or clues and maximum thoughts were compressed in a few words which were unambiguous, giving the essence of the arguments on the topic.<ref>[http://estudantedavedanta.net/Brahma%20Sutras%20-%20According%20to%20Sri%20Sankara%20by%20Swami%20Vireswarananda%20%5BSanskrit-English%5D.pdf Sutras were memory clues]</ref> The Sutras of the text, states Adi Shankara in his commentary, are structured like a string that ties together the Vedanta texts like a garland of flowers.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}}

==Contents==
The text is part of the [[Prasthanatrayi]], or the three starting points for the [[Vedanta]] school of Hindu philosophy.{{sfnp|Isaeva|1992|p=35, with footnote 30}} The Principal Upanishads constitute the ''Sruti prasthāna'' or "starting point of heard scriptures," while the Bhagavad Gita constitutes the ''Smriti prasthāna'' or the "starting point of remembered canonical base", and the ''Brahma Sūtras'' constitute the ''Nyāya prasthāna'' (न्याय प्रस्थान) or "starting point of reasoning canonical base."{{sfnp|Isaeva|1992|p=35, with footnote 30}}

Sengaku Mayeda states that the ''Brahma Sūtras'' distills and consolidates the extensive teachings found in a variety of [[Upanishads]] of Hinduism, summarizing, arranging, unifying and systematizing the Upanishadic theories,<ref name=mayeda12/> possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Bhedabheda Vedanta {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/bhedabheda-vedanta/ |access-date=2025-08-07 |language=en-US}}</ref> The Vedic literature had grown into an enormous collection of ideas and practices, ranging from practical rituals (karma-kanda) to abstract philosophy (jnana-kanda),<ref name=mayeda12/><ref name=pauldeussentsov19/> with different and conflicting theories on metaphysical problems, diverse mutually contradicting unsystematized teachings on rituals and philosophies present in the Upanishads.<ref name=mayeda12/><ref name=pauldeussentsov19/> Traditions of textual interpretation developed. While Jaimini's [[Mimamsa]]-sutra focused on externalized rituals as the spiritual path, Badarayana's ''Brahma Sūtras'', the only surviving work of several of such compendia, focused on internalized philosophy as the spiritual path.<ref name=mayeda12/><ref name=pauldeussentsov19>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, pages 19-25, 6-12</ref>

{{Quote box |width=20em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
|quote='''The opening sutra'''<br><br>
अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा<br>
Then therefore the enquiry into [[Brahman]]
|source =—Brahma sutra 1.1.1{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=227}}<br>'''Original Sanskrit:'''<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#page/n0/mode/2up Brahma sutra Bhasya] Adi Shankara, [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/brahma_suutra.pdf Archive 2]</ref><ref>George Adams (1993), The Structure and Meaning of Bādarāyaṇa's ''Brahma Sūtras'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120809314}}, page 38</ref>}}
The text reviews and critiques the major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy as well as all heterodox Indian philosophies such as Buddhism; especially [[Samkhya]] and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] philosophies are noted, which seem to have been held in high regard in his time. It recurrently refers to them in all its four chapters, adding in sutras 2.1.3 and 4.2.21 that Yoga and Samkhya are similar.<ref name=pauldeussentsov23>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's ''Brahma Sūtras'' and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, pages 22-23</ref> The text cites and quotes from the ten [[Principal Upanishads]] often, particularly the [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]] and the [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] in several sutras. Additionally, it also mentions Upanishads that are now unknown and lost.<ref name=pauldeussentsov23/> The contents of the text also acknowledge and analyze the various Vedic schools, and mentions the existence of multiple, diverging versions of the same underlying text.<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, page 24</ref>

The sutras of the ''Brahma Sūtras'' are aphorisms, which Paul Deussen states to be "threads stretched out in weaving to form the basis of the web", and intelligible "when the [[Warp and woof|woof]] is added" with a commentary.<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, page 26</ref>

===Chapter 1: Harmonisation of views on Brahman===
The central theme of the first chapter is considered ''Samanvaya'' (Harmony), because it aims to distill, synchronize and bring into a harmonious whole the seemingly diverse and conflicting passages in various [[Sruti]] texts.<ref name="gregdarling8"/><ref>Jose Pereira (1986), Bādarāyana: Creator of Systematic Theology, Religious Studies (Cambridge University Press), Volume 22, Issue 2, pages 193-204</ref> It consists of 134 sutras, with eleven ''Adhikaranas'' in the first ''Pada'', seven ''Adhikaranas'' in second, fourteen ''Adhikaranas'' in third, and eight in the fourth ''Pada''.<ref name=thibautchapter1adhi>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages xxxii-xlvi</ref> The different sub-schools of Vedanta have interpreted the sutras in the last ''Pada'' differently, and some count only seven ''Adhikaranas'' in the fourth ''Pada''.<ref name=thibautchapter1adhi/>
The four sutras of work, also known as Catuhsutri are: [1] how to ask about Brahman [2] where does birth and decay come from [3] how Vedas leads to more understanding of Catuhsutri [4] harmonious way of how Upanishad functions.

