View source for Byzantine Greece

{{Short description|Historical period of Greece}}
{{Lead too short|date=September 2019}}
{{History of Greece}}
'''Byzantine Greece''' has a history that mainly coincides with that of the [[Byzantine Empire]] itself.

==Background: Roman Greece==
{{main|Greece in the Roman era}}
[[File:Arc et retonde 00274.JPG|thumb|left|[[Arch of Galerius and Rotunda]], [[Thessaloniki]].]]

The [[Greek peninsula]] became a [[Roman Republic|Roman]] protectorate in 146 BC, and the [[Aegean islands]] were added to this territory in 133 BC. [[Athens]] and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]]. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] organized the peninsula as the province of [[Achaea (province)|Achaea]] in 27 BC.

Greece was a typical eastern province of the [[Roman Empire]]. The Romans sent colonists there and contributed new buildings to its cities, especially in the [[Agora]] of Athens, where the Agrippeia of [[Marcus Agrippa]], the Library of Titus Flavius Pantaenus, and the [[Tower of the Winds]], among others, were built. Romans tended to be philhellenic and Greeks were generally loyal to Rome.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Life in Greece continued under the Roman Empire much the same as it had previously, and [[Greek language|Greek]] continued to be the lingua franca in the Eastern and most important part of the Empire. Roman culture was heavily influenced by classical Greek culture (see [[Greco-Roman]]). As [[Horace]] said: {{langx|la|Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit|translation=Captive Greece took captive her rude conqueror|label=none}}. The epics of [[Homer]] inspired the [[Aeneid]] of [[Virgil]], and authors such as [[Seneca the Younger]] wrote using Greek styles, while famous Romans such as [[Scipio Africanus]], [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Marcus Aurelius]] compiled works in the [[Greek language]].

During that period, Greek intellectuals such as [[Galen]] and [[Apollodorus of Damascus]] were continuously being brought to [[Rome]]. Within the city of Rome, Greek was spoken by Roman elites, particularly philosophers, and by lower, working classes such as sailors and merchants. The [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Nero]] visited Greece in 66, and performed at the [[Olympic Games]], despite the rules against non-Greek participation. He was, of course, honored with a victory in every contest, and in 67 he proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks at the [[Isthmian Games]] in [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], just as [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus|Flamininus]] had over 200 years previously.

[[Hadrian]] was also particularly fond of the Greeks; before he became emperor he served as [[Archons of Athens|eponymous archon]] of Athens. He also built his [[Arch of Hadrian (Athens)|namesake arch]] there, and had a Greek lover, [[Antinous]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

At the same time, Greece and much of the rest of the Roman east came under the influence of [[Christianity]]. The apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] had preached in Corinth and Athens, and Greece soon became one of the most highly [[Christianized]] areas of the empire.

==Early years (4th century)==
[[File:07Thessaloniki Galerius1.jpg|thumb|Remains of the Palace of Galerius in [[Thessaloniki]] ([[Navarinou Square]]), near the Hippodromus where the [[Massacre of Thessalonica]] took place during the reign of [[Theodosius I]].]]
[[File:AlaricTheGoth.jpg|thumb|[[Alaric I]] in [[Athens]] by [[Ludwig Thiersch]].]]

During the second and third centuries, Greece was divided into provinces including [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], [[Epirus vetus]] and [[Thracia]]. During the reign of [[Diocletian]] in the late [[3rd century]], the western Balkans were organized as a [[Roman diocese]], and was ruled by [[Galerius]]. Under [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] Greece was part of the dioceses of [[Diocese of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Diocese of Thrace|Thrace]]. The eastern and southern [[Aegean islands]] formed the province of Insulae in the [[Diocese of Asia]].

Greece faced invasions from the [[Heruli]], [[Goths]], and [[Vandals]] during the reign of [[Theodosius I]]. [[Stilicho]], who acted as regent for [[Arcadius]], evacuated Thessaly when the [[Visigoths]] invaded in the late [[4th century]]. Arcadius' [[Chamberlain (office)|Chamberlain]] Eutropius allowed [[Alaric I|Alaric]] to enter Greece, and he looted [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], and the [[Peloponnese]]. Stilicho eventually drove him out around 397 and Alaric was made ''[[magister militum]]'' in [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]]. Eventually, Alaric and the Goths migrated to Italy, sacked Rome in 410, and built the Visigothic Empire in Iberia and southern France, which lasted until 711 with the advent of the Arabs.

