View source for Cairo

{{short description|Capital city of Egypt}}
{{About|the Egyptian capital}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name              = Cairo
| native_name       = {{lang|ar|القاهرة}}
| settlement_type   = [[List of cities and towns in Egypt|Capital City]]
| image_skyline     = {{Multiple image
| perrow            = 1/3/2/2
| total_width       = 290  
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = Cairo From Tower (cropped).jpg
| caption1          = The [[Nile]], [[6th October Bridge]] and [[Downtown Cairo|Downtown]] from [[Cairo Tower]] on [[Gezira (Cairo)|Gezira Island]]
| image2            = Mosque_of_Ibn_Tulun_and_spiral_minaret_of_Mamluk_Sultan_Lajin,_1296,_Cairo.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ibn Tulun Mosque]]
| image3            = DSC 0003~2~2.jpg
| caption3          = [[Cairo Tower]]
| image4            = Complex_of_Al_Sultan_Al_Zahir_Barquq_009.jpg
| caption4          = [[Al-Mu'izz Street|Al-Muizz Street]]
| image5            = Kairo Midan Talaat Harb BW 2.jpg
| caption5          = [[Talaat Harb Street|Talaat Harb Square]]
| image6            = Baron Palace.jpg
| caption6          = [[Baron Empain Palace]]
| image7            = Flickr - HuTect ShOts - Citadel of Salah El.Din and Masjid Muhammad Ali قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي ومسجد محمد علي - Cairo - Egypt - 17 04 2010 (4).jpg
| caption7          = [[Cairo Citadel]]
| image8            = Cairo Opera House - panoramio.jpg
| caption8          = [[Cairo Opera House]]
| border            = infobox
}}
| nickname           = City of a Thousand Minarets
| image_flag         = Flag of Cairo.svg
| flag_size          = 110
| image_blank_emblem = Emblem Cairo Governorate.svg
| blank_emblem_type  = Emblem
| blank_emblem_size  = 65
| pushpin_map        = Egypt#Africa
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_relief     = 1
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Cairo within Egypt
| coordinates        = {{Coord|30|2|40|N|31|14|9|E|region:EG-C_type:city(9,801,536)|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = [[Egypt]]
| subdivision_type1  = [[Governorates of Egypt|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Cairo Governorate|Cairo]]
| established_title1 = First major foundation
| established_date1  = 641–642&nbsp;AD ([[Fustat]])
| established_title2 = Last major foundation
| established_date2  = 969&nbsp;AD (Cairo)
| leader_title       = Governor
| leader_name        = Ibrahim Saber Khalil<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Governor.aspx?SubmID=106 |title=Official Portal of Cairo Governorate |access-date=12 August 2020 |archive-date=24 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124121957/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Governor.aspx?SubmID=106 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| area_footnotes     = {{efn|Cairo Metropolitan is enlarged to cover all the area within the Governorate limits. Government statistics consider that the whole governorate is urban and the whole governorate is treated like as the metropolitan-city of Cairo. Governorate Cairo is considered a city-proper and functions as a municipality. The city of Alexandria is on the same principle as the city of Cairo, being a governorate-city. Because of this, it is difficult to divide Cairo into urban, rural, subdivisions, or to eliminate certain parts of the metropolitan administrative territory on various theme (unofficial statistics and data).}}<ref name="citypopulation2023">{{cite web |title=Egypt: Governorates, Major Cities & Towns - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/egypt/cities/ |website=www.citypopulation.de |access-date=9 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="citypopulation2025metro">{{cite web |title=Major Agglomerations of the World - Population Statistics and Maps |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/ |website=www.citypopulation.de |access-date=27 July 2025 |language=en-us |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225085332/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
| area_total_km2     = 606 
| area_metro_km2     = 2,734 
| elevation_m        = 23 
| population_footnotes = <ref name="citypopulation2023" />
| population_as_of = 2023
| population_total = 9,801,536 
| population_rank  = [[List of cities and towns in Egypt|1st]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro = 22,800,000 
| population_density_metro_km2 = auto
| population_blank1_title = [[Demonym]]
| population_blank1  = Cairene
| demographics_type1 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP (PPP, constant 2015 values)]]
| demographics1_footnotes = 
| demographics1_title1 = Year
| demographics1_info1 = 2024
| demographics1_title2 = Total (Metro)
| demographics1_info2 = $360.8&nbsp;billion<ref name="TelluBase">{{cite web |title=TelluBase—Egypt Fact Sheet (Tellusant Public Service Series) |url=https://tellusant.com/repo/tb/tellubase-factsheet-egy.pdf |publisher=Tellusant |access-date=2025-07-11}}</ref>
| demographics1_title3 = Per capita
| demographics1_info3 = $15,900
| postal_code_type   = 5 digit postal code system
| postal_code        = 
| area_code          = (+20) 2
| website            = {{URL|http://www.cairo.gov.eg/|cairo.gov.eg}}
| timezone           = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset         = +2
| timezone_DST       = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset_DST     = +3
| footnotes          = {{designation list |embed=yes
| designation1            = WHS
| designation1_offname    = [[Islamic Cairo|Historic Cairo]]
| designation1_date       = 1979
| designation1_number     = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/89/ 89]
| designation1_criteria   = i, v, vi
| designation1_type       = Cultural
}}
}}

'''Cairo'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|aɪ|r|oʊ|audio=LL-Q7979-Ghani2-Cairo.wav}} {{respell|KY|roh}}; {{langx|ar|القاهرة|al-Qāhirah|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|arz|el‿ˈqɑːheɾɑ|lang|Al-Qahirah.ogg|link=yes}}}} is the [[Capital city