View source for Buddhism in the West

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{{Western Buddhism}}
{{Buddhism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
'''Buddhism in the West''' (or more narrowly '''Western Buddhism''') broadly encompasses the knowledge and practice of [[Buddhism]] outside of Asia, in the [[Western world]]. Occasional intersections between [[Western world|Western civilization]] and the Buddhist world have been occurring for thousands of years. Greek colonies existed in India during the Buddha's life, as early as the 6th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Batchelor |first=Stephen |title=The Awakening of the West: The encounter of Buddhism and Western culture. |date=October 15, 2021 |publisher=Echo Point Books & Media, LLC |pages=xv}}</ref> The first Westerners to become Buddhists were Greeks who settled in [[Bactria]] and [[Indian subcontinent|India]] during the [[Hellenistic period]]. They became influential figures during the reigns of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]] kings, whose patronage of Buddhism led to the emergence of [[Greco-Buddhism]] and [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. 

There was little contact between the Western and Asian cultures during most of the [[Middle Ages]], but the [[Early modern period|early modern]] rise of [[International trade|global trade]] and [[mercantilism]], [[Age of Discovery#Technology: Ship design and the compass|improved navigation technology]] and the [[History of colonialism|European colonization]] of Asian Buddhist countries led to increased knowledge of Buddhism among Westerners. This increased contact led to various responses from Buddhists and Westerners throughout the [[Modern history|modern era]]. These include religious [[proselytism]], religious [[polemic]]s and debates (such as the Sri Lankan [[Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera#Panadura Debate පානදුරාවාදය|Panadura debate]]), [[Buddhist modernism]], Western convert Buddhists and the rise of [[Buddhist studies]] in Western academia. 

During the 20th century, there was growth in Western Buddhism due to various factors such as [[immigration]], [[globalization]], the [[decline of Christianity]] and increased interest among Westerners. The various [[schools of Buddhism]] are now established in all major Western countries making up a small minority [[Buddhism in the United States|in the United States]] (1% in 2024), [[Buddhism in Europe|Europe]] (0.3% in 2020), as well as in [[Australia]] (2.4% in 2016) and [[New Zealand]] (1.5% in 2013).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-05 |title=2024 PRRI Census of American Religion |url=https://prri.org/spotlight/2024-prri-census-of-american-religion/ |access-date=2025-06-27 |website=PRRI |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fahmy |first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia |date=2025-06-09 |title=10. Religion in Europe |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/religion-in-europe/ |access-date=2025-06-27 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>2071.0 - Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Stories from the Census, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20170919010053/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0~2016~Main%20Features~Religion%20Data%20Summary~25</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/data-tables/total-by-topic.aspx |title=Table 28, 2013 Census Data – QuickStats About Culture and Identity – Tables |access-date=2018-11-27 |archive-date=2017-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122042347/http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/data-tables/total-by-topic.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Premodern history==
===Greco-Buddhism===
{{main|Greco-Buddhism}}

[[File:MenanderChakra.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A coin of [[Menander I]] (r.160–135 BC) with a [[dharmacakra]] and a palm.]]
[[File:Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG|thumb|230px|alt=Vajrapani-Heracles as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century from Gandhara|[[Heracles]] depiction of [[Vajrapani]] as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]]
The first contact between [[Western culture]] and [[Culture of Buddhism|Buddhist culture]] occurred during [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest of India.

After Alexander's conquest, Greek colonists established cities and kingdoms in [[Bactria]] and [[Indian subcontinent|India]] where Buddhism was thriving.<ref>S. Dhammika, The Edicts of King Ashoka The Fourteen Rock Edicts/13</ref><ref>Doumanis, Nicholas. ''A History of Greece'' Palgrave Macmillan, 16 Dec. 2009 {{ISBN|978-1137013675}} p 64</ref> This cultural interaction saw the emergence of [[Greco-Buddhism]] and [[Greco-Buddhist art]], especially within the [[Gandhara]]n civilization which covered a large part of modern-day northern [[Pakistan]] and eastern [[Afghanistan]].<ref>Halkias, G. (2014) ''When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures''
[https://www.academia.edu/5974580/When_the_Greeks_Converted_the_Buddha_Asymmetrical_Transfers_of_Knowledge_in_Indo-Greek_Cultures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607190438/https://www.academia.edu/5974580/When_the_Greeks_Converted_the_Buddha_Asymmetrical_Transfers_of_Knowledge_in_Indo-Greek_Cultures|date=2019-06-07}}</ref> Greek sculptors in the classical tradition came to teach their skills to Indian sculptors resulting in the distinctive style of [[Greco-Buddhist art]] in stone and [[stucco]] seen in hundreds of Buddhist monasteries which are still being discovered and excavated in this region.

Greco-Buddhism was an important religion among the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrians]] and the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greeks]]. The Indo-Greek kings such as [[Menander I]] (165/155 –130 BCE) and [[Menander II]] (90–85 BCE) used Buddhist symbolism in their coins. Menander I is a main character of the Indian Buddhist scripture known as [[Milinda Panha]]  ("The Questions of King Milinda"), which states that he adopted the Buddhist religion.<ref>[[Milinda Panha|The Questions of King Milinda]], Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890</ref> The Buddhist tradition considers Menander as a great benefactor of the Dharma, along with [[Ashoka]].

The ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' mentions that during Menander's reign, a Greek elder monk named [[Mahadharmaraksita]] led 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alexandria" (possibly [[Alexandria on the Caucasus]]) to [[Sri Lanka]] for the dedication of a stupa showing that Greeks took an active part in Indian Buddhism during this period.<ref name="McEvilley2012">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbjelOMYyN8C&pg=PT558|title=The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies|author=Thomas McEvilley|date=7 February 2012|publisher=Constable & Robinson|isbn=978-1-58115-933-2|pages=558–}}</ref>

Greco-Buddhist styles continued to be influential during the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan empire]].

===Pyrrhonism===
[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of [[Alexander the Great]]'s empire and the route he and Pyrrho took to India]]
{{main|Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism}}
[[Alexander the Great]]'s court on his conquest of India included the philosopher [[Pyrrho]] who created his philosophy, [[Pyrrhonism]], with influence from the Buddhist [[three marks of existence]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2015 |page=221 |isbn=9781400866328}}</ref>

The Pyrrhonists promote suspending judgment ([[epoché]]) about [[dogma]] (beliefs about non-evident matters) as the way to reach [[ataraxia]], a soteriological objective similar to [[nirvana]]. This is similar to the practices described in the [[Aṭṭhakavagga and Pārāyanavagga|Aṭṭhakavagga]], one of the oldest Buddhist texts, and it is similar to the Buddha's refusal to answer [[The unanswered questions|certain metaphysical questions]] which he saw as non-conductive to the path of Buddhist practice and [[Nagarjuna]]'s "relinquishing of all views ([[drsti]])".

Later Pyrrhonism substantially parallels the teachings of [[Madhyamaka]] Buddhism, particularly the surviving works of [[Sextus Empiricus]],<ref>Adrian Kuzminski, ''Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism'' 2008</ref> [[Thomas McEvilley]]<ref>Thomas McEvilley, ''The Shape of Ancient Thought'' 2002 pp499-505</ref> and Matthew Neale<ref>[https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:347ed882-f7ac-4098-908f-5bb391462a6c/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=THESIS01&type_of_work=Thesis Thesis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826212747/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:347ed882-f7ac-4098-908f-5bb391462a6c/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=THESIS01&type_of_work=Thesis |date=2021-08-26 }}</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/NMZwyPdY7eg Ghostarchive] and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200307220101/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NMZwyPdY7eg&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NMZwyPdY7eg&t=52s| title = Sextus Empiricus and Madhyamaka at Oxford's Oriental Institute | website=[[YouTube]]| date = 10 May 2015 }}</ref> suspect that Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.

===Buddhism and the Roman world===
{{main|Buddhism and the Roman world}}
[[File:ExtentOfBuddhismAndTrade.jpg|thumb|250px|Extent of Buddhism and trade routes in the 1st century AD.]]
Several instances of interactions between Buddhism and the [[Roman Empire]] are documented by [[Classics|Classical]] and early Christian writers. Roman historical accounts describe an embassy sent by the Indian king Pandion, also known as Porus, to [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] around 13 CE. The embassy was travelling with a diplomatic letter in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], and one of its members—called [[Zarmanochegas]]—was an Indian religious man ([[sramana]]) who burned himself alive in [[Athens]] to demonstrate his faith. The event created a sensation and was described by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], who met the embassy at [[Antioch]], and related by [[Strabo]] (XV,1,73) and [[Dio Cassius]]. These accounts at least indicate that religious men from India (Sramanas, to which the Buddhists belonged, as opposed to [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Brahmin|Brahmanas]]) were visiting Mediterranean countries. However, the term [[sramana]] is a general term for Indian religious man in Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika. It is not clear which of those religious tradition the man belonged to in this case.

Early 3rd–4th century [[Christianity|Christian]] writers such as [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] and [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]] write about a figure called [[Scythianus]], who visited India around 50 CE from where he brought "the doctrine of the Two Principles". According to [[Cyril of Jerusalem]], Scythianus' pupil [[Terebinthus]] presented himself as a "Buddha" ("He called himself Buddas") and taught in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]] and [[Babylonia|Babylon]].<ref name=Tere>{{Cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310106.htm |title=Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lecture 6 |access-date=2022-12-16 |archive-date=2017-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023010425/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310106.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Buddhism and Christianity ===
{{Main|Buddhism and Christianity|Buddhist influences on Christianity}}The influential early Christian church father [[Clement of Alexandria]] (died AD 215) mentioned Buddha (Βούττα):<ref name="ccel.org">Clement of Alexandria Stromata. BkI, Ch XV http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.vi.iv.i.xv.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704054308/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.vi.iv.i.xv.html |date=2016-07-04 }} (Accessed 19 Dec 2012)</ref> <blockquote>Among the Indians are those philosophers also who follow the precepts of ''Boutta'', whom they honour as a god on account of his extraordinary sanctity.  </blockquote>The myth of [[Queen Maya|the birth of the Buddha]] was also known: a fragment of Archelaos of Carrha (278 AD) mentions the Buddha's virgin-birth, and [[Jerome|Saint Jerome]] (4th century) mentions the birth of the Buddha, who he says "was born from the side of a virgin".

The legend of Christian saints [[Barlaam and Josaphat]] draws on the life of the Buddha.<ref>John Walbridge ''The Wisdom of the Mystic East: Suhrawardī and Platonic Orientalism'' Page 129  – 2001 "The form Būdhīsaf is the original, as shown by Sogdian form Pwtysfi and the early New Persian form Bwdysf. ... On the Christian versions see A. S. Geden, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, s.v. "Josaphat, Barlaam and," and M. P. Alfaric, ..."</ref>

In the 13th century, international travelers, such as [[Giovanni de Piano Carpini]] and [[William of Ruysbroeck]], sent back reports of Buddhism to the West and noted some similarities with [[Nestorian Christian]] communities.<ref name="Buddhism 2004, page 160">Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 160</ref> The famous travel writer [[Marco Polo]] (1254–1324) wrote much about Buddhism, its rites and customs, in places such as Khotan, China and Sri Lanka.