Greece remained part of the relatively unified eastern half of the empire. Contrary to outdated visions of [[late antiquity]], the Greek peninsula was most likely one of the most prosperous regions of the Roman and later the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire. Older scenarios of poverty, depopulation, barbarian destruction and civil decay have been revised in light of recent archaeological discoveries.<ref name=corinth>Rothaus, p. 10. "The question of the continuity of civic institutions and the nature of the ''polis'' in the late antique and early Byzantine world have become a vexed question, for a variety of reasons. Students of this subject continue to contend with scholars of earlier periods who adhere to a much-outdated vision of late antiquity as a decadent decline into impoverished fragmentation. The cities of late-antique Greece displayed a marked degree of continuity. Scenarios of barbarian destruction, civic decay, and manorialization simply do not fit. In fact, the city as an institution appears to have prospered in Greece during this period. It was not until the end of the 6th century (and maybe not even then) that the dissolution of the city became a problem in Greece. If the early sixth-century ''[[Synecdemus]]'' of Hierocles is taken at face value, late-antique Greece was highly urbanized and contained approximately eighty cities. This extreme prosperity is borne out by recent archaeological surveys in the Aegean. For late-antique Greece, a paradigm of prosperity and transformation is more accurate and useful than a paradigm of decline and fall."</ref> In fact, the ''[[polis]]'', as an institution, appears to have remained prosperous until at least the sixth century. Contemporary texts such as Hierocles' ''[[Synecdemus]]'' affirm that in [[late Antiquity]], Greece was highly urbanised and contained approximately 80 cities.<ref name=corinth/> This view of extreme prosperity is widely accepted today, and it is assumed between the [[4th century|4th]] and [[7th century|7th]] centuries AD, Greece may have been one of the most economically active regions in the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name=corinth/>

Following the [[Early Muslim conquests|loss]] of [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]] to the Arabs, [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonica]] became the Byzantine Empire's second largest city, called the "co-regent" (''symbasileuousa''), second only to Constantinople. The Greek peninsula remained one of the strongest centers of Christianity in the late Roman and early Byzantine periods. After the area's recovery from the Slavic invasions, its wealth was restored. Events such as the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]] invasion of Asia Minor and the [[Latin occupation]] of Constantinople gradually focused Byzantine imperial interest to the Greek peninsula during the late Byzantine period. The [[Peloponnese]] in particular continued to prosper economically and intellectually even during its [[Principality of Achaea|Latin domination]], the [[Despotate of the Morea|Byzantine recovery]], and until its final fall to the [[Ottoman Empire]].

==Reorganization and external threats (5th–8th centuries)==
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty|Barbarian invasions|Byzantine Iconoclasm}}
[[Image:Greece meteora monasteries.JPG|thumb|200px|Byzantine era monasteries in [[Meteora]]]]
[[File:Крепост в Кавала (Кастро).jpg|thumb|200px|The Byzantine fortress of [[Kavala]]]]

Greece was raided in Macedonia in 479 and 482 by the [[Ostrogoths]] under their king, [[Theodoric the Great]] (493–526).<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'' (Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 1996)</ref> The [[Bulgars]] also raided Thrace and the rest of northern Greece in 540 and on repeated other occasions.  These continuing Bulgar invasions required the Byzantine Empire to build a defensive wall, called the "[[Anastasian Wall]]," that extended for some thirty (30) miles, or more, from the city of Selymbria (now [[Silivri]]) to the [[Black Sea]].<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', p. 187.</ref>  The [[Huns]] and Bulgars raided Greece in 559 until the [[Byzantine army]] returned from Italy, where [[Justinian I]] had been attempting to capture the heart of the Roman Empire.<ref>Robert S. Hoyt & Stanley Chodorow, ''Europe in the Middle Ages'' (Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich, Inc.: New York, 1976) p. 76.</ref>

According to historical documents, the [[Slavs]] invaded and settled in parts of Greece beginning in 579 and Byzantium nearly lost control of the entire peninsula during the 580s.<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Byzantium: the Early Centuries'', p. 260.</ref> However, there is no archaeological evidence indicating Slavic penetration of imperial Byzantine territories before the end of the 6th century. Overall, traces of Slavic culture in Greece are very rare.<ref>"Slavs." ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]]'', Volume 3, pp. 1916-1919.</ref>

[[File:Family marriage.jpg|thumb|200px|Scenes of marriage and family life in [[Constantinople]]]]
[[File:Αγία Σοφία, Θεσσαλονίκη 3859.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki]] (Holy Wisdom), 8th century]]

The city of [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonica]] remained unconquered even after being attacked by the Slavs around 615. The Slavs were eventually defeated, gathered by the Byzantines and placed into segregated communities known as [[Sclaviniae]].