{{Quote box |width=20em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
|quote='''Perception, Inference and Word'''<br><br>
शब्द इतिचेन्नातः प्रभवात्प्रत्यक्षानुमानाभ्याम् <br>
If it be said that a contradiction will result in regard to Word (Vedas), we say that it is not so because the origination of everything is from perception and inference.<br>
Adi Shankara's commentary: "Perception means [[Sruti]]; for its validity it is not dependent on anything else; inference is [[Smriti]]".
|source =—Brahma sutra 1.3.28{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=301–302 with footnotes}}<br>'''Original Sanskrit:'''<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#page/n0/mode/2up Brahma sutra Bhasya] Adi Shankara, [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/brahma_suutra.pdf Archive 2]</ref>}}
This ''Brahma Sūtras'' chapter asserts that all the Upanishads primarily aim to and coherently describe the knowledge and meditation of [[Brahman]], the ultimate reality.<ref name=fxclooneytav68>Francis X Clooney (1993), Theology After Vedanta: An Experiment in Comparative Theology, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791413654}}, pages 68-71</ref> According to Mayeda, "the ''Brahmasutra'' made a special point of refuting the dualism of the then prevailing Samkhya school which posited ''Purusha'' (Spirit) and ''Prakriti'' (Matter) as the independent causes of the Universe. The ''Brahmasutra'' maintained instead that ''Brahman'' alone is the absolute ultimate cause of the Universe."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=12}} Brahman is the source from which the world came into existence, in whom it inheres and to which it returns. The only source for the knowledge of this Brahman is the Sruti or the Upanishads.<ref>Harshananda, Swami (2009), The Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy, A Primer, p.73</ref>

The first word (''atha'' - now, then) of the first ''sutra'' has occasioned different interpretations. Ramanuja and Nimbarka argue that it refers to the position of knowledge of Brahman as coming "after the knowledge of ''karman'' and its fruits". Shankara takes it as referencing the "acquisition of the four requisite" qualities: "discrimination between eternal and non-eternal things, aversion to the enjoyment of the objects of sense here and in the next world, possession of self-restraint, tranquillity etc., and the desire to be absolutely free". Vallabha disagrees that one needs the four qualities before entering into an inquiry about Brahman, and interprets "''atha''" as merely initiating the beginning of a new topic.{{Sfn|Ghate|1926|p=58}}

The sutras 1.1.5-11 address the Samkhya school's view that ''[[pradhana]]'' ([[prakriti]]) is the primal matter and the cause of the world, and that the Principle of the world is unconscious. The text refutes this claim by using scriptural references to establish that the Principle of the world is conscious and the Brahman itself. The remaining sutras in Pada 1.1 and all sutras in Padas 1.2 and 1.3 assert that Brahman is the primary focus of the Upanishads, is various aspects of empirical reality, quoting various verses in support, from [[Taittiriya Upanishad]], [[Chandogya Upanishad]], [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]], [[Mundaka Upanishad]], [[Katha Upanishad]], [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] and [[Prashna Upanishad]].<ref name=pauldeussentsov39>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, pages 39-40</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#page/n0/mode/2up Brahma sutra Bhasya] Adi Shankara, [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/brahma_suutra.pdf Archive 2]</ref>

The first chapter in sutras 1.4.1-15 presents the Samkhya theories on Prakriti, and rejects its theories by demonstrating that they are inconsistent with and misinterpretations of the Katha, Brihadaranyaka, Shvetashvatara and Taittiriya Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussentsov39/> Sutras 1.4.23-27 argue, according to many schools, that Brahman is the efficient cause and the material cause of the world.<ref name=pauldeussentsov39/> The last sutra of the first chapter extends the arguments that refutes Samkhya theories to the atomists' theories (the [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hindu philosophy).<ref name=pauldeussentsov39/>

===Chapter 2: Rejection of competing theories===
Second chapter (''Avirodha'': non-conflict, non-contradiction): discusses and refutes the possible objections to Vedānta philosophy, and states that the central themes of Vedanta are consistent across the various Vedic texts.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=23–24}} The Brahma Sūtra states, examines and dismisses the refutations raised by other schools of thought, those now classified under Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.<ref>Harshananda, Swami (2009), The Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy, A Primer, p.75</ref> The second chapter consists of 157 sutras, with thirteen ''Adhikaranas'' in the first ''Pada'', eight in second, seventeen ''Adhikaranas'' in third, and nine in the fourth ''Pada''.<ref>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages xlvii-lix</ref> Whereas the entire first chapter is focused on demonstrating that the Samkhya doctrine that the world created by the unconscious ''pradhana'' is wrong, and that the Upanishads substantiate the conscious Brahman as the cause of the world, the second chapter is engaged in responding to objections against the doctrine of Brahman raised in other schools. The first ''Adhikarana'' argues that when a ''[[smriti]]'' (texts of speculative reasoning) conflicts with the ''[[Śruti|sruti]]'' (the Vedas), only that which is supported by the Vedas must be affirmed.{{Sfn|Ghate|1926|p=75}}

The second chapter of the ''Brahma Sūtra'' has been variously interpreted by various monist, theistic and other sub-schools of Vedanta.<ref name=fxclooneytav68/><ref name=smayedaatt12>Śaṅkarācārya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006), A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-8120827714}}, pages 12-13</ref> The Advaita school for example, states Francis Clooney, asserts that the "identity of Atman and Brahman" based Advaita system is the coherent system while other systems conflict with the Upanishads, or are internally inconsistent, or incoherent with observed reality and cosmos.<ref name=fxclooneytav68/> The theistic sub-schools interpret the text to be stating that Atman is different from Brahman, and thereafter each explains how other systems conflict with the Upanishads or are incoherent.<ref name=smayedaatt12/>

The Pada 2.1 opens with ''Adhikarana'' on Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools argument that Smritis should be a basis for examining the concept of Brahman, and their objections to the Vedanta theory of reflection. The ''Brahma Sūtras'' asserts in 2.1.13 through 2.1.20 that the subject and object are one in Brahman, which agrees with Samkhya that there is an identity in cause and effect, adding that the Brahman and the empirical world are therefore one.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=345–354 with footnotes}} The sutras 2.1.21 through 2.1.36 present the [[problem of evil]], offering its own doctrine to address it, asserting that Brahman is neither unjust nor cruel, and that inequality and evil exists in the world because of will, choices and circumstances created by actions of living beings over time.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=354–365 with footnotes}}