== Early modern and colonial encounters ==
When European Christians made more direct contact with Buddhism in the early 16th century, [[Jesuit missionaries]] to Asia such as St. [[Francis Xavier]] and [[Ippolito Desideri]] sent back detailed accounts of Buddhist doctrine and practices.<ref name="Buddhism 2004, page 160" /> [[Ippolito Desideri]] spent a long time in [[Tibet]], learning the Tibetan language and Tibetan Buddhist doctrine before writing an account of his travels and of Tibetan Buddhism.<ref name=":6">de Jong, J.W. A Brief History of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America, ''The Eastern Buddhist'' NEW SERIES, Vol. 7, No. 2 (October, 1974), pp. 49-82</ref> He also wrote several books in Tibetan which promoted Christianity and critiqued Buddhism. Other influential Jesuit writers on Buddhism [[Alessandro Valignano]] (1539–1606) and [[Matteo Ricci]] (1552–1610).<ref name=":7">Berkwitz, Stephen, The Portuguese Discovery of Buddhism: Locating Religion in Early Modern Asia.</ref> The [[Portuguese Ceylon|Portuguese colonial efforts in Sri Lanka]] during the 16th and 17th centuries saw some of the first large scale direct contact between Buddhists and Westerners. According to Stephen Berkwitz, by the late 17th century, "the existence of a religion across Asia that worshiped images of the Buddha, known and referred to by many different names, was a well-known fact among European scholars."<ref name=":7" />

This recognition that Buddhism was indeed a distinct Asian religion with its own texts and not just a form of local paganism, led Catholic missionaries to see Buddhism as a serious rival to Christianity in Asia and to promote its further study so as to combat it.<ref name=":7" /> They also sought to explain how such a religion could exist which appeared to deviate from those originating from divine revelation and yet also contained numerous similarities (monastic orders, virgin birth of its founder, belief in heaven and hell, etc.). Because of this, many Portuguese writers explained the Buddhist religion as a form of Christianity corrupted by the devil and some even said Buddhists were "in league with the devil".<ref name=":7" /> Catholic missionaries in Asia especially criticized the Buddhist view of rebirth, "[[Idolatry|idol worship]]" and denial of the immortality of the soul or a [[Unmoved mover|first cause]].<ref name=":7" />

With the arrival of [[Sanskrit]] and Oriental studies in European universities in the late 18th century, and the subsequent availability of Buddhist texts, Western Buddhist studies began to take shape.<ref name="Buddhism 2004, page 160" /> An important early figure is [[Paulinus of St. Bartholomew|Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomaeo]] who first remarked on the connection between Sanskrit and Pali, and described an early Italian translation of the ''Kammavaca'' in his ''Systema brahmanicum.<ref name=":6" />''

== 19th century ==
[[File:Col. Olcott and Ven. Sumangala Thero.jpg|thumb|Ven. [[Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]], the first President of the [[Theosophical Society]], in Colombo, 1889. ]]
During the 19th century, Buddhism (along with other non-European religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals through the work of Christian missionaries, scholars, and imperial civil servants who wrote about the countries in which they worked. Most accounts of Buddhism placed it in a negative light however, as a [[Nihilism|nihilistic]], [[Pessimism|pessimistic]], [[Idolatry|idolatrous]] and [[Paganism|heathen]] faith.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":2">McMahan, David L, Modernity and the Early Discourse of Scientific Buddhism.</ref> [[Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire]] for example, described Buddhism as the nihilistic nadir of Indian pessimism.<ref name=":2" />

One early and influential sympathetic account was [[Edwin Arnold|Sir Edwin Arnold]]'s book-length poem ''[[The Light of Asia]] ''(1879), a life of the Buddha which became an influential best-seller. The book, coming at a time when Christianity was being challenged by critical Biblical scholarship and [[Darwinism]], was seen by some Western intellectuals as promoting a more rational alternative to Christianity.<ref name=":0">Coleman, 2001, p. 56.</ref> This book eventually went through eighty editions and sold between half a million to a million copies.<ref name=":0" />

The growth of [[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualism]] and [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]] also contributed to the rise of interest in Buddhism.<ref name=":0" /> Some Theosophists actually converted to Buddhism, such as [[Helena Blavatsky]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]] who according to Stephen Prothero were "the first European-Americans to publicly and formally become lay Buddhists" in 1880.<ref name=":1">Prothero, ''The White Buddhist,'' 175. Olcott’s approach to Buddhism and the terminology of Protestant Buddhism and “creolization” (Prothero) is extensively discussed in K. A. McMahan,“ ‘Creolization’ in American Religious History. The Metaphysical Nature of Henry Steel Olcott, PhD dissertation, unpublished manuscript (Ann Arbor 2008).</ref> Olcott became a very influential figure in the Sinhalese Buddhist revival and in promoting the rise of a [[Buddhist modernism|modernist Buddhism]]. He founded various branches of the Buddhist Theosophical Society in his first visit to Sri Lanka and wrote Buddhist educational literature.<ref name=":1" /> Seeing himself as an educator who was attempting to help the Sinhalese understand "real" Buddhism (based on a rational academic study of the Pali texts, not on "debased, sectarian, and creedal" local forms), he wrote an influential introduction to Buddhism called the ''[[Buddhist Catechism]]'' (1881), which proved extremely popular and remains in use today.<ref name=":1" /> While Olcott's Buddhism was influenced by [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Protestantism]] as well as Theosophical ideas, Sinhalese Buddhists such as the famous [[Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera|Hikkaduve Sumangala]] supported his efforts and he became very popular in the island.<ref>Prothero, ''The White Buddhist.'' The Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott (Bloomington 1996), 1.</ref><ref>Haas, Cornelia, From Theosophy to Buddhism
</ref>

The writings of [[Lafcadio Hearn]] were also influential in introducing [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]] to Western audiences.

=== In Europe ===
{{main|Buddhism in Europe}}
The 19th century also saw the growth of the first thorough academic studies, publications and translations of [[Buddhist texts]]. The work of the French orientalist [[Eugène Burnouf]] is some of the first academic work on Buddhism which includes a French translation of the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus sutra]] from Sanskrit. He laid the foundation for the study of [[Sanskrit Buddhist literature|Sanskrit Buddhist texts]]. He and [[Christian Lassen]] also published an early Pali grammar in 1826.<ref name=":6" /> Benjamin Clough, a Wesleyan missionary, also published an early grammar of the language in Colombo, 1824, ''A compendious Pali grammar with a copious vocabulary in the same language''.<ref name=":6" /> The first Pali dictionary was published in 1875, [[Robert Caesar Childers]]' ''A Dictionary of the Pali language''.<ref name=":6" /> The work of [[Émile Senart|Emile Senart]] is also important, and includes a publication and study of the Sanskrit [[Mahāvastu|Mahavastu]] as well as his {{lang|fr|Essai sur la légende du Bouddha}}, which interpreted the Buddha as a [[solar deity]] figure.<ref name=":6" />

1881 was a seminal year for the new field now known as [[Buddhist studies]]. The [[Pali Text Society]] was founded in 1881 by [[Thomas William Rhys Davids]], who was an influential early translator of the Buddhist [[Pāli Canon|Pali Canon]]. Another influential scholar in the field was the [[Indology|Indologist]] [[Max Müller]], who edited Buddhist texts which were published in the Oxford series known as ''[[Sacred Books of the East]].'' In 1881, Volume 10 included the first translations of the [[Dhammapada]] ([[Max Müller|Müller]]) and the [[Sutta Nipata|Sutta-Nipata]] ([[Viggo Fausböll]]). [[Hermann Oldenberg]]'s 1881 study on [[Buddhism]], entitled ''Buddha: his life, his doctrine, his order'' ({{lang|de|Buddha: Sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde}}), based on [[Pāli]] texts was also an early influential work which critiqued the solar myth theory.<ref name=":6" />

This era also saw [[Buddhism and Western philosophy|Western philosophers taking note of Buddhism]]. These included the influential German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], who read about Buddhism and other [[Indian religions]], and praised their way of life in his works as the highest ideal.<ref>See [[Urs App]], "Schopenhauers Begegnung mit dem Buddhismus." Schopenhauer-Jahrbuch 79 (1998):35–58. The same author provides an overview of Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism in [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704192558/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf |date=2010-07-04 }}  whose appendix contains transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Asian religions including Buddhism.</ref><ref>Wicks, Robert, "Arthur Schopenhauer", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/schopenhauer/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318040957/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/schopenhauer/ |date=2019-03-18 }}></ref> Schopenhauer later claimed that Buddhism was the "best of all possible religions."<ref>Urs App, Richard Wagner and Buddhism, pg 17</ref> Schopenhauer's view of human suffering as arising from striving or [[Will (philosophy)#Schopenhauer|Will]] and his compassion-based ethics have been compared to Buddhism.<ref>Hutton, Kenneth [http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2014/12/Hutton-Schopenhauer.pdf Compassion in Schopenhauer and Śāntideva. ''Journal of Buddhist Ethics'' Vol. 21 (2014)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414055301/http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2014/12/Hutton-Schopenhauer.pdf |date=2015-04-14 }} and (2009) Ethics in Schopenhauer and Buddhism. PhD thesis, University of Glasgow http://theses.gla.ac.uk/912/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122052127/http://theses.gla.ac.uk/912/ |date=2018-11-22 }}.</ref><ref>oregonstate.edu page on Schopenhauer & Buddhism http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl201/modules/Philosophers/Schopenhauer/schopenhauer.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130123540/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl201/modules/Philosophers/Schopenhauer/schopenhauer.html |date=2018-11-30 }}</ref> Religion scholars specialized in the [[academic study of Western esotericism]] recognize that [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] had been influential on the philosophical and religious thought of the English [[occultist]] and [[ceremonial magic]]ian [[Aleister Crowley]],<ref name="Aries 2019">{{cite journal |last=Djurdjevic |first=Gordan |date=September 2019 |title='Wishing You a Speedy Termination of Existence': Aleister Crowley's Views on Buddhism and Its Relationship with the Doctrine of Thelema |journal=[[Aries (journal)|Aries]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] on behalf of the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=212–230 |doi=10.1163/15700593-01902001 |s2cid=204456438 |issn=1567-9896}}</ref> although he eventually distanced himself from Theravada Buddhist teachings and founded [[Thelema|his own religion]].<ref name="Aries 2019"/>