In 610, [[Heraclius]] became Emperor. During his reign, [[Greek language|Greek]] became the official language of the empire.

During the early 7th century, [[Constans II]] made the first mass-expulsions of Slavs from the Greek peninsula to the Balkans and central Asia Minor. [[Justinian II]] defeated and destroyed most of the Sclaviniae, and moved as many as 100–200,000 Slavs from the Greek peninsula to [[Bithynia]], while he enlisted some 30,000 Slavs in his army.<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', p. 329.</ref>

The Slavic populations that were placed in these segregated communities were used for military campaigns against the enemies of the Byzantines. In the [[Peloponnese]], more Slavic invaders brought disorder to the western part of the peninsula, while the eastern part remained firmly under Byzantine domination. [[Empress Irene]] organised a military campaign which liberated those territories and restored Byzantine rule to the region, but it was not until emperor [[Nicephorus I]]'s reign that the last trace of Slavic element was eliminated:<ref>Curta, Florin. ''Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250''. Publisher:Historical Publications St. D. Basilopoulos, Athens, 1987. {{ISBN|0-521-81539-8}}</ref> when the Slavs first [[Peloponnese#Middle Ages|occupied the Peloponnese]] in the 6th century, a number Greeks had fled Patras and found refuge near Reggio Calabria, in southern Italy; the descendants of these refugees were ordered to return by Nicephorus, who resettled them in the Peloponnese.<ref>Niavis, Pavlos. ''The Reign of the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus I. (AD 802-811)''. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>

In the mid-7th century, the empire was reorganized into "[[Theme (Byzantine district)|themes]]" by the Emperor [[Constans II]], including the [[Theme of Thrace]], the naval ''[[Karabisianoi]]'' corps in southern Greece and the Aegean islands. The ''Karabisanoi'' were later divided by [[Justinian II]] into the [[Theme of Hellas]] (centred on Corinth) and the [[Cibyrrhaeotic Theme]]. By this time, the Slavs were no longer a threat to the Byzantines since they had been either defeated numerous times or placed in the [[Sclaviniae]]. The Slavic communities in [[Bithynia]] were destroyed by the Byzantines after General [[Leontios]] lost to the Arabs in the [[Battle of Sebastopolis]] in 692, as a result of the Slavs having defected to the Arab side.<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Years'', pp. 330-331</ref>

These themes rebelled against the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclast]] emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] in 727 and attempted to set up their own emperor, although Leo defeated them. Leo then moved the headquarters of the ''Karabisianoi'' to Anatolia and created the [[Cibyrrhaeotic Theme]] of them. Up to this time, Greece and the Aegean were still technically under the ecclesiastic authority of the [[Pope]], but Leo also quarreled with the Papacy and gave these territories to the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]]. As emperor, Leo III, introduced more administrative and legal reforms than had been promulgated since the time of Justinian.<ref>Robert S. Hoyt & Stanley Chodorow, ''Europe in the Middle Ages''</ref>  Meanwhile, the [[Arabs]] began their first serious raids in the Aegean. Bithynia was eventually re-populated by Greek-speaking population from mainland Greece and [[Cyprus]].

==Prosperity and Byzantine victories (8th–11th centuries)==
{{See also|Macedonian Renaissance}}
[[File:Byzantine Greece ca 900 AD.svg|thumb|400px|Map of Byzantine Greece ca. 900 AD, with the themes and major settlements.]]
[[Nicephorus I]] also began to reconquer Slavic and Bulgar-held areas in the early 9th century.<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Byzantium: The early Centuries'', p. 342.</ref> He resettled Greek-speaking families from Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula and the Balkans, and expanded the theme of Hellas to the north to include parts of Thessaly and Macedonia, and to the south to include the regained territory of the Peloponnese. Thessalonica, previously organized as an [[archon]]tate surrounded by the Slavs, became a theme of its own as well. These themes contributed another 10,000 men to the army, and allowed Nicephorus to convert most of the Slavs to Christianity.

[[Crete]] was conquered by the Arabs in 824. In the late [[9th century]], [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] faced also invasions from the Bulgarians under [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I]], who pillaged Thrace in 896, and again in 919 during [[Zoe of the Byzantine Empire|Zoe]]'s regency for [[Constantine VII]]. Simeon invaded northern Greece again in 922 and penetrated deep to the south seizing [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], just north of Athens. Crete was reconquered in 961 from the Arabs, by [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] after the [[Siege of Chandax]].