The sutras in Pada 2.1 are variously interpreted by Advaita, Dvaita, Vishishtadvaita and other sub-schools of Vedanta.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=354–365 with footnotes}}{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=354–365 with footnotes}}<ref>S Biderman (1982), A 'Constitutive' God: An Indian Suggestion, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 32, No. 4, pages 425-437</ref><ref>AL Herman (1971), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398356 Indian Theodicy: Śaṁkara and Rāmānuja on Brahma Sūtra II. 1. 32-36], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 21, No. 3, pages 265-281</ref> The monist Advaita school holds that ignorance or ''Avidya'' (wrong knowledge) is the root of "problem of evil"; in contrast, dualistic Vedanta schools hold karma and samsara to be the root.<ref name=kaplan178>Stephen Kaplan (2007), Vidyā and Avidyā: Simultaneous and Coterminous?: A Holographic Model to Illuminate the Advaita Debate, Philosophy East and West, Volume 57, Number 2, pages 178-203</ref>{{refn|group=note|Stephen Kaplan writes (abridged): "Avidya is the fundamental existential problem and the fundamental philosophical/theological problem within Advaita Vedanta. It is the cause of the evil that exists within the world. Remove ignorance and one will realize that atman is Brahman. It is also the crucial philosophical issue within Advaita thought. Advaita need not explain why a perfect deity was motivated to create the world, nor why an all-loving God created a world with evil. Ultimately, for Advaita, there is no creation, nor any God who creates the world. The highest truth is Brahman, one without a second, the true self, atman."<ref name=kaplan178/>}}

The atomistic physico-theological theories of Vaisheshika and Samkhya school are the focus of the first seventeen sutras of Pada 2.2.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=366–377 with footnotes}} The theories of Buddhism are refuted in sutras 2.2.18 through 2.2.32,{{refn|group=note|The sutras 2.2.18 to 2.2.27 state and refute the 'persistence of subject and substance' theory, and sutras 2.2.28 to 2.2.32 state and refute the 'everything is void' theory of Buddhism. However, the arguments offered by monist and theistic sub-schools of Vedanta differ, particularly those of Shankara, Madhva and Ramanuja, with the latter two also refuting the arguments of Shankara in this section.{{sfnp|Darling|2007|pp=161–164}} For a sutra by sutra analysis, by the three scholars, see Gregory Darling.<ref>Gregory Darling (2007), An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803633}}, pages 165-368</ref>}} while the theories of Jainism are analyzed by the text in sutras 2.2.33 through 2.2.36.{{sfnp|Darling|2007|pp=161–164}}{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=378–390 with footnotes}}

The theories of other orthodox traditions are discussed in 2.2.37 through 2.2.45.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=391–396 with footnotes}} Ramanuja and Shankara disagree in their formulation as well as critique of then extant orthodox traditions, in their respective commentaries, but both agree that the theory on emergence of ''Pradyumna'' (intellect) in the competing orthodox system is the primary flaw.<ref>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, page li</ref>

The first eight case studies in the third ''Pada'' of chapter 2 discuss whether the world has an origin or not, whether the universe is co-eternal with Brahman or is an effect of Brahman (interpreted as dualistic God in theistic sub-schools of Vedanta), and whether the universe returns into Brahman periodically.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=397–403}} The last nine ''Adhikaranas'' of the third ''Pada'' discuss the nature of soul, whether it is eternal, is soul an agent, soul's relationship to Brahman, and states its proof that the soul exists and is immortal.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=403–422}}<ref>Paul Deussen (1993), The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, pages 285-354</ref>

The last ''Pada'' of the second chapter extracts and summarizes the theories of human body, sensory organs, action organs and their relationship to ''Prana'' (vital breath) in the various Vedic Brahmanas and Upanishads.<ref>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages lix</ref><ref name=thibautorgans>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n89/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 74-100</ref> The ''Brahma Sūtras'' states that the organs inside a living being are independent principles, in the seventh and eighth ''Adhikarana'' of the fourth ''Pada''.<ref name=thibautorgans/>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=429}} The various sub-schools of Vedanta interpret the sutras in the fourth ''Pada'' differently.<ref name=thibautorgans/>

===Chapter 3: The means to spiritual knowledge===
[[File:Bronze figure of Kashmiri in Meditation by Malvina Hoffman Wellcome M0005215.jpg|thumb|The Vedanta texts, state sutras 3.1.1-4 and 3.3.5-19 of Brahmasutra, describe different forms of meditation. These should be combined, merged into one and practiced, because there is nondifference of their basic import, that of Self, mind, knowledge and a state.<ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815735}}, pages 210-212</ref><ref>Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta, Philosophy East & West, Volume 43, Number 1, pages 19-38</ref>]]
Third chapter (''Sādhana'': the means): describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved. The topics discussed are diverse.<ref name="Harshananda, Swami 2009 p.77">Harshananda, Swami (2009), The Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy, A Primer, p.77</ref> The third chapter is the longest and consists of 186 sutras, with six ''Adhikaranas'' in its first ''Pada'', eight in second, thirty six in third, and fourteen ''Adhikaranas'' in the fourth ''Pada''.<ref>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages lix-lxxvi</ref>

====The nature of liberating knowledge====
The third chapter focuses on the yearning for knowledge of Brahman, and the means to attain it.<ref name=fxclooneytav68/> Dissatisfaction with mundane life and strengthening the wish for liberation is invoked, treating the theory of death and rebirth,<ref name=thibautdre>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n115/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 100-132</ref> karma and importance of conduct and free will,<ref name=thibautkarma>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n127/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 112-121</ref> and the connection between [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self, Soul) and the Brahman are discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2 of the text.<ref name=fxclooneytav68/><ref name=thibautatbra>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n147/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 133-183</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
अपि संराधने प्रत्यक्षानुमानाभ्याम्
And (Brahman is apprehended) in perfect meditation also, according to perception (Sruti, ''[[Pramana#Hinduism|Pratyakṣa]]'') and inference (Smriti, ''Anumāṇa'').