There are frequent mentions of Buddhism in the work of the German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], who praised Buddhism in his 1895 work ''[[The Antichrist (book)|The Anti-Christ]]'', calling it "a hundred times more realistic than Christianity" because it is [[Atheism|atheistic]], [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenalistic]], and anti-metaphysical.<ref>Panaïoti, Antoine, Nietzsche and Buddhist Philosophy, p. 49.</ref> [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] wrote that "Buddhism already has—and this distinguishes it profoundly from Christianity—the self-deception of moral concepts behind it—it stands, in my language, [[Beyond Good and Evil]]."<ref>Nietzsche, The Anti-Christ, R. J. Hollingdale (Trans and Ed.) (Harmondsworth: Penguin), No. 20, p.129.</ref> However, he also saw Buddhism as a kind of life-denying [[Nihilism|nihilistic]] religion.<ref>Elman, Benjamin A. Nietzsche and Buddhism, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 44, No. 4. (October–December, 1983), pp. 671-686.</ref> Thus, even though Nietzsche saw himself as undertaking a similar project to the Buddha, writing in 1883, "I could become the Buddha of Europe"; he saw himself as consciously anti-Buddhist, further writing "though frankly I would be the antipode of the Indian Buddha."<ref>Panaïoti, Antoine; Nietzsche and Buddhist Philosophy, p 2</ref> Robert Morrison believes that there is "a deep resonance between them" as "both emphasise the centrality of humans in a godless cosmos and neither looks to any external being or power for their respective solutions to the problem of existence".<ref>David R. Loy, "[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-EPT/loy.htm Review of Nietzsche and Buddhism: A Study in Nihilism and Ironic Affinities by R.G. Morrison] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628214106/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-EPT/loy.htm |date=2011-06-28 }}".</ref>

=== In North America ===
The first Buddhists to arrive in North America were [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] to the West Coast in the 1848 [[California Gold Rush|Gold Rush]].<ref name=":9">Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 107.</ref> By 1875 there were 8 temples in San Francisco and many more smaller ones along the West Coast. They practiced a mixture of "[[Confucianism|Confucian]] ancestor veneration, popular [[Taoism]], and [[Pure Land Buddhism]]."<ref name=":9" /> At about the same time, [[Japanese immigration to the United States|immigrants from Japan]] began to arrive as laborers on Hawaiian plantations and central-California farms. In 1893 the first [[Jōdo Shinshū]] priests arrived in [[San Francisco]], and they formally established the Buddhist Missions of North America, later renamed the [[Buddhist Churches of America]] in 1899. The BCA is the oldest major institutional form of Buddhism in the United States.<ref>Seager, Richard Hughes, Buddhism in America, Columbia University Press, 2012 p. 73.</ref> This organization acted as way for immigrants to preserve their [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]] and [[Japanese language|language]], as well as their religion.

Asian immigrants also arrived in [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] during the 1850s (to work as miners), and the old immigrant population was bolstered by new influx of Asian migrants after the 1962 Immigration Act and also as a result of the arrival of refugees from [[Indochina]].<ref>Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 122.</ref> Mining work also led Chinese immigrants to [[Australia]] (in 1848) and [[New Zealand]] (1863).<ref>Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 140.</ref> American [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalist]] thinkers were interested in [[Eastern religions]], including Buddhism, though they were never converts. [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] regarded Hinduism and Buddhism as anticipations of an ideal Transcendentalism.<ref>Andrew Ladd, Jerry R. Phillips, Karen Meyers, Romanticism and Transcendentalism: 1800-1860, p. 38.</ref> Meanwhile, [[Henry David Thoreau]] translated the [[Lotus Sutra]] from French into English.<ref>Rick Anthony Furtak, Jonathan Ellsworth, James D. Reid (editors) Thoreau's Importance for Philosophy, p. 215.</ref>  [[File:1893parliament.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|1893 [[World Parliament of Religions]] in [[Chicago]]]]
An important event in the history of Western Buddhism was the 1893 [[World Parliament of Religions]] in [[Chicago]] organized by [[John Henry Barrows]] and [[Paul Carus]]. The Japanese delegation included the priest [[Soyen Shaku]], the layman Zenshiro Nogushi, four priests and two laymen, representing the [[Rinzai school|Rinzai Zen]], [[Jodo Shinshu]], [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], [[Tendai]], and [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] schools of Japanese Buddhism.{{sfn|Fields|1992|p=124}} The Sri Lankan [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] was also present and gave a speech promoting Buddhism. He spoke English with a passion which stirred the audience and drew much attention.{{sfn|Fields|1992|p=124}} He would later come back to the United States for a speaking tour across the nation at the behest of [[Paul Carus]], professor of philosophy, and officiated the first Vesak celebration in [[San Francisco]] (1897).<ref name=":3">Fields, Rick, How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America, chapter 8, II.</ref> On his third visit to North America, he attended a lecture by [[William James]], who gave up his spot to Dharmapala. After Dharmapala finished speaking on [[Buddhism and psychology|Buddhist psychology]], James is recorded to have said "this is the psychology everybody will be studying twenty-five years from now."<ref name=":3" />

In 1897, the Japanese Zen philosopher [[D. T. Suzuki]] came to the United States to work and study with Paul Carus. Suzuki was the single-most important person in popularizing [[Zen Buddhism]] in the West.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} However, his philosophical thought and understanding of Buddhism were also influenced by Western esoteric traditions such as [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]] and [[Swedenborgianism]].{{sfn|McMahan|2008}}{{sfn|Tweed|2005}} Suzuki's writings had a strong impact on Western thinkers and intellectuals such as psychologists [[Erich Fromm]] and [[Karen Horney]], poets like [[Allen Ginsberg|Alan Ginsberg]] and [[Jack Kerouac]], as well as on other figures like [[Alan Watts]] and [[Edward Conze]].<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 59.</ref> Through his writings, Suzuki contributed to the emergence of a Zen modernism which blends Asian Buddhism with Transcendentalism and [[Romanticism]].{{sfn|McMahan|2008}}

=== Buddhist modernism ===
The works of the early important figures in Western Buddhism such as [[Henry Steel Olcott|Henry Olcott]], [[Paul Carus]] and [[Soyen Shaku]] promoted a kind of Buddhism that has been called by contemporary scholars "[[Buddhist modernism]]" and also "protestant Buddhism."<ref name=":2" /> This new Buddhist discourse included various elements, but especially important was the idea that Buddhism was compatible with modern [[science]] and [[Rationalism|enlightenment rationalism]].<ref name=":2" /> Olcott's Buddhist catechism is one example, which has a section devoted to [[Buddhism and science]], which promotes the [[Evolution|theory of evolution]] and affirms that Buddhism is based on the consistent operations of causality. He also argues that Buddhists are "earnestly enjoined to accept nothing on faith" and are required to believe only that which is "corroborated by our own reason and consciousness."<ref name=":2" /> Paul Carus' encounter with Buddhism led him to believe that it was a great example of a "Religion of Science" and he became an enthusiastic supporter of it because he believed that it was the religion that "recognizes no other revelation except the truth that can be proved by science".<ref name=":2" /> His influential work, ''The Gospel of Buddhism,'' became quite popular and was translated in various languages. This kind of modernism was also promoted by Asian Buddhists in Asian countries, such as [[Anagarika Dharmapala]].

The rational interpretation of Buddhism as the "religion of reason" was also promoted by early Buddhist societies in Europe, such as the Society for the Buddhist Mission in Leipzig, Germany, founded in 1903 by the Indologist Karl Seidenstücker (1876 –1936) and the British [[Buddhist Society]], in their journal ''The Buddhist Review.''<ref name=":8">Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 88.</ref>

According to [[Heinz Bechert]], Buddhist modernism includes the following elements: new interpretations of early Buddhist teachings, [[Demythologization|demythologisation]] and reinterpretation of Buddhism as "scientific religion", social philosophy or "philosophy of optimism", emphasis on equality and democracy, "activism" and social engagement, support of Buddhist nationalism, and the revival of meditation practice.{{sfn|Webb|2005|p=213}}

== Early 20th century ==
[[File:Council-of-the-Buddhasasana-Samagama--Ananda-Metteyya--March-1904.png|thumb|Council of the Buddhasāsana Samāgam (International Buddhist Society), March 1904]]
The 20th century saw influential Western converts such as the Irish ex-hobo [[U Dhammaloka]] and intellectuals such as Bhikkhu Asoka ([[Gordon Douglas (monk)|H. Gordon Douglas]]), and [[Charles Henry Allan Bennett|Ananda Metteyya]]. U Dhammaloka became a popular traveling Buddhist preacher in [[Myanmar|Burma]] in the early 1900s, writing tracts and confronting Christian missionaries.<ref>Turner, Alicia (2010). "The Irish Pongyi in colonial Burma: the confrontations and challenges of U Dhammaloka". Contemporary Buddhism. 11 (2): 129–172. doi:10.1080/14639947.2010.530070.</ref> In 1907 he founded the Buddhist Tract Society in [[Yangon|Rangoon]] to distribute pro Buddhist texts as well as other works such as [[Thomas Paine]]'s ''[[Rights of Man]]'' and ''Age of Reason.''<ref>Cox, Laurence (2010b). "The politics of Buddhist revival: U Dhammaloka as social movement organiser" (PDF). Contemporary Buddhism. 11 (2): 173–227. doi:10.1080/14639947.2010.530071. ISSN 1463-9947.</ref> Another influential figure was [[Charles Henry Allan Bennett]] (later Ananda Metteyya), who established the first Buddhist Mission in the [[United Kingdom]], the International Buddhist Society and worked on a periodical called ''Buddhism: An Illustrated Review'' as well as two books on Buddhism (''The Wisdom of the Aryas'' and ''The Religion of Burma''). 