In the late [[10th century]], the greatest threat to Greece was from [[Tsar Samuil of Bulgaria|Samuel]], who constantly fought over the area with [[Basil II]]. In 985, Samuel captured Thessaly and the important city of Larissa, and in 989, he pillaged Thessalonica. Basil slowly began to recapture these areas in 991, but Samuel captured the areas around Thessalonica and the Peloponnese again in 997 before being forced to withdraw to Bulgaria. In 999, Samuel captured [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]] and raided northern Greece once more. Basil recaptured these areas by 1002 and had fully subjugated completely the Bulgarians in the decade before his death (see [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria]]).

By Basil's death in 1025, Greece was divided into ''themes'' including Crete, the [[Peloponnese (theme)|Peloponnese]], [[Thrace (theme)|Thrace]], [[Macedonia (theme)|Macedonia]], [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]], [[Nicopolis (theme)|Nicopolis]], [[Dyrrhachium (theme)|Dyrrhachium]], [[Cephalonia (theme)|Cephalonia]], [[Thessalonica (theme)|Thessalonica]] and [[Strymon (theme)|Strymon]], the [[Cyclades]] and the [[Aegean Sea (theme)|Aegean Sea]]. They were protected from raids and invasions by the new themes created out of Bulgar territory.

Greece became more prosperous in the 10th century and towns and cities began to grow again. Athens and Corinth probably grew to about 10,000 people, while Thessalonica may have had as many as 100,000 people. There was an important aristocratic class from these themes, especially the Macedonian emperors who ruled the empire from 867 to 1056.

==Fourth Crusade and Latin conquest==
{{main|Fourth Crusade|Frankokratia}}
Greece and the empire as a whole faced a new threat from the [[Normans]] of [[Sicily]] in the late [[11th century]]. [[Robert Guiscard]] took Dyrrhachium and [[Corcyra]] in 1081 (see [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]), but [[Alexius I]] defeated him, and later his son [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemund]], by 1083. The [[Pechenegs]] also raided Thrace during this period.

In 1147, while the knights of the [[Second Crusade]] made their way through Byzantine territory, [[Roger II of Sicily]] captured Corcyra and pillaged [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and Corinth.

In 1197, [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI of Germany]] continued his father [[Frederick Barbarossa]]'s antagonism towards the empire by threatening to invade Greece to reclaim the territory the Normans had briefly held. [[Alexios III Angelos|Alexius III]] was forced to pay him off, although the taxes he imposed caused frequent revolts against him, including rebellions in Greece and the Peloponnese. Also during his reign, the [[Fourth Crusade]] attempted to place [[Alexius IV]] on the throne, until it eventually invaded and sacked the capital.

Greece was relatively peaceful and prosperous in the 11th and [[12th century|12th]] centuries, compared to [[Anatolia]] which was being overrun by the Seljuks. Thessalonica had probably grown to about 150,000 people, despite being looted by the Normans in 1185. Thebes also became a major city with perhaps 30,000 people, and was the centre of a major [[silk]] industry. Athens and Corinth probably still had around 10,000 people. Mainland Greek cities continued to export grain to the capital in order to make up for the land lost to the Seljuks.

However, after Constantinople was conquered during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Greece was divided among the Crusaders. The [[Latin Empire]] held Constantinople and Thrace, while the rest of Greece was divided into the [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]], the [[Principality of Achaea]], and the [[Duchy of Athens]]. The [[Venice|Venetians]] controlled the [[Duchy of the Archipelago]] in the Aegean, while the [[Despotate of Epirus]] was established as one of the three Byzantine Greek [[successor state]]s.

[[Michael VIII]] restored the empire in 1261, having also regained the  Kingdom of Thessalonica. By his death in 1282, Michael had taken back the Aegean islands, Thessaly, Epirus, and most of Achaea, including the Crusader fortress of [[Mystras]], which became the seat of a Byzantine despotate. However, Athens and the northern Peloponnese remained in Crusader hands. [[Charles of Anjou]] and later [[Charles II of Naples|his son]] claimed the throne of the defunct Latin Empire, and threatened Epirus, but were never able to make any progress there.

==Byzantine reconquest and reestablishment==
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty}}
[[File:Mystras palace.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Palace of [[Mystras]], capital of the [[Despotate of the Morea]].]]

By the reign of [[Andronicus III Palaeologus]], beginning in 1328, the empire controlled most of Greece, especially the metropolis of Thessalonica, but very little else. Epirus was nominally Byzantine but still occasionally rebelled, until it was fully recovered in 1339. Greece was mostly used as a battleground during the civil war between [[John V Palaeologus]] and [[John VI Cantacuzenus]] in the 1340s, and at the same time the [[Serbs]] and Ottomans began attacking Greece as well. By 1356, another independent despotate was set up in Epirus and Thessaly.