प्रकाशवच्चावैशेष्यं प्रकाशश्च कर्मण्यभ्यासात्
And as is the case of (physical) light and the like, there is the non-distinction (of two Selves), the light (Self) by its activity, on account of repeated declarations (in the Scripture).

अतोऽनन्तेन तथा हि लिङ्गम्
Therefore (the individual soul enters into unity) with the infinite (the highest Self), for thus (is the scriptural) indication.
</poem>
|Brahma sutra 3.2.24 - 3.2.26|{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=457–460}}<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n185/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 171-173</ref>}}

Sections 3.3 and 3.4 describe the need for self-study, reflection of texts read, meditation, etc.,<ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815735}}, pages 209-216</ref> as steps while one makes progress and the role of [[sannyasa]] (monk, mendicant) in the pursuit of spiritual knowledge.<ref name=fxclooneytav68/>

====''Upasana'' (worship, meditation)====
{{Main|Upasana}}

The third ''pada'', states George Thibaut, opens a new section and theme in chapter 3 of the ''Brahma Sūtras'', describing how "the individual soul is enabled by meditation on Brahman to obtain final release," and harmonising the different Upanishadic views on this.<ref name=thibautmeditate>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages lxvi-lxxv</ref><ref>Francis X Clooney (1993), Theology After Vedanta: An Experiment in Comparative Theology, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791413654}}, pages 70-72</ref> The Upanishads describe many ''upasanas'' on Brahman, with considerable similarities, but also with differences, due to the variations in transmission in the different Vedic schools. The Brahma-sutra, in ''Adhikaranas'' of third and fourth pada, states Thibaut, assert that there is no contradiction in these teachings and that "the different Upanishads have to be viewed as teaching the same matter, and therefore the ideas must be combined in one meditation".<ref name=thibautmeditate/>

{{Blockquote|
सैव हि सत्यादयः<br>
For the True are so on (in different texts), are one and the same knowledge.
|Brahma sutra 3.3.38|<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n259/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 245-246</ref>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=490}}}}

The most referred to texts in these sections are the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]], the [[Chandogya Upanishad]], the [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]], the [[Katha Upanishad]], and the non-Upanishadic parts of [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] and ''Aitereya Aranyaka''.<ref name=thibautmeditate/> The topic of meditation, state the Brahma-sutras, is the spiritual knowledge of Brahman; the object of this knowledge, states Thibaut, is "Brahman viewed as the inner Self of all".<ref name=thibautmeditate2>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages lxxii-lxxiii</ref>

While ''upasana'' may be regarded as a kind of meditation, it is more than ''dhyana'' or sitting in meditation;{{refn|group=note|Meditation (''[[upasana]]'') is defined by Shankara, states Klaus Witz, as "a continuous succession of comparable basic conceptions, beliefs, not interspersed with dissimilar ones, which proceeds according to the [[Sruti|scriptures]] and relates to an object enjoined in the scriptures".<ref name=klauswitz198/> For Shankara, meditation seems to be akin to ''dhyana'', as a practice of concentrating on an object of meditation, states Witz, a state of "absorption or immersion into essentially a single thought" and "concentrating on it, excluding conventional notions, till one if as completely identified with it as with one's body".<ref name=klauswitz198>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815735}}, pages 198-200; '''See also''', {{harvnb|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=528–529}}</ref>}} it is a continuous practice of "constant remembrance" of Brahman or the Divine throughout the day, as the culmination of a life of spiritual development.<ref name=klauswitz198/>

The Brahma Sutras, in addition to recommending meditation, suggest that rituals and rites are unnecessary because it is knowledge that achieves the purpose.<ref name=thibautrituals306/>

{{Blockquote|
And for this very reason there is no need of the lighting of [[yajna|the fire]] and so on.
|Brahma sutra 3.4.25|<ref name=thibautrituals306>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n321/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, page 306</ref>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=512}}}}

In sutras 3.4.26 and 3.4.27, the text adds that rituals, however, can spiritually prepare a mind, remove impurities within, empower calmness and distractions from sensory pursuits, and therefore assist in its ability to meditate and gain the ultimate knowledge.<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n321/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 307-309</ref> The text also discusses, in sutras 3.4.28 to 3.4.31 whether there are restrictions on food (meat) one can ingest, during the spiritual journey. The sutras, translates Thibaut, derive from the Vedic texts that there is "a prohibition of doing harm to any living creature", however, the scriptures state, "only in danger of life, in cases of highest need, food of any kind is permitted to be eaten".<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n323/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 309-312</ref>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=514–515}}

The last three sutras of the chapter 3 assert that a person, pursuing means to spiritual knowledge, should seek a childlike state of innocence, a psychological state that is free of anger, self-centeredness, pride and arrogance.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=552–524}} The text declares that according to the [[Vedas|Vedic literature]] knowledge is possible in this life, that one is one's own obstruction in this journey, that liberation and freedom is the fruit of knowledge.<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n339/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 325-330</ref>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=522–524}}

===Chapter 4: The benefits of spiritual knowledge===
Fourth chapter (''Phala'': the result): talks of the state that is achieved in final emancipation. This is the shortest chapter with 78 sutras and 38 adhikaranas.<ref name="Harshananda, Swami 2009 p.77"/> The last chapter contains fourteen ''Adhikaranas'' in its first ''Pada'', eleven in second, six in third, and seven ''Adhikaranas'' in the fourth.<ref>George Thibaut, Vedanta Sutras Part 1, {{Google books|iok5AQAAMAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East}}, Volume 34 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages lxxvi-lxxxv</ref> The last chapter of the ''Brahma Sūtras'' discusses the need and fruits of self-knowledge, the state of freedom and liberation.<ref name=fxclooneytav68/>