Throughout the 20th century, the [[Pali Text Society|Pali text society]] continued to be an influential publisher of Buddhist texts, by 1930 all the five [[Nikāya|Pali Nikayas]] had been published by the society (and numerous translations were also published)''.<ref name=":6" />'' Buddhist studies also made numerous strides during the 20th century, headed by European academies and seen as comprising three "schools" during this period. Important figures include the scholars of the "Franco-Belgian school", such as [[Louis de La Vallée-Poussin]] and his student [[Étienne Lamotte]], the Pali-based Anglo-German school which included figures such as [[Wilhelm Geiger]] and [[Caroline Rhys Davids]] and the "Leningrad school" of [[Fyodor Shcherbatskoy]] and [[Sergey Oldenburg]].<ref>Guzel F. Mrathuzina, Russian Indology: Periodization, Science and Education Organization, Problematics and Specialization</ref><ref>Gangodawila Chandima, A Critical Appraisal of the Contribution of Germany and France to Sanskrit Studies, 2010, p. 94.</ref><ref>The Maha Bodhi, Volume 79, Maha-Bodhi Society., 1971, p. 60.</ref>

Various Western converts during this period became influential figures through their [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhist]] translations and writings, including the German monk [[Nyanatiloka|Nyanatiloka Thera]] who founded the [[Island Hermitage]] in [[Sri Lanka]] and translated many important Pali texts into German. His disciple, the elder [[Nyanaponika Thera|Nyanaponika]], was a co-founder and president of the [[Buddhist Publication Society]] and author of the influential book on meditation, ''The Heart of Buddhist Meditation.'' The English [[Nanamoli Bhikkhu|Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu]] was another influential author associated with the Island Hermitage, known for his numerous translations of Pali texts into English.<ref>[[Robert Buswell Jr.|Buswell, Robert Jr]]; [[Donald S. Lopez Jr.|Lopez, Donald S. Jr.]], eds. (2013). ''"Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu", in Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|9780691157863}}.</ref> In 1954, Nyanatiloka and [[Nyanaponika]] were the only two Western-born monks invited to participate in the [[Sixth Buddhist council]] in [[Yangon]], [[Myanmar|Burma]]. Nyanaponika read out Nyanatiloka's message at the opening of the council.<ref>Bhikkhu Nyanatusita & Hellmuth Hecker, p.129–143, [http://www.pariyatti.org/ResourcesProjects/Treasures/ChatthaSangayana/tabid/78/Default.aspx Pariyatti (2008).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808093819/http://www.pariyatti.org/ResourcesProjects/Treasures/ChatthaSangayana/tabid/78/Default.aspx |date=2010-08-08 }}</ref>
[[File:Alexandra David-Néel et le Lama Aphur Yongden au Tibet.jpg|thumb|315x315px|Alexandra David-Néel and Lama Aphur Yongden]]
During the 20th century, there was an exponential increase in publications on Buddhism. The first English translation of the ''[[Tibetan Book of the Dead]]'' was published in 1927, by [[Walter Evans-Wentz]]. He credited himself as the compiler and editor of these volumes, with translation by Tibetan Buddhists, primarily Lama Kazi Dawa-Samdup.<ref>Donald S. Lopez, Jr. The Tibetan Book of the Dead: A Biography, Princeton University Press, 2011.</ref> The reprint of 1935 carried a commentary from [[Carl Jung]]. The book is said to have attracted many westerners to Tibetan Buddhism.<ref name="Shakya">Shakya, Tsering "Review of ''Prisoners of Shangri-la'' by Donald Lopez". [http://mistar-india.com/lord-gautam-buddha-story/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824140830/http://mistar-india.com/lord-gautam-buddha-story/|date=2018-08-24}}</ref> Also published in English in 1927, [[Alexandra David-Néel]]'s "My Journey to Lhasa" helped popularized the modern perception of Tibet and [[Tibetan Buddhism]] at large.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thévoz|first=Samuel|date=2016-07-21|title=On the Threshold of the "Land of Marvels:" Alexandra David-Neel in Sikkim and the Making of Global Buddhism|url=http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/23541|journal=Transcultural Studies|number=1|volume=7|language=en|pages=149–186|doi=10.17885/heiup.ts.23541|issn=2191-6411|access-date=2018-03-16|archive-date=2018-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317040333/http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/23541|url-status=live}}</ref> During the 20th century the German writer [[Hermann Hesse]] showed great interest in Eastern religions, writing a popular book entitled ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]''.

=== In Europe ===
[[File:Das.Buddhistische.Haus3.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Das Buddhistische Haus]], a Theravada Buddhist vihara in [[Berlin]], Germany completed in 1924. It is considered the oldest Theravada Buddhist center in Europe.<ref>"80th anniversary of Das Buddhistische Haus in Berlin – Frohnau, Germany". Daily News (Sri Lanka). April 24, 2004. Retrieved November 9, 2014.</ref>]]
The [[Buddhist Society, London]] (originally known as the Buddhist Lodge) was founded by Theosophist and convert to Buddhism [[Christmas Humphreys]] in 1924.<ref>Bluck, Robert (2006). ''British Buddhism: Teachings, Practice and Development''. [[Routledge]]. pp. 7–9. {{ISBN|978-0415483087}}.</ref> [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] also brought his [[Maha Bodhi Society]] to England in 1925.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 60.</ref>

Some of the earliest European institutions were also founded in Germany. In 1921, Georg Grimm (1868 –1945) joined Karl Seidenstücker in founding the Buddhist Parish for Germany in [[Munich]]''.''<ref name=":8" /> In 1924, [[Das Buddhistische Haus]], was founded by [[Paul Dahlke (Buddhist)|Paul Dahlke]] in [[Berlin]]. Dahlke had studied Buddhism in Sri Lanka prior to World War I.<ref>{{cite news |date=April 24, 2004 |title=80th anniversary of Das Buddhistische Haus in Berlin – Frohnau, Germany |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/04/24/fea09.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110030754/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/04/24/fea09.html |archive-date=November 10, 2014 |access-date=November 20, 2014 |publisher=Daily News (Sri Lanka)}}</ref> Meanwhile, in France, [[Grace Constant Lounsbery]] founded a Paris-based group called Les amis du Bouddhisme in 1929 who published a journal, ''La pensée bouddhique''.<ref>Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 90.</ref>[[File:Datsan Gunzechoinei Face.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Datsan Gunzechoinei]] in [[St. Petersburg]], the first Buddhist monastery in Europe]]

The first [[Vihara|Buddhist monastery]] in Europe was not founded by European converts however, but by [[Buryats|Buryat]] and [[Buddhism in Kalmykia|Kalmyk Buddhists]] of the Tibetan [[Gelug|Gelug school]] led by [[Agvan Dorzhiev]], who founded a temple in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1909–15, [[Datsan Gunzechoinei]]. This temple was desecrated during the [[Russian Revolution|Russian revolution]] however, but survived the [[World War II|second world war]] and is now active.<ref>Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 91.</ref>

=== In North America ===
In the United States, Japanese Americans founded the Bukkyo Seinen Kai, a Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) inspired by Christian institutions. This community had to deal with intense [[anti-Japanese sentiment]] during [[World War II|WW2]] despite formal statements of loyalty issued by the organization. Many Japanese American Buddhists had to hide their family altars. The [[Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese internment]] during the war accelerated Anglicization, because they were required to use English in the camps. There is also a generation gap in this community between the older immigrant generation and the American born Anglicized generation.<ref name="Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 56">Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 56.</ref>

=== In Latin America ===
As a result of similar patterns of Asian immigration, globalization and Western conversion, Buddhism also became an established minority religion in [[Latin America]] in the 20th century, with adherents mostly common from the educated middle classes.<ref>Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 299.</ref> [[Japanese diaspora|Japanese immigrants]] arrived in Latin America at the end of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century.<ref>Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 300.</ref> With the largest population in Latin America, [[Brazil]] is also home to the most Buddhists (around 230,000) in Latin America and thus plays a central administrative and spiritual role for Buddhism in the rest of South America.<ref name=":11">Usarski, Frank, Buddhism in South America An Overview with Reference to the South American Context</ref> It was first introduced by Japanese immigrants in 1908.<ref>Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 303.</ref> Rev. Tomojiro Ibaragi of the [[Honmon Butsuryū-shū]] founded the first official Buddhist institution in the country in 1936, the Taisseji Temple.<ref name=":11" />

== Post-war developments ==

After the [[World War II|Second World War]], mainstream Western Buddhisms began to take shape, influenced by new Western writers on Buddhist thought and a new wave of immigration from Asian Buddhist countries. There was a dramatic rate of growth during the late 20th century. ''The Complete Guide to Buddhist America'' for example, listed more than one thousand meditation centers as of 1997 in comparison to the twenty-one centers founded between 1900 and the early 1960s.<ref>Prebish; Baumann, 2002, p. 109.</ref>

Those Westerners disaffected with the materialistic values of [[Consumer Culture|consumer culture]] and traditional Christianity (such as the [[beat generation]] and later the [[hippie]]s), as well as those interested a more sober [[altered state of consciousness]] or [[psychedelic experience]], were drawn to [[eastern religions]] like Buddhism during this period (this is known as the "[[Zen boom]]").<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 61, 65, 67.</ref> Influential literary figures include the American writers [[Jack Kerouac]] (''[[The Dharma Bums]]'' and ''[[The Scripture of the Golden Eternity]]'') and [[Gary Snyder]] as well as the British writer [[Alan Watts]] (''[[The Way of Zen]]''). The steady influx of refugees from Tibet in the 1960s and from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the 1970s led to renewed interest in Buddhism, and the [[Counterculture|countercultural]] movements of the 1960s proved fertile ground for its Westward diffusion.<ref>{{cite book|title=Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations 3rd Edition|last1=Woodhead|first1=Linda|last2=Partridge|first2=Christopher|last3=Kawanami|first3=Hiroko|date=2016}}</ref> Buddhism supposedly promised a more methodical path to happiness than Christianity and a way out of the perceived spiritual bankruptcy and complexity of Western life.<ref name="Shakya" />

=== East Asian Buddhism ===
[[File:Haku'un Yasutani and Phillip Kapleau.jpg|thumb|Hakuun Yasutani and Phillip Kapleau]]
An influential figure is the reformer [[Hakuun Yasutani]], who founded his own school called Sanbo Kyodan in 1954.<ref name=":4">Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 93.</ref> Many of his reforms, while controversial in Japan, became ''de rigueur'' for Western Zen. These reforms focused on laypersons, who were given teachings and care that was traditionally reserved for monastics, the use of intense lay meditation retreats, and a minimizing of ceremony.<ref name=":4" /> Influential students of his are [[Philip Kapleau]], [[Toni Packer]] and [[Robert Baker Aitken|Robert Aitken]]. [[Philip Kapleau]] founded the [[Rochester Zen Center]] in New York in 1965. At this time, there were few if any American citizens that had trained in Japan with ordained Buddhist teachers. Kapleau wrote his seminal work ''[[The Three Pillars of Zen]]'' in 1965, which addressed the actual practice of Zen and the experiences which result.<ref name=":4" /> [[Brigitte D'Ortschy]], also a student of Yasutani, translated ''The Three Pillars of Zen'' and other Buddhist texts into German and became one of the first Zen teachers in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Buddhistische Zen-Literatur aus dem Wolken Verlag |url=http://www.wolkenverlag.de/index.php |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=www.wolkenverlag.de}}</ref> [[Robert Baker Aitken|Robert Aitken]], known as the "dean of American Zen", founded Diamond Sangha in [[Hawaii]] in 1959 which has grown into a network of affiliated centers and he also translated numerous Zen texts. He also founded the [[Buddhist Peace Fellowship]] along with Beat poet [[Gary Snyder]] and [[Joanna Macy]].<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 94-95.</ref> 