The Peloponnese, usually called [[Morea]] in this period, was now almost the centre of the empire, and was certainly the most fertile area. Mystras and [[Monemvasia]] were populous and prosperous, even after the [[Black Plague]] in the mid-[[14th century]]. Mystras rivaled Constantinople in importance. It was a stronghold of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Greek Orthodoxy]] and bitterly opposed attempts by the emperors to unite with the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], even though this would have allowed the empire to gain help from the west against the Ottomans.

==Ottoman threat and conquest==
The Ottomans had begun their conquest of the Balkans and Greece in the late 14th century and early [[15th century]] capturing among others Thessalonica, Ioannina and Thessaly. In 1445, Ottoman-occupied Thessaly was recaptured by the future emperor [[Constantine XI]], at the time despot of Mystras, but there was little he could do against most of the other Ottoman territories. Emperor Constantine XI was defeated and killed in 1453 when the Ottomans finally captured Constantinople. After the [[fall of Constantinople]], the Ottomans also captured Athens by 1458, but left a Byzantine despotate in the Peloponnese until 1460. The Venetians still controlled Crete, Aegean islands and some cities-ports, but otherwise the Ottomans controlled many regions of Greece except the mountains and heavily forested areas.

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center">
File:THES Panaghia Chalkeon 5944.JPG|[[Church of Panagia Chalkeon]], [[Thessaloniki]]
File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|Depiction of [[Greek fire]] by [[John Skylitzes]] ([[Madrid Skylitzes]])
PartOfTheCastle ByzantineCastleOfTrikala.jpg|[[Trikala Castle]]
File:Saints Theodore Tyro and Theodore Stratelates Church, Serres 055.jpg|[[Saints Theodore Tyro and Theodore Stratelates Church, Serres]]
File:08Παναγία Καπνικαρέα3.jpg|[[Kapnikarea]] church, Athens
File:20090803 hosiosloukas36.jpg|View of [[Hosios Loukas]] monastery, an example of [[Byzantine architecture]] during the [[Macedonian Renaissance]]
File:Nea Moni 01.jpg|Mosaics of [[Nea Moni of Chios]]
File:Chora di Patmos con il Monastero di San Giovanni "il teologo".JPG|[[Monastery of Saint John the Theologian]], [[Patmos]]
File:Arta 122.jpg|The [[Church of the Parigoritissa|Paregoretissa Church]], cathedral of [[Arta, Greece|Arta]], capital of the [[Despotate of Epirus]]
File:Despotate of Morea 1450.svg|[[Despotate of the Morea]] (1349–1460)
File:Steps to Angelokastro.JPG|The Byzantine Castle of [[Angelokastro (Corfu)]] successfully repulsed the Ottomans 
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Byzantine Greeks]]
*[[Byzantine scholars in Renaissance]]
*[[Frankokratia]]
*[[Medieval Greece]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Avramea | first = Anna | script-title=el:Η Πελοπόννησος από τον 4ο ως τον 8ο αιώνα: Αλλαγές και συνέχεια |trans-title=The Peloponnese from the 4th to the 8th century: Changes and continuity. | location = Athens | publisher = National Bank of Greece Cultural Foundation | year = 2012 | language = el | isbn = 978-960-250-501-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Bon | first = Antoine | title = Le Péloponnèse byzantin jusqu'en 1204 | language = fr | publisher = Presses Universitaires de France | year = 1951}}
* {{cite book | first = Florin | last = Curta| author-link = Florin Curta | title = Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-81539-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt| url-access = registration }}
* {{cite book | first = Florin | last = Curta | author-link = Florin Curta | title = The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | location = Edinburgh | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-7486-3809-3 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BGXWGYawOwQC}}
* {{The Early Medieval Balkans}}
* {{The Late Medieval Balkans}}
* {{The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453}}
* {{cite book | title=The Despotate of Epiros 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages | first=Donald MacGillivray | last=Nicol | author-link=Donald Nicol | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-521-13089-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIj0FfKto9AC}}
*Rothaus, Richard M. ''Corinth: The First City of Greece.'' Brill, 2000. {{ISBN|90-04-10372-4}}
*Dimov, G. The Notion of the Byzantine City in the Balkans and in Southern Italy - 11th and 12th Centuries  - В: Realia Byzantino-Balcanica. Сборник в чест на 60 годишнината на професор Христо Матанов. София, 2014.
{{refend}}

{{coord missing|Greece}}
{{Greece topics}}
{{Byzantine Greece}}
{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=expanded}}
{{Middle Ages by region}}
{{Roman history by territory}}

[[Category:Byzantine Greece| ]]