The opening sutras of chapter 4 continue the discussion of meditation as means to knowledge, with sutra 4.1.3 summarizing it to be the state where the person accepts, "I am Brahman, not another being" (Adi Shankara), as "Thou indeed I am, O holy divinity, and I indeed thou art, O holy divinity" (Jabalas), and "God is to be contemplated as the Self" and the individual is as the body of God (Ramanuja).{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=525–526}}<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n351/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 337-340</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, pages 401-417</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
On the Soul's having attained the Highest light, there is manifestation of its real nature, as we infer from the word own.
The Self whose true nature has manifested itself is released; according to the promise (made by scripture).
The light into which the soul enters is the Self, owing to the subject-matter of the chapter.
The released soul abides in non-division from the highest Self (Brahman), because that is seen.
</poem>
|Brahma sutra 4.4.1 - 4.4.4|<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n419/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 405-408</ref>{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=553–555}}}}

The liberated soul, asserts the ''Brahma Sūtras'', is of the nature of Brahman, with inner power and knowledge, free from evil, free from grief, free from suffering, one of bliss and "for such there is freedom in all worlds".{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|p=445}}<ref>George Thibaut, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n421/mode/2up Vedanta Sutras Part 2], The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 38 (Editor: Max Muller), Oxford University Press, pages 407-411</ref>

==Influence==
The impact of ''Brahma Sūtras'' text on Vedanta, and in turn Hinduism, has been historic and central:<ref name=pauldeussentsov21>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1519117786}}, pages 20-21</ref><ref name=hajimenakamura3>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 3</ref>
{{blockquote|Many commentaries on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the ''Brahma Sūtras'', were written by the founders or leading scholars of the various sects of Hinduism, and they are transmitted to this day as documents indispensable in the respective sectarian traditions.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/>}}

==Commentaries==
Numerous commentaries have been written on the ''Brahma Sūtras'' text, but many such as that of Bodhayana,{{refn|group=note| Bodhayana's commentary on ''Brahma Sūtras'', along with those of Tanka, Dramida, Bhartriprapanca, Bhartrimitra, Bhartrihari (5th-century<ref>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 25</ref>), Brahmadatta and Shrivatsanka are mentioned by 12th-century Ramanuja and 11th-century Yamunacharya's ''Siddhitraya'', all of these commentaries likely much older than Adi Shankara's commentary.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=26–27}}<ref>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, pages 5-6, 61-63</ref>}} Upavarsa,{{refn|group=note| Upavarsa is a revered scholar whose commentary on ''Brahma Sūtras'' was possibly the earliest, and one who is revered by different and antagonistic sub-schools of Vedanta; he is mentioned by Shankara, Bhaskara and even by scholars of non-Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophies.<ref>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, pages 29-37, 46-48</ref>}} and eighteen out of twenty one mentioned by Narayana in ''Madhvavijaya-bhava-prakashika'' are considered lost.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=26–27}} Of the surviving commentaries, the earliest extant one is by Nimbarkacharya or [[Adi Shankara]].{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=26–27}}