In 1959, a Japanese teacher, [[Shunryu Suzuki]], arrived in [[San Francisco]]. At the time of Suzuki's arrival, [[Zen]] had become a hot topic among some groups in the United States, especially [[beatniks]]. Suzuki's classes were filled with those wanting to learn more about Buddhism, and the presence of a Zen master inspired the students. Shunryu Suzuki's [[Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind|''Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind'']] (1970), quickly became one of America's Buddhist classics.<ref name="Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 91">Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 91.</ref> He founded the [[San Francisco Zen Center]] during the middle of the 60s counterculture (1962).<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 98.</ref>
[[File:KeidoChisanKohoZenjiandRevMasterJiyu.jpg|thumb|Jiyu-Kennett with her teacher Keido Chisan Koho Zenji]]
In 1969, [[Houn Jiyu-Kennett|Jiyu Kennett]], the first woman to study at [[Sōji-ji|Sōji-ji Temple]] since the 14th century, founded [[Shasta Abbey]] in California and was known for setting traditional Buddhist texts to [[Gregorian chant]].<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 68.</ref> Austrian-born [[Myokyo-ni]] trained at the Rinzai [[Daitoku-ji]] temple in Japan during the 1960s and went on to become head of the [[Zen Centre]] in London.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blomfield |first=Simon |date=2007-04-22 |title=The Venerable Myokyo-ni |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/apr/23/guardianobituaries.religion |access-date=2024-11-30 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The German [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] priest [[Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle]] became one of the foremost teachers to embrace Zen alongside [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Christianity]].<ref>Luhmer, K. (1991). In Memoriam: Father Hugo Makibi Enomiya-Lassalle (1898-1990). ''Buddhist-Christian Studies'', ''11'', 303–304. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1390279</ref>
[[File:Plum Village Upper Hamlet Big Bell.jpg|thumb|Plum Village Monastery, France]]
In the 50s and 60s, non-Japanese Brazilians sought out Buddhism influenced partly by translations of the works of [[D. T. Suzuki|DT Suzuki]].<ref name=":11" /> They went to centers such as the Busshinji Temple of the [[Sōtō|Soto Zen]] school in [[São Paulo]] and some of them later went on to become popular Zen teachers among Brazilians such as Rosen Takashina Roshi.<ref>Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 305.</ref>  

In 1982, the popular Vietnamese Buddhist teacher and peace activist [[Thích Nhất Hạnh]] founded the [[Plum Village Monastery]] in [[Dordogne]], [[France]] which, along with his hundreds of publications, has helped spread interest in [[Engaged Buddhism]] and [[Vietnamese Thiền]] (Zen).

In the 80s and 90s, the [[Buddhist Churches of America]] became involved in the debates over public textbooks promoting creationism and the use of prayer in schools.<ref name="Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 56" />

=== Theravada ===
[[File:AjahnChahSangha.jpg|thumb|right|Thai Forest teacher [[Ajahn Chah]] with the senior representative of the tradition in England, [[Ajahn Sumedho]] (front right), the senior representative in North America [[Ajahn Pasanno]] (rear and left of Sumedho) and other monastics.]]In 1965, monks from [[Sri Lanka]] established the Washington Buddhist Vihara in [[Washington, D.C.]], the first [[Theravada]] monastic community in the United States.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 136.</ref> The Vihara was quite accessible to English-speakers, and [[Vipassana]] meditation was part of its activities. However, the direct influence of the Theravada [[Vipassana movement]] (as known as the Insight meditation movement) would not reach the U.S. until a group of Americans returned there in the early 1970s after studying with Vipassana masters in Asia. Influential figures include [[Sharon Salzberg]], [[Jack Kornfield]], and [[Joseph Goldstein (writer)|Joseph Goldstein]], who in 1975 founded the now influential [[Insight Meditation Society]] in [[Barre, Massachusetts]].<ref>Latin, Don (2005-01-23). "Bridging Eastern and Western Buddhism". ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''.</ref> In 1984, Kornfield helped found the [[Spirit Rock Meditation Center]], the major center of this tradition on the West coast. According to Coleman, both meditation centers are "organized around a community of teachers with collective decision making."<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 78.</ref> A small number of Westerners who had ordained in the [[Theravada]] [[Thai Forest Tradition|Thai Forest tradition]] have also moved back to the West and established more traditional monastic communities, such as [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] (founding figure and abbot of [[Metta Forest Monastery]] in [[California]]) and [[Ajahn Sumedho]] (who helped found [[Chithurst Buddhist Monastery]] in [[West Sussex]]).

=== Tibetan Buddhism ===
[[File:Chögyam Trungpa, Freda Bedi, Karmapa, Baba Pyare Bedi and Akong Rinpoche, Delhi 1961.jpg|thumb|Chögyam Trungpa, Freda Bedi, Karmapa, Baba Pyare Bedi and Akong Rinpoche]]
The [[Counterculture of the 1960s|sixties counterculture]] had already established an interest in Tibetan Buddhism, through [[Timothy Leary]]'s publication of an adaptation of the so-called [[Bardo Thodol|Tibetan Book of the Dead]] under the title [[The Psychedelic Experience]].<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 66.</ref> Since the 1970s, interest in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] also grew dramatically, especially due to the arrival of Tibetan lamas in the West after the [[Incorporation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China|Chinese occupation of Tibet]] and the creation of a [[Tibetan diaspora]].<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 113-114.</ref> This was fueled in part by the romantic view of Tibet and also because Western media agencies (especially [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]]) and celebrities are largely sympathetic with the [[Tibetan independence movement|'Tibetan Cause]]' and with the extremely charismatic and influential figure of the [[14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]].<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 114.</ref> The first Western woman to take full ordination in Tibetan Buddhism was [[Freda Bedi]].
[[File:The Temple, Kagyu Samye Ling - geograph.org.uk - 5504419.jpg|thumb|Kagyu Samye Ling temple, Scotland]]
[[Kagyu Samye Ling]] in Scotland was founded in 1967 by two spiritual masters, Choje [[Akong Tulku Rinpoche]] and [[Chogyam Trungpa]] Rinpoche. It was the first Tibetan Buddhist Centre to be established in the West and was named after [[Samye]], the very first monastery to be established in Tibet. In 1977 during his second visit to Samye Ling, the [[16th Karmapa]] assured Akong Rinpoche about the longer-term future of Buddhism in the West and at Samye Ling.<ref>Holmes,Ken, “Karmapa Urgyen Trinley Dorje” page 30</ref> It is from this encounter that the  Samye Project<ref>”Akong Rinpoché Establishing Buddha-Dharma: The Samye Project, http://www.akong.eu/dharma_8.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417180922/http://www.akong.eu/dharma_8.htm |date=2021-04-17 }}</ref> was born. Samyé Ling now has established centres in more than 20 countries, including Belgium, Ireland, Poland, South Africa, Spain and Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samyeling.org/contact/affiliated-centres/|archive-date=14 April 2021|website=www.samyeling.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414192956/https://www.samyeling.org/contact/affiliated-centres/|url-status=dead|title=Affiliated Centres}}</ref>

[[Chögyam Trungpa|Chogyam Trungpa]], later under the guidance of the [[Karmapa]] ([[Rangjung Rigpe Dorje]]), established institutions in the United States such as [[Naropa University|Naropa Institute]] and developed innovative teachings ([[Shambhala Training|Shambala training]], introduced in 1977) which he saw as suited for Westerners.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 73-74.</ref> The Karmapa had originally told Chögyam Trungpa he would bring dharma to the west in 1954, long before Tibetan Lamas had any concept of Europe at all. In 1963 Trungpa made his first voyage to Europe. Later in Bhutan in 1968 he realized the West needed a very different approach to Vajrayana Buddhism. He then gave back his robes and went to North America.

Another controversial and successful figure in bringing Buddhism to the West is [[Lama Ole Nydahl]]. They were wild hippies when he and his wife [[Hannah Nydahl]] first met the 16th Karmapa in 1969. The combining of lay and yogi style together as one, while using the traditional practices of [[Ngöndro]] and teachings on [[Mahamudra]] is a distinct approach to bringing Vajrayana methods to Western lay practitioners.<ref>Bausch, Gerd, Radiant Compassion, The Life of the 16th Gyalway Karmapa, Volume 1, 2018 pp. 165-166</ref> The focus is on making [[Karma Kagyu]] teachings and methods available to modern and independent thinkers in the West.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://hwpi.harvard.edu/pluralismarchive/diamond-way-buddhist-center-austin|title= Diamond Way Buddhist Center, Austin|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 22 March 2013|website= Harvard University Pluralism Project Archive|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> In 1972, the [[16th Karmapa]] [[Rangjung Rigpe Dorje]] requested Lama Ole Nydhal and Hannah Nydhal to establish Buddhist centers of the [[Karma Kagyu]] lineage in the Western world. [[Lama Ole Nydahl]] offered Buddhist refuge to tens of thousands of people and founded 640 Buddhist centers around the world.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title= A Special Message from Thaye Dorje, His Holiness the 17th Karmapa, for the Fiftieth Anniversary of Diamond Way Buddhism in the West|url= |magazine= Buddhism Today|location= |publisher= |date= September 1, 2022|access-date=}}</ref>

In response to the ever-increasing number of people interested in the "Tibet Message" [[Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa]] established a study, retreat and meditation center in France “Dhagpo Kagyu Ling”, founded in 1975, as the European seat of the Karma Kagyü school. The Gyalwa Karmapa sent two particularly qualified teachers to Dhagpo: Lama Gendun Rinpoche, a great master of meditation, and Lama Jigme Rinpoche, an accomplished spiritual master. [[Tarthang Tulku]] was another Tibetan to establish a center in the West in 1969.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 72.</ref>

Perhaps the most widely visible Buddhist teacher in the west is the much-travelled [[Tenzin Gyatso]], the current [[Dalai Lama]], who first visited the United States in 1979. As the exiled political leader of [[Tibet]], he is now a popular ''[[cause célèbre]]'' in the west. His early life was depicted in glowing terms in Hollywood films such as ''[[Kundun]]'' and ''[[Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)|Seven Years in Tibet]]''. He has attracted celebrity religious followers such as [[Richard Gere]] and [[Adam Yauch]]. All four of the main Tibetan Buddhist schools are now established in the West. Tibetan lamas such as [[Akong Rinpoche]], Lama Gendün Rinpoche, Dudjom Rinpoche, Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, [[Chögyam Trungpa|Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche]], [[Geshe Wangyal]], [[Lhundub Sopa|Geshe Lhundub Sopa]], [[Dezhung Rinpoche]], [[Sermey Khensur Lobsang Tharchin]], [[Lama Yeshe]], [[Thubten Zopa Rinpoche]] and [[Geshe Kelsang Gyatso]] all established teaching centers in the West from the 1970s. Tibetan Lamas and their Western students also worked to translate and publish Tibetan Buddhist texts, establishing publishers such as [[Wisdom Publications]] and [[Snow Lion Publications|Shambala Publications]].[[File:Zulaitemple.png|thumb|250px|[[Zu Lai Temple]] (lit. Tathāgata Temple) in Cotia, Brazil is the largest Buddhist temple in South America.]]In Brazil, the first Tibetan Buddhist center, the Tarthang Tulku Nyingma Center, was founded in 1988 in São Paulo.<ref name=":11" /> During the 90s, there was a rise in interest in Tibetan Buddhism, and other forms of Asian Buddhism such as Thai, Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese traditions are also present in the country.<ref name=":10">Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 306.</ref> In other Latin American countries such as [[Argentina]] and [[Peru]], there was also the introduction of Buddhism through immigration and conversion, though populations remain small (20,000 in Argentina in 2012).<ref name=":10" /> Japanese Zen and Tibetan Buddhism has been especially influential in these countries in the post-war 20th century.<ref>Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 308-309.</ref> 

=== Other traditions ===
In England, an influential figure is [[Sangharakshita]], who founded a modernist and eclectic new tradition called [[Triratna Buddhist Community|Triratna]] (formerly the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO) in 1967.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 82.</ref>

==Contemporary Western Buddhism==
[[File:Lightmatter Hsi Lai Temple 4.jpg|thumb|right|Main Hall of [[Hsi Lai Temple|Hsi Lai]], a Chinese-American temple in [[Los Angeles County, California]]. Completed in 1988, it is one of the largest Buddhist temples in the [[Western Hemisphere]].]]