The diversity of ''Brahma Sūtras'' commentaries by various sub-schools of Hinduism attests to the central importance of the Upanishads, that the text summarizes.{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=26–27}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" align="center" style=" background: transparent; "
|-style="text-align: center;"
! width=100px style="background: #ffad66;"  | Commentary
! width=140px style="background: #ffad66;"  | Scholar
! width=80px style="background: #ffcc80;"   | Date
! width=100px style="background: #ffcc80;"  | Tradition
! width=100px style="background: #ffcc80;"  | Sampradaya
! width= 440px style="background: #ffcc80;" | Theme / Influence{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=26–27}}<ref>Steven Katz (2000), Mysticism and Sacred Scripture, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195097030}}, page 12</ref>
<!-- ** Nimbarkacharya ** -->|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="100px" |  ''Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha''
| width="140px" | [[Nimbarkacharya|Nimbārkāchārya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=78-82}}
| width="80px"  | Variously dated from 7th to 12th century{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=323}}<br>(7th c. more likely)
| width="100px" | [[Svabhavika Bhedabheda|Svābhāvika Bhedābheda]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width="100px" | [[Nimbarka Sampradaya|Kumara Sampradaya]]
| width="440px" | Differential monism
<!-- ** Srinivasacharya ** -->|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="140px" | ''Vedānta Kaustubha''
| width="140px" | [[Srinivasacharya|Śrīnivāsācārya]]
| width="80px"  | Variously dated from 7th to 12th century{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=323}}<br>(7-8th c. more likely)
| width="100px" | [[Svabhavika Bhedabheda|Svābhāvika Bhedābheda]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width="100px" | [[Nimbarka Sampradaya|Kumara Sampradaya]]
| width="440px" | Differential monism
<!-- ** Shankara ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=100px  | ''Brahmasūtrabhāṣya''
| width=140px  | [[Adi Shankara|Ādi Śaṅkarācārya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=28–39}}
| width=80px   | 9th century
| width=100px  | [[Advaita Vedanta]]<br>''([[Smarta tradition]])''
| width=100px  | [[Dashanami Sampradaya|Dasanami Sampradaya]]
| width= 440px | non-duality ("non-secondness") of ''jivAtman'' and ''Atman-Brahman''
<!-- ** Bhaskara ** --> |-style="text-align: center;"
| width=140px  | 
| width=140px  | [[Bhāskara (Bhedabheda Vedanta)|Bhaskara]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=39-45}}
| width=80px   | 9th century
| width=100px  | [[Bhedabheda]]
| width=100px  | 
| width= 140px | ''Aupādhika Bhedābheda'' (Conditional Difference)<ref name=":1" />
<!-- ** Yadava Prakasa ** -->
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=140px  | 
| width=140px  | [[Yadava Prakasa|Yādavaprakāśa]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=45-46}}
| width=80px   | 11th century
| width=100px  | [[Bhedabheda]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | 
| width= 140px | ''Svābhāvika Bhedābheda'' (Natural Difference)<ref name=":1" />
<!-- ** Ramanuja 11th-12th centruy** -->
|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=100px  | ''[[Sri Bhashya|Śrībhāṣya]]''
| width=140px  | [[Ramanuja|Rāmāṉujācārya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=47-60}}
| width=80px   | 11th century
| width=100px  | [[Vishishtadvaita]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri (Lakshmi) Sampradaya]]
| width= 440px | Qualified non-dualism
<!-- ** Madhvācārya ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=1o0px  |  ''(Madhva bhāṣya)''
| width=140px  | [[Madhva|Madhvācārya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=61-66}}
| width=80px   | 13th century
| width=100px  | [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Madhva tradition|Bramha (Madhva)/ Sadh Sampradaya]]
| width= 440px | Dualism
<!-- ** Śrīpati Paṇḍitācārya ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=140px  | ''Śrīkarabhāṣya''
| width=140px  | Śrīpati Paṇḍitācārya{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960}}
| width=80px   | 14th century
| width=100px  | Visheshadvaita<br>''([[Shaivism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Veerashaiva]]
| width= 140px | Differential monism
<!-- ** Srikantha 11th-15th century **-->|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="100px" | ''Srikantha-bhasya''<ref name="Kantha"/>
| width="140px" | [[Shiva Advaita|Śrīkaṇṭhācārya Śivācārya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=66-78}}
| width="80px"  | 11th-15th c. CE,{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=66}}{{sfn|Chaudhuri|1962|p=7}}{{sfn|Subramuniyaswami|2003|p=1223}}{{sfn|Johnson|2009}}{{sfn|Sivaraman|2001|p=33}}{{sfn|Dalal|2014}}{{sfn|Duquette|2016|p=68, note 2}}<br>(14th-15th c. more likely){{sfn|Duquette|2016|p=68, note 2}}{{refn|group=note|Kasivasi Senthinatha Iyer (1828-1924)<ref>[https://www.angelfire.com/planet/shivasevagan/Sentinathaiyer.html Kasivasi Sentinatha Iyer]</ref> dates it to the 7th century CE, arguing that it appeared before all the [[Brahma Sutras|Bhashyams]] like [[Shankaracharya|Shankara]], [[Ramanuja]], and [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=தமிழில் காசிவாசி செந்திநாதையர் |url=http://archive.org/details/Acc.No.16426BrahmasutraSivadvaitaSaivapadiyam2005 |title=பிரமசூத்திர சிவாத்துவித சைவபாடியம் |date=2005}}</ref>}}
| width="100px" | [[Shiva Advaita]]<ref name="Kantha">{{Cite book |last=Sri Kantha |first=Translation by: A. Mahadeva Sastri |url=http://archive.org/details/TheVedantaSutrasWithSriKanthaBhashya_201712 |title=The Vedanta Sutras With Sri Kantha Bhashya |date=1897}}</ref><br> (''[[Shaivism]]'')
| width="100px" | [[Srauta]] - [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Saiva Siddhanta]]{{sfn|Sivaraman|2001|p=33-36, 472-499}}
| width="440px" | Qualified non-dualism ([[Shiva|''Ś''iva]] - [[Shakti|''Ś''akti]] non-dualism)
<!-- ** Vallabha 16th century ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=140px  | ''(Aṇubhāṣya)''
| width=140px  | [[Vallabha|Vallabhācārya]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=88-93}}
| width=80px   | 16th century
| width=100px  | [[Shuddhadvaita]]<br>(''[[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Rudra Sampradaya]] [[Pushtimarg]]
| width= 440px | Pure non-dualism 
<!-- ** Śuka 16th century ** --> |-style="text-align: center;"
| width=140px  | ''Śukabhāṣya''
| width=140px  | Śuka{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=93-94}}
| width=80px   | 16th century
| width=100px  | [[Bheda-vāda|Bhedavada]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  |
| width= 440px | Revised dualism
<!-- ** Vijnanabhiksu ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=140px  | ''Vijñānāmrta-bhāsyam''
| width=140px  | [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñāna-bhikṣu]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=94-96}}
| width=80px   | 17th century
| width=100px  | Ātma Brahmaikya bhedavāda<br>''(Theistic-[[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]])''
| width=100px  |
| width= 440px | Indistinguishable non-dualism ''(Avibhaga Advaita)''
<!-- ** Baladeva Vidyabhushana ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=100px  |  ''[[Govinda Bhashya|Govinda-bhāṣya]] & Brahma-sūtra-kārikā-bhāṣya''
| width=140px  | [[Baladeva Vidyabhushana|Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa]]{{sfnp|Radhakrishna|1960|pp=97-102}}
| width=80px   | 18th century
| width=100px  | [[Achintya Bheda Abheda|Acintyabhedābheda]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Brahma Sampradaya|Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Vaisnava Sampradaya]]
| width=440px  | [[Achintya Bheda Abheda|Inconceivable oneness and difference]]
<!-- ** Panchānana Tarkaratna ** -->|- style="text-align: center;"
| width=100px  | ''Śakti'' ''Bhāṣyam''
| width=140px  | Panchānana Tarkaratna<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Deepa Valiathan |url=https://archive.org/details/brahmasutrashaktibhashyapanchananatarkaratnavol1parimalpublications_202003_256_X/page/n6/mode/1up |title=Brahma Sutra Shakti Bhashya Panchanana Tarkaratna Vol 1 Parimal Publications}}</ref>
| width=80px   | |20th century (1905)
| width=100px  | [[Vedas|Vedic]] - [[Tantra|Tantric]] ([[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamic]]) ''Śiva - Śakti advaita / Śaktyadvaita''<br>''([[Shaktism|Śaktism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Smarta tradition|Smarta]] Dakshninachara ''[[Shaktism|Śakta Sampradaya]]''
| width=440px  | [[Shiva|Śiva]] - [[Shakti|Śakti]] non-dualism
<!-- ** Rambhadracharya ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=100px  | ''[[shriraghavkripabhashyam|Śrī Rāghava Kṛpā Bhāṣyam]]''
| width=140px  | [[Rambhadracharya]]
| width=80px   | 20th century (1998)
| width=100px  | Viśiṣṭādvaita<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Tulsi Peeth]] / [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]]
| width=440px  | Qualified non-dualism
<!-- ** Bhadreshdas Swami ** -->|-style="text-align: center;"
| width=100px  | ''([[Swaminarayan Bhashyam#Overview of contents|Brahmasūtra-Svāminārāyaṇa-Bhāṣyam]])''
| width=140px  | [[Bhadreshdas Swami]]
| width=80px   | 21st century (2017)
| width=100px  | [[Akshar-Purushottam Darshan|Akshar Purushottam Darshan]]<br>''([[Vaishnavism]])''
| width=100px  | [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]]
| width= 440px |Five eternal entities: Purushottam, Akshar, Maya, Ishvar, Jiva
|}

==Exegesis==
The sutras in the text can be, and have been read in different ways.<ref name=gregdarling8/> Some commentators read each line separately, while others sometimes read two as one treating some sutras as contextually connected.<ref name=gregdarling8/> Creative readers have read the last word of a sutra as the starting word for the next, some treat a given verse as ''Purva-paksha'' (opposing viewpoint) while others read the same verse as ''Siddhanta'' (proposed doctrine, or conclusion).<ref name=gregdarling8/> For example, states Gregory Darling, Adi Shankara in his commentary on sutra 4.3.14 considers ''Saguna'' Brahman mentioned therein as ''Purva-paksha'', but acknowledges that some scholars interpret this sutra as a ''Siddhanta''.<ref name=gregdarling8>Gregory Darling (2007), An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803633}}, page 8</ref> Another example is Shanakra's interpretation of a set of sutras (2.3.19-28) as reflective of the ''Purva-paksha'' and Ramanuja's taking the same set of sutras to be reflective of the ''Siddhanta''. Shankara argues that the description of the individual self (''jiva'') as atomic in size in these sutras marks the ''Purva-paksha'', whereas Ramanuja takes it to be the ''Siddhanta.'' A point of disagreement between commentators concerns where to divide the text into ''Adhikaranas''. Although there is a clear division of ''Adhyayas'' and ''Padas'' in the text, no division of ''Adhikaranas'' is universally affirmed, leading to disagreements about how the sutras in each ''Adhikaranas'' should be divided''.''{{Sfn|Ghate|1926|p=46}}

Another aspect of the sutra text that leads to variance in exegeses is that words in the sutras can mean different things. In sutra 2.3.15, the word ''antarā'' is used, which would mean both "without" and "in the midst". Shankara, Ramanuja, and Nimbarka agree that the word means "in the midst", but Madhva argues that the word must mean "without". It is very likely that the interpretations given by Shankara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, and Madhva did not originate out of nowhere, and their key elements most probably existed even before the ''Brahma Sūtras'' themselves were written. It is extremely difficult to determine which of the commentators' interpretations are actually faithful to the original, and there is a possibility that the author of the ''Brahma Sūtras'' did not have a philosophical system in mind that Shankara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva, and their successors have expressed.{{Sfn|Ghate|1926|p=51}}

==Translations==
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' has been translated into German by Paul Deussen, and in English by George Thibaut.<ref name=wtdebary97>William Theodore De Bary and Ainslie Embree (2013), A Guide to Oriental Classics, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231066754}}, page 97</ref> The Thibaut translation is, state De Bary and Embree, "probably the best complete translation in English".<ref name=wtdebary97/>