Today, Buddhism is practiced by increasing numbers of people in the Americas, Europe and [[Buddhism in Australia|Oceania]]. Buddhism has become the fastest growing religion in Australia<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2003/s1099318.htm |title=ABC - Why so many South Australian's are choosing Buddhism |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=2008-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506083350/http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2003/s1099318.htm |archive-date=2008-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071004233559/http://www.jucee.org/China/Why-is-Buddhism-the-fastest-growing-religion-in-Australia.html Why is Buddhism the fastest growing religion in Australia? by Darren Nelson]</ref> and some other Western nations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |title=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life - U.S. Religious Landscape Survey |access-date=2008-09-01 |archive-date=2013-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705151143/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/?q=node%2F10418 |title=Asian Tribune - Buddhism fastest growing religion in West |access-date=2019-06-09 |archive-date=2019-06-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609103549/http://www.asiantribune.com/?q=node%2F10418 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some of the major reasons for this spread include [[globalization]], [[immigration]], improved [[literacy]] and [[education]] (most Westerners are first exposed to Buddhism through reading), and the breakdown of the [[Secularization|hegemony of Christianity]] on [[Western culture]].<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 203-204.</ref>

There is a general distinction between Buddhism brought to the West by Asian immigrants, which may be [[Mahayana]], [[Theravada]] or a traditional East Asian mix ("ethnic Buddhism"), and Buddhism as practiced by converts ("convert Buddhism"), which is often [[Zen]], [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], [[Vipassana]] or [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>Coleman, James William, The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, p. 5.</ref> Some Western Buddhists are actually non-denominational and accept teachings from a variety of different sects, which is far less frequent in Asia. A few authors have proposed that Western Buddhism, especially in its non-denominational form, may be viewed as a "new vehicle" of Buddhism alongside the traditional Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana – ''Navayana''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wiering|first=Jelle|date=2016-07-02|title="Others Think I am Airy-fairy": Practicing Navayana Buddhism in a Dutch Secular Climate|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2016.1234751|journal=Contemporary Buddhism|volume=17|issue=2|pages=369–389|doi=10.1080/14639947.2016.1234751|issn=1463-9947|hdl=11370/5bd3579c-fc6d-45f8-8e69-fa081555ff2a|s2cid=151389804|hdl-access=free|access-date=2021-05-26|archive-date=2021-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715080157/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14639947.2016.1234751|url-status=live}}</ref> (However, the term ''[[Navayana]]'' is more commonly used to instead refer to the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] founded in India by [[B. R. Ambedkar|Bhimrao R. Ambedkar]].)

Demographically as a [[Religious conversion|convert religion]], Western Buddhism appeals more to [[White people|whites]] and to the [[Middle class|middle]] and [[Upper middle class|upper-middle classes]] as well as to the politically [[Left-wing politics|left wing]] and to those who live in [[urban area]]s.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 192-94</ref>

While retaining a more formalized organization, Western Buddhism has also influenced the [[New Age|New Age movement]] and is in some ways similar to it.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 222.</ref> Western Buddhism has also been influenced by the insights of western [[psychology]] and [[psychotherapy]] and many Buddhist teachers in the West are licensed therapists.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 228-229.</ref>

The regular practice of [[Buddhist meditation|meditation]] as a central focus is also a common feature of most modern Western Buddhist groups.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 119.</ref> The exception are those groups like [[Soka Gakkai]] which are chanting focused. Much of contemporary Buddhism in the West is influenced by the spread of lay practice centers, where laypersons meet for meditation practice and also may stay for [[meditation retreat]]s.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 85.</ref> While rituals are not absent in contemporary traditions, they are less likely to be seen as providing supernatural benefits.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 97.</ref> The [[Vipassana movement|Vipassana or insight movement]] is one example that is particularly innovative and non-traditional. It is led by lay teachers, with democratic forms of organization and promoting mainly meditation with minimal doctrinal content and ritual.

Major Western Buddhist publications include ''[[Lion's Roar (magazine)|Lion's Roar]]'' (previously ''Shambhala Sun'') and ''[[Tricycle: The Buddhist Review]].''

In 2010, there were also around 6,200 Buddhists in [[Cuba]], in various Zen groups, the [[Diamond Way Buddhism|Diamond Way]] tradition and also [[Soka Gakkai]] (the only Buddhist organization with legal status on the island).<ref>Jerryson, Michael (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2016, p 310.</ref> According to Frank Usarski, Buddhism remains a statistically small part of South America's religious field, "with around 500,000 practitioners and approximately 600 groups" of which around 27% are [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhists]], 25% are [[Soka Gakkai]] and 22% are [[Zen]].<ref name=":11" />

=== East Asian Buddhism ===
[[File:Thich Nhat Hanh Visit EIAB 2010 Germany june retreat.jpg|thumb|[[Thích Nhất Hạnh]] and monastics of his order chanting during his visit to Germany in 2010.]]

There are numerous [[East Asian Buddhism|East Asian Mahayana]] Buddhist traditions and communities in the West, which includes ethnic Buddhists and convert Buddhists. The oldest is the [[Japanese Americans|Japanese American]] [[Jōdo Shinshū]] Buddhist community of the [[Buddhist Churches of America]].<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 51.</ref>

Another widespread form of East Asian Buddhism in the West is [[Soka Gakkai]], a modernist lay form of [[Nichiren Buddhism]]. In the US, SGI also has a larger proportion of African American and Hispanic American members than other convert Buddhist groups.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 70.</ref>

There are also many ethnic Buddhist temples, founded by Chinese, Vietnamese and Korean Buddhist immigrants. Ethnic Buddhist practice tends to be conducted in Asian languages and to be more traditional. Western-based Chinese Buddhist organizations are some of the most numerous immigrant Buddhists (especially in the United States) and include the [[Dharma Realm Buddhist Association]], [[Fo Guang Shan]] and the [[Tzu Chi|Tzu Chi foundation]].<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 162–165.</ref>

==== Zen Buddhism ====
{{See also|Zen in the United States}}
[[File:Zazen au Centre Européen du Zen Rinzai.jpg|thumb|Falaise Verte Zen Centre in the Ardèche region of France]]
The most prominent of the East Asian Mahayana traditions in the West is [[Zen|Zen Buddhism]], which was boosted by post-war popularity among the counterculture and influential figures like [[Shunryū Suzuki|Shunryu Suzuki]].<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 90.</ref> Today it is a popular type of convert Buddhism, in various forms such as [[Japanese Zen]], [[Vietnamese Thiền|Vietnamese Thien]] and [[Korean Seon]]. 

Prominent [[Sōtō|Soto Zen]] institutions in the West include the [[San Francisco Zen Center]] of [[Shunryū Suzuki|Shunryu Suzuki]], the [[Zen Center of Los Angeles]] of [[Taizan Maezumi|Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi]] and the International Zen Association founded by [[Taisen Deshimaru]].

[[Rinzai school|Rinzai]] affiliated Zen organisations include [[Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji]] and the [[Mount Baldy Zen Center|Mt. Baldy Zen Center]] in the USA and the Falaise Verte Zen Centre in France.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 95-96.</ref> 

The international [[Kwan Um School of Zen|Kwan Um]] school of [[Korean Seon]] is one of the most well known Korean Buddhist institutions in the West, while [[Thích Nhất Hạnh]]'s [[Order of Interbeing]] is one of the most popular modernist [[Vietnamese Thiền|Vietnamese Thien]] international organizations.

According to Hughes Seager, in America, Zen is "primarily a movement of laity who practice monastic disciplines."<ref name="Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 91" /> These institutions tend to be more liberal than their Asian counterparts, more lay based and more likely to promote gender equality. According to Hughes Seager, Western Zen "is Anglicized. It is democratized. It is tailored to the middle-class American life-style, with its focus on the workplace and nuclear family."<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 111.</ref>

=== Tibetan Buddhism ===
[[File:Samye Ling Stupa.JPG|thumb|The main stupa at [[Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre]], [[Scotland]].]]
[[Tibetan Buddhism]] in the West has remained largely traditional, keeping all the doctrine, ritual, [[Guru Yoga|guru devotion]], etc. This is because the influential Tibetan Buddhist teachers in the West are still mostly Tibetans.<ref>Coleman, 2001, p. 104.</ref>[[File:Bush, Byrd and Pelosi awarding the Dalai Lama.jpg|thumb|The Dalai Lama receiving a [[Congressional Gold Medal]] in 2007. ''From left'': Speaker of the United States House of Representatives [[Nancy Pelosi]], Senate President ''pro tempore'' [[Robert Byrd]] and U.S. President [[George W. Bush]]]]An example of a large Buddhist institution established in the West is the [[Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition]] (FPMT). FPMT is a network of Buddhist centers focusing on the [[Gelug|Geluk]] school, founded in the 1970s by Lamas [[Thubten Yeshe]] and [[Thubten Zopa]] Rinpoche.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 120.</ref> The FPMT has grown to encompass more than 142 teaching centers in 32 countries. Like many Tibetan Buddhist groups, the FPMT does not have "members" per se, or elections, but is managed by a self-perpetuating board of trustees chosen by its spiritual director (head lama), Lama Zopa Rinpoche.

Besides the large organizations or networks such as FPMT, [[Diamond Way Buddhism]], the [[Namkhai Norbu#International Dzogchen Community|Dzogchen community]] and [[Shambhala Buddhism|Shambhala International]], there are also numerous independent temples, centers and communities.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 124.</ref> These include [[Sravasti Abbey]] (USA), [[Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre|Kagyu Samye Ling]] (Scotland), and [[Lerab Ling]] (France).

Westerners such as [[Surya Das|Lama Surya Das]] and [[Robert Thurman]] have also emerged as influential voices in the Western Tibetan Buddhist community.<ref name="Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 133">Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 133.</ref>

=== Theravada Buddhism and Insight movement ===
[[File:Retreat Meditation Hall at Spirit Rock.jpg|thumb|[[Spirit Rock Meditation Center]] founded 1978 by Insight teacher and student of Ajahn Chah, [[Jack Kornfield]].]]
[[File:Abhayagiriasalhapuja2014h.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abhayagiri Buddhist Monastery]], [[Asalha Puja]] 2014]]
There are different forms of [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] in the West. One of these forms is that taken by the Asian immigrant communities and their temples, which is the most traditional and conservative, but is still undergoing change and adaptation. Some of these adaptations include the development of institutions of higher learning for their monastics as well as the establishment of retreat centers, summer camps and schools for the lay community.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 136, 139.</ref> According to Paul Numrich, in 1996 there were around 150 Theravada temples (wats or viharas) in more than 30 US states.<ref>Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 138.</ref>

Some Westerners have also adopted and brought the traditional monastic forms to the West, especially those Western monastics associated with the [[Thai Forest Tradition|Thai forest tradition]]. Representatives of this trend are the [[Abhayagiri Buddhist Monastery]] in Northern California, the [[Mettā Forest Monastery]] in Southern California, the [[Birken Forest Buddhist Monastery]] in [[Canada]], the [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Santacittārāma]] in Italy and the [[Bodhinyana Monastery]] in [[Australia]].

At the other end of the spectrum are the much more liberal lay convert Buddhists belonging to the [[Vipassana movement|Insight meditation or "Vipassana" movement.]]<ref name=":5">Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 137, 148.</ref> Many of the founders of this movement studied in retreat centers in Asia and then moved back to the West to establish their own meditation centers, which include the [[Insight Meditation Society]] and [[Spirit Rock Meditation Center|Spirit Rock]]. They tend to keep ritual and ceremony to a minimum and focus on [[Buddhist meditation]] practice in lay life (and in retreats) instead of other activities such as making [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]].<ref name=":5" /> This style of Buddhism is also influenced by western secular humanism and psychology and tends to be presented as a secular practice or technique rather than as a religion.<ref name=":5" />

=== Modernist Buddhism ===
{{See also|Buddhist modernism}}
[[File:Naropa-University_Arapahoe-Campus.JPG|thumb|Arapahoe Campus of [[Naropa University]], a private liberal arts college in Colorado founded by Chögyam Trungpa. It was the first Buddhist-inspired academic institution to receive United States regional accreditation.]]
One feature of Buddhism in the West today (especially among convert Buddhists) is the emergence of other groups which, even though they draw on traditional Buddhism, are in fact an attempt at creating a new style of Buddhist practice.

[[Shambhala Buddhism|Shambhala]] was founded by controversial lama [[Chögyam Trungpa]].<ref>Chögyam Trungpa, https://shambhala.org/teachers/chogyam-trungpa/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101022512/https://shambhala.org/teachers/chogyam-trungpa/|date=2020-01-01}}</ref> He taught authentic Buddhist teachings within a modern-day context by making a clear distinction between the cultural aspects of Tibetan Buddhism and the fundamental teachings of Buddhism. He stripped away the ethnic baggage from traditional methods of working with the mind and delivered the essence of those teachings to his western students. His innovative [[Shambhala Training]] system was a secular path for the cultivation of the contemplative life.<ref name="Hughes Seager, 1999, p. 133" /> Chögyam Trungpa also founded [[Naropa University]] in Boulder, Colorado in 1974. Trungpa's movement has also found particular success in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, [[Shambhala International]] being based out of [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]].

The [[Triratna Buddhist Community]] (formerly the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order), was founded by [[Sangharakshita]] in 1967, and the [[Diamond Way]] Organisation of [[Ole Nydahl]], has founded more than 600 Buddhist centers across the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diamond Way Buddhist Centers |url=http://www.diamondway-buddhism.org/default.asp?col=04&t=centers.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115233335/http://www.diamondway-buddhism.org/default.asp?col=04&t=centers.htm |archive-date=2010-01-15 |access-date=2010-01-09}}</ref> Diamond Way presents Buddhism in a modern context to lay practitioners, in over 30 languages. The "spiritual counsel" of the organisation is provided by [[Trinley Thaye Dorje]] (India), [[Kunzing Shamar Rinpoche]] (India) and [[Jigme (Kagyu lama)|Jigme Rinpoche]] (France).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diamond Way Buddhism Foundation|url=http://www.buddhism-foundation.org/export/sites/germany_stiftung/.content/documents/Diamond_Way_Buddhism_Foundation_articles_of_incorporation_2012.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210074744/http://www.buddhism-foundation.org/export/sites/germany_stiftung/.content/documents/Diamond_Way_Buddhism_Foundation_articles_of_incorporation_2012.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-10 |access-date=2020-05-21}}</ref>

[[New Kadampa Tradition|The New Kadampa Tradition]] is a global Buddhist new religious movement founded by [[Kelsang Gyatso]] in England in 1991. It describes itself as "an entirely independent Buddhist tradition”. The NKT has expanded more rapidly than any other Buddhist tradition, and currently lists more than 200 centres and around 900 branch classes/study groups in forty countries.<ref name="map.kadampa.org">number of centres as of 29 August 2009, retrieved from [http://www.map.kadampa.org map.kadampa.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324013850/http://map.kadampa.org/|date=2015-03-24}}: 3 International Retreat Centres (IRC), 19 Kadampa Meditation Centres (KMC), 196 Kadampa Buddhist Centres (KBC), there may be even some more centres that have not been placed on the map yet, listed here: [http://www.kadampa.org/en/centers kadampa.org/en/centers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234152/http://www.kadampa.org/en/centers|date=2016-03-03}}</ref> It has been described as a "controversial" [[cult]],<ref>Bluck, R. (2006). British Buddhism: Teachings, practice and development. Routledge critical studies in Buddhism. London: Routledge. p. 129</ref><ref name="Clarke, Peter Bernard p. 92">Clarke, Peter Bernard. New Religions in Global Perspective, p. 92, Routledge 2006</ref><ref>[http://info-buddhism.com/Dorje_Shugden_Conflict_Dalai_Lama_protests_Thierry_Dodin.html The Dorje Shugden Conflict: An Interview with Tibetologist Thierry Dodin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419052139/https://info-buddhism.com/Dorje_Shugden_Conflict_Dalai_Lama_protests_Thierry_Dodin.html|date=2021-04-19}}, 8 May 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014. "The NKT can be described typologically as a cult on the basis of its organisational form, its excessive group pressure and blind obedience to its founder."</ref><ref>Mills, Martin (2003) Identity, Ritual and State in Tibetan Buddhism – The Foundations of Authority in Gelukpa Monasticism, p. 366, Routledge</ref> and has been officially rebuked by [[14th Dalai Lama|the Dalai Lama]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kay |first=David N. |year=1997 |title=The New Kadampa Tradition and the Continuity of Tibetan Buddhism in Transition |journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion |publisher=Routledge |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=277–293 |doi=10.1080/13537909708580806}}</ref>

=== Issues with charismatic authority and sex scandals ===
A number of groups and individuals have been implicated in [[sex scandal]]s. Sandra Bell has analysed the scandals at [[Chögyam Trungpa#Controversies|Chögyam Trungpa's Vajradhatu]] and the [[San Francisco Zen Center#Controversies|San Francisco Zen Center]] and concluded that these kinds of scandals are "... most likely to occur in organisations that are in transition between the pure forms of [[charismatic authority]] that brought them into being and more rational, corporate forms of organization".<ref name=Prebish>{{cite book |editor = Charles S Prebish & Martin Baumann |last = Bell |first = Sandra |url = http://dro.dur.ac.uk/3932/1/3932.pdf |chapter = Scandals in Emerging Western Buddhism |title = Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia |publisher = University of California Press |pages = 230–242 |year = 2002 |isbn = 0-520-22625-9 |access-date = 2012-06-28 |archive-date = 2021-02-27 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210227112111/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/3932/1/3932.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref>

Recently further [[Sexual abuse|sex abuse]] scandals have rocked institutions such as [[Rigpa organization]] and [[Shambhala Buddhism|Shambala international]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/11/nyregion/shambhala-sexual-misconduct.html|title=The 'King' of Shambhala Buddhism Is Undone by Abuse Report|last=Newman|first=Andy|date=July 11, 2018|work=NY Times|access-date=November 11, 2018|archive-date=November 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120004057/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/11/nyregion/shambhala-sexual-misconduct.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/09/tibetan-buddhism-facing-abuse-scandal/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/09/09/tibetan-buddhism-facing-abuse-scandal/ |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Why Tibetan Buddhism is facing up to its own abuse scandal|last=Shute|first=Joe|date=9 September 2018|work=The Telegraph|access-date=November 11, 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Robert Sharf also mentions charisma from which institutional power is derived, and the need to balance charismatic authority with institutional authority.<ref>{{Citation | last =Sharf | first =Robert H. | title =Sanbokyodan. Zen and the Way of the New Religions | journal =Japanese Journal of Religious Studies | year =1995 | volume =22 | issue =3–4 | doi =10.18874/jjrs.22.3-4.1995.417-458 | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/sanbokyodan%20zen.pdf | doi-access =free | access-date =2012-06-28 | archive-date =2012-03-16 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120316104918/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/sanbokyodan%20zen.pdf | url-status =live }}</ref> Elaborate analyses of these scandals are made by Stuart Lachs, who mentions the uncritical acceptance of religious narratives, such as lineages and dharma transmission, which aid in giving uncritical charismatic powers to teachers and leaders.<ref>{{Citation | last =Lachs | first =Stuart | year =1999 | title =Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in Ch'an /Zen Buddhism in America | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Means_of_Authorization.htm | access-date =2012-06-28 | archive-date =2022-03-19 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20220319091620/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Means_of_Authorization.htm | url-status =live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Lachs | first =Stuart| title =Reply to Vladimir K. | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Lachsreplies.htm | access-date =2012-06-28 | archive-date =2012-10-18 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121018002157/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Lachsreplies.htm | url-status =live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Lachs | first =Stuart | year =2002 | title =Richard Baker and the Myth of the Zen Roshi | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Richard_Baker_and_the_Myth.htm | access-date =2012-06-28 | archive-date =2012-02-05 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120205052539/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Richard_Baker_and_the_Myth.htm | url-status =live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Lachs | first =Stuart | year =2006 | title =The Zen Master in America: Dressing the Donkey with Bells and Scarves | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Zen_Master_in_America.html | access-date =2012-06-28 | archive-date =2012-01-20 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120120142838/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/Zen_Master_in_America.html | url-status =live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Lachs | first =Stuart | year =2011 | title =When the Saints Go Marching In: Modern Day Zen Hagiography | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_Marching_In.pdf | access-date =2012-06-28 | archive-date =2012-01-20 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120120162629/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_Marching_In.pdf | url-status =live }}</ref>

==Popular culture==
Buddhist imagery is increasingly appropriated by modern pop culture and also for commercial use. For example, the Dalai Lama's image was used in a campaign celebrating leadership by Apple Computer. Similarly, Tibetan monasteries have been used as backdrops to perfume advertisements in magazines.<ref name="Shakya" />  Hollywood movies such as ''[[Kundun]]'', ''[[Little Buddha]]'' and ''[[Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)|Seven Years in Tibet]]'' have had considerable commercial success.<ref name="unomaha.edu">E.L. Mullen, "[http://www.unomaha.edu/jrf/OrientalMullen.htm Orientalist commercializations: Tibetan Buddhism in American popular film] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126170743/http://www.unomaha.edu/jrf/OrientalMullen.htm |date=2007-01-26 }}"</ref>

Buddhist practitioners in the West are catered for by a minor industry providing such items as charm boxes, meditation cushions, and ritual implements.