== See also ==
* [[Prasthanatrayi]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
;Printed sources
{{refbegin}}
<!-- C -->
* {{cite book | last =Chaudhuri | first =Roma | year =1962 | title =Doctrine Of Srikantha Vol 1&2 | publisher =Institute of Oriental Learning | url =https://archive.org/details/doctrine-of-srikantha-2vols/Doctrine%20of%20Srikantha%20Vol%2001/page/n7/mode/1up}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Collinson | first1 =Diane | last2 =Wilkinson | first2 =Robert | year =1994 | title =Thirty-Five oriental Philosophers | publisher =Routledge}}
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* {{cite book | last =Dalal | first =Roshen | year =2014 | author-link =Roshen Dalal | chapter =Shivadvaita | title =Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|isbn=9788184752779 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Citation | last =Darling | first =Gregory | year =2007 | title =An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | isbn =978-8120803633}}
* {{Citation | last =Deussen | first =Paul | year =2015 | title =The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon | publisher =CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | isbn =978-1519117786}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Duquette |first=Jonathan |date=2016 |title=Reading Non-Dualism in Śivādvaita Vedānta: An Argument from the Śivādvaitanirṇaya in Light of the Śivārkamaṇidīpikā |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44157294 |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=67–79 |doi=10.1007/s10781-014-9231-x |jstor=44157294 |s2cid=171076332 |issn=0022-1791|url-access=subscription }}
<!-- G -->
* {{Citation |last=Ghate |first=V. S |year=1926 |title=The Vedanta, a Study of the Brahma-sutras with the Bhasyas of Samkara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhava and Vallabha|publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283844}}
* {{Cite book | last =Gopi Nath Kaviraj | first =M. M. | title =Brahma Sutra Shakti Bhashya Panchanana Tarkaratna Vol 1 Parimal Publications | chapter =Introduction to the ''Brahma Sutra Shakti Bhashya'' by Panchanana Tarkaratna Vol. 1 | publisher =Parimal Publications | url =https://archive.org/details/brahmasutrashaktibhashyapanchananatarkaratnavol1parimalpublications_202003_256_X/page/n7/mode/1up}}
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* {{Citation | last =Isaeva | first =N.V. | year =1992 | title =Shankara and Indian Philosophy | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0-7914-1281-7}}
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* {{cite book| last =Johnson | first =W. J. | year =2009 | title =A Dictionary of Hinduism
| url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-2285 | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-861025-0 | via=[[Oxford Reference]]}} {{closed access}}
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* {{cite book | last =Klostermaier | first=Klaus K. | year =2007 | title =A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0-7914-7082-4 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C }}
* {{Citation | last =Klostermaier | first =Klaus K.  | year =2010 | title = A Survey of Hinduism | edition =Third | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0791470824}}
* {{cite book | last =Koller | first =John. M | year =2013 | chapter =Shankara | editor-last1 =Meister | editor-first1 =Chad V. | editor-last2 =Copan | editor-first2 =Paul | title =The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion | edition =2nd | publisher =Routledge | isbn =978-0-415-78294-4}}
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* {{Citation | last =Lochtefeld | first =James | year =2002 | chapter =Brahman | title =The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M | publisher =Rosen Publishing | isbn =978-0823931798}}
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* {{cite book | last =Mayeda | first =Sengaku | year =1992 | title =A Thousand Teachings | publisher =State University of New York Press}}
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* {{cite book | last =Nakamura | first =Hajime | year =1989 | title =A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part 1 | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass |location =New Delhi |isbn =81-208-0651-4}}
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* {{cite book | last =Radhakrishna  | first =Sarvepalli  | author-link =Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | year =1960 | title =Brahma Sutra, The Philosophy of Spiritual Life | url =https://archive.org/stream/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life/Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life#page/n21/mode/2up}}
<!-- S -->
* {{Citation | last =Sivananda | year =1977 | title =Brahma Sutras  |publisher =Motilal Banarsidass}}
* {{cite book | last =Sivaraman | first =K. | year =2001 | title =Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | isbn =978-8120817715 | url =https://archive.org/details/SaivismInPhilosophicalPerspectiveK.Sivaraman}}
* {{cite book|last =Subramuniyaswami|first=Satguru Sivaya|year=2003|title=Merging with Śiva: Hinduism's contemporary metaphysics|publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications|isbn=978-0-945497-99-8}}
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* {{cite thesis|surname=Ramnarace |given=Vijay |year=2014 |title=Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa's Vedāntic Debut: Chronology & Rationalisation in the Nimbārka Sampradāya |type=PhD thesis |place=University of Edinburgh |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf}}
{{refend}}

;Web-sources
{{reflist|group=web|refs=
<!-- EB_Vedanta -->
<ref group=web name=EB_Vedanta>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedanta Vedanta Hindu Philosophy] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref>
}}

==External links==
;Translations and transliteration
* [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/34.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v34.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankar.p1.Oxf.1890.#page/n11/mode/2up The Vedanta Sutras] Part 1, Translated by George Thibaut (English, 1890, Adi Shankara Exegesis, Theistic interpretation)
* [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/38.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v38.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedantaSut.CommSankarak.p2.Oxf.1896.#page/n11/mode/2up The Vedanta Sutras] Part 2, Translated by George Thibaut (English, 1890, Adi Shankara Exegesis, Theistic interpretation)
* [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/48.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v48.Muller.Hindu.Thibaut.VedanSut.CommRam.p3.Oxf.1904.#page/n9/mode/2up The Vedanta Sutras] Translated by George Thibaut (English, 1890, Ramanuja Exegesis, Theistic interpretation)
*Comparative analysis of traditional commentaries on Brahma Sutras. https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.283844/2015.283844.The-Vedanta.pdf
* [https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life Brahma Sutra, The Philosophy of Spiritual Life (English)] Translated by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (English, Multiple scholars includes monist and theistic interpretation), - at archive.org
* [http://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/bs_home Brahma sutra in 10 Indian languages and Roman Transliteration] IIT Kanpur

;Commentaries

* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.383248 Sri Bhashya - Brahma Sutra Bhashya by Ramanujacharya (Sanskrit)] - at archive.org
* [https://archive.org/details/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf Brahma Sutra Bhashya by Adi Shankaracharya (Sanskrit)] - at archive.org
* [https://archive.org/details/The.Brahmasutra.Sankara.Bhasya.with.Ratna-Prabha.Bhamati.and.Nyaya-Nirnaya Brahmasutra Sankara Bhashya, with Ratna-Prabha of Govindananda, Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra and Nyaya-Nirnaya of Anandagari (Sanskrit)] - at archive.org
* [https://archive.org/details/The.Brahmasutra.Sankara.Bhasya.with.Bhamati.Kalpataru.and.Parimala Brahmasutra Sankara Bhashya, with Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra, Kalpataru of Amalananda and Parimala of Appaya Dikshita (Sanskrit)] - at archive.org
* [https://archive.org/details/Brahmasutra.Anubhasyam.by.Vallabhacharya.with.Panchatikta.Sanskrit Anubhashya on the Brahma Sutra by Vallabhacharya with Commentaries (4 Volumes Combined) (Sanskrit)] - at archive.org
* [https://archive.org/details/Brahmasutra.Bhasya.of.Sri.Madhvacharya.with.Glosses.Sanskrit Brahmasutra Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya with Glosses (Sanskrit)] - at archive.org
* [https://archive.org/details/Vedanta-parijata-saurabhaOfNimbarkaAndVedanta-kaustubhaOfSrinivasa Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha of Nimbarka and Vedanta-Kaustubha of Srinivasa (English)] - at archive.org or [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/brahma-sutras-nimbarka Proofread edition including glossary]

{{Indian Philosophy}}
{{Hindudharma}}

[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Sutras (Hinduism)]]
[[Category:Sanskrit texts]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian literature]]
[[Category:Advaita Vedanta texts]]