== Temples and monasteries ==
The largest Buddhist temple in the Southern Hemisphere is the [[Nan Tien Temple]] (translated as "Southern Paradise Temple"), situated at [[Wollongong]], Australia, while the largest Buddhist temple in the Western Hemisphere is the [[Hsi Lai Temple]] (translated as "Coming West Temple"), in [[Hacienda Heights, California|Hacienda Heights]], California, USA. Both are operated by the [[Fo Guang Shan]] Order, founded in Taiwan, and around 2003 the Grand Master, Venerable [[Hsing Yun]], asked for Nan Tien Temple and Buddhist practice there to be operated by native Australian citizens within about thirty years.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nantien.org.au/ |title=Nan Tien Temple |access-date=2007-03-02 |archive-date=2011-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223215125/http://www.nantien.org.au/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[City of Ten Thousand Buddhas|City of 10,000 Buddhas]] near [[Ukiah, California]] disputes that Hsi Lai Temple is the largest in the western hemisphere and claims it is the largest.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cttbusa.org/ |title=The City of 10,000 Buddhas |access-date=2012-09-10 |archive-date=2012-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326132731/http://www.cttbusa.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>  This monastery was founded by Ven. [[Hsuan Hua]] who purchased the property.  "Dharma Realm Buddhist Association purchased the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas in 1974 and established its headquarters there. The City currently comprises approximately 700 acres of land and includes a comprehensive system of education, from [[Developing Virtue Secondary School|Instilling Goodness and Developing Virtue Primary and Secondary School]] to [[Dharma Realm Buddhist University]]."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cttbusa.org/cttb/history%26background.asp |title=History and Background |access-date=2012-09-09 |archive-date=2012-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801040931/http://www.cttbusa.org/cttb/history%26background.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2006, a western [[Ecumenism|ecumenical]] Buddhist temple called [[Dharma Bum Temple]] was founded in [[San Diego]], California. The temple focuses on being an introductory center for westerners to learn more about Buddhism.<ref name=":17">{{Cite news|url=http://sdgln.com/social/2011/03/31/dharma-bum-temple-welcomes-all-including-lgbt-community|title=At Dharma Bum Temple, all are welcome, including LGBT community|last=Pippin|first=Emily|date=2011-03-31|work=San Diego Gay and Lesbian News|access-date=2018-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401005106/http://sdgln.com/social/2011/03/31/dharma-bum-temple-welcomes-all-including-lgbt-community|archive-date=2018-04-01|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite news|url=https://www.lionsroar.com/the-dharma-bum-kids/|title=The Dharma Bum Kids|date=2011-09-01|work=Lion's Roar|access-date=2018-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331173518/https://www.lionsroar.com/the-dharma-bum-kids/|archive-date=2018-03-31|url-status=live|language=en-US}}</ref> It regularly hosts guest speakers from various traditions of Buddhism and is known for directing members to other Buddhist temples in the area after they start showing deeper interest in a particular form of the religion.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=https://www.lionsroar.com/dharma-bum-temples-new-way-to-find-a-center/|title=Dharma Bum Temple's New Way to Find a Buddhist Community|date=2017-02-23|work=Lion's Roar|access-date=2018-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702035740/https://www.lionsroar.com/dharma-bum-temples-new-way-to-find-a-center/|archive-date=2018-07-02|url-status=live|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedharmabums.org/guest-dharma-teachers|title=Dharma Bum Temple – Guest Dharma Teachers|website=www.thedharmabums.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702040005/https://www.thedharmabums.org/guest-dharma-teachers|archive-date=2018-07-02|url-status=live|access-date=2018-03-25}}</ref>

Benalmádena Enlightenment Stupa is in Málaga in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, overlooking Costa del Sol. [[Benalmádena Stupa]] (Chan Chub Chorten in Tibetan) is 33&nbsp;m (108&nbsp;ft) high and is the tallest stupa in Europe. It was inaugurated on 5 October 2003, and was the final project of Buddhist master [[Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche]]. The stupa is run by the non-profit Asociación Cultural Karma Kagyu de Benalmádena, under the spiritual guidance of the 17th Karmapa [[Trinley Thaye Dorje]].<ref>Seegers, Eva, "The Innovative Stūpa Project in Andalusia, Spain: A Discussion on Visual Representations of Tibetan Buddhist Art in Europe", The Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions, pp. 27-30</ref>

Chithurst Buddhist Monastery located in [[West Sussex]], was established by [[Ajahn Sumedho]] under the auspices of his teacher, [[Ajahn Chah]] in 1979. Although the style of the monastery has been modified to accommodate Western social and cultural [[mores]], it retains close links with Thailand especially monasteries of the [[Thai Forest Tradition]] and is supported by an international community of Asians and Westerners.<ref>Much of the information for this article, along with samples of Ajahn Sumedho’s teachings, can be found in the book, "Cittaviveka: teachings from the silent mind".  This book and others can be obtained on the Forest Sangha website [http://www.forestsangha.org/ www.forestsangha.org] under ‘Publications</ref><ref>Ajahn Chah’s Forest Monasteries can visited via [http://www.forestsangha.org/ www.forestsangha.org]</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Buddhism by country]]
* [[Buddhism in Australia]]
* [[Buddhism in Austria]]
* [[Buddhism in Denmark]]
* [[Buddhism in Europe]]
* [[Buddhism in Italy]]
* [[Buddhism in Russia]]
* [[Buddhism in Slovenia]]
* [[Buddhism in Sweden]]
* [[Buddhism in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Buddhism in the United States]]
* [[Global Buddhist Network]]
* [[Index of Buddhism-related articles]]
* [[Secular Buddhism]]
* [[Greco-Buddhism]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin}}
*[[Urs App|App, Urs]] [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704192558/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf |date=2010-07-04 }} (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.; case study of an early Western discovery of Buddhism with transcriptions and translations of primary sources)
* Baumann, Martin (2001). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140207192704/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/128/1/Global_Buddhism.pdf Global Buddhism: Developmental Periods, Regional Histories, and a New Analytical Perspective], Journal of Global Buddhism 2, 1-43 
* Coleman, James William, ''The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition'', Oxford University Press.
* {{Citation | last =Fields  |first=Rick | year =1992 | title =How the Swans came to the Lake - A Narrative History of Buddhism in America}}
*[[David Loy|Loy, David R.]], "[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-EPT/loy.htm Review of Nietzsche and Buddhism: A Study in Nihilism and Ironic Affinities by R.G. Morrison] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628214106/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-EPT/loy.htm |date=2011-06-28 }}", ''Asian Philosophy'' Vol. 8 No. 2 (July 1998), pp.&nbsp;129–131.
* {{Citation | last =McMahan | first =David | year =2008 | title =The Making of Buddhist Modernism | place =Oxford | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* Hughes Seager, Richard, ''Buddhism in America'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1999.
*Mullen, E.L., "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070126170743/http://www.unomaha.edu/jrf/OrientalMullen.htm Orientalist commercializations: Tibetan Buddhism in American popular film]", ''Journal of Religion and Film'', Vol. 2 No. 2 (October 1998).
*Prebish, Charles S; Baumann, Martin (editors); Westward Dharma Buddhism beyond Asia, University of California Press, 2002.
*Rich, Annet C., ''[http://www.rosicrucian.com/cob/cobeng01.htm Christ or Buddha?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210164614/http://www.rosicrucian.com/cob/cobeng01.htm |date=2017-12-10 }}'', 1914.
*Shakya, T., "Review of ''Prisoners of Shangri-la'' by Donald Lopez", ''Journal of Buddhist Ethics'', Vol. 6 (1999), pp.&nbsp;196–199.
* {{Citation | last =Tweed | first =Thomas A. | year =2005 | title =American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History | journal =Japanese Journal of Religious Studies | volume =32 | issue =2 | pages =249–281 | url =http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/jjrs/pdf/721.pdf | access-date =2011-12-18 | archive-date =2012-05-22 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120522005213/http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/jjrs/pdf/721.pdf | url-status =dead }}
*Tworkov, Helen, ''Zen in America: Profiles of Five Teachers'', San Francisco: North Point Press, (1989).
* {{cite journal |first=Russel |last=Webb |year=2005 |url=https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/BSR/article/view/8780/6250 |title=Heinz Bechert 26 June 1932–14 June 2005 |journal=[[Buddhist Studies Review]] |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=211–216 |doi=10.1558/bsrv.v22i2.14041 |s2cid=247875437 |access-date=6 October 2022 |archive-date=10 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410105628/https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/BSR/article/view/8780/6250 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Prebish, Charles S; Baumann, Martin, eds. (2002). Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia, Berkeley: University of California Press
* Clausen, Christopher, Victorian Buddhism and the Origins of Comparative Religion, ''Religion: Journal of Religion and Religions'', V (Spring 1975), 1-15.
* Fields, Rick (1992), ''How the Swans came to the Lake - A Narrative History of Buddhism in America. ''Shambhala.
* Halkias, G. T. "The Self-immolation of Kalanos and other Luminous Encounters Among Greeks and Indian Buddhists in the Hellenistic World." ''JOCBS,'' 2015 (8), pp.&nbsp;163–186.
* Halkias, Georgios. “When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures.” In ''Religions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West,'' ed. Volker Rabens. Leiden: Brill, 2013: 65-115. 
* Learman, Linda (2005). [https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/23072/%2336_Learman.pdf Buddhist missionaries in the era of globalization], Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press
* Numrich, Paul (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20141226033956/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Miscellaneous/two_buddhisms.pdf Two Buddhisms further considered], Contemporary Buddhism 4 (1), 55-78
* {{cite book |last=Wallis |first=Glenn |title=A Critique of Western Buddhism - Ruins of the Buddhist Real|publisher=Bloomsbury Collections |year = 2018 |url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/a-critique-of-western-buddhism-ruins-of-the-buddhist-real/|isbn=9781474283557}}

==External links==
{{external links|date=November 2021}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130606151204/http://www.globalbuddhism.org/bib-bud.html Buddhism in Europe]  Annotated Bibliography by Martin Baumann (retrieved 08/13/2013)
*[http://info-buddhism.com/Buddhism_in_the_West_Jay_Garfield.html Buddhism in the West] by Jay Garfield
*''[https://www.bps.lk/library-search-select.php?id=wh042 Early Western Buddhists]'' by Francis Story
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070403150130/http://www.alanwallace.org/Tricycle%20Interview.pdf Tibetan Buddhism in the West: Is it working here?]

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Buddhism in the West}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buddhism In The West}}
[[Category:Buddhism in Europe]]
[[Category:Buddhism in North America]]
[[Category:Buddhism in Oceania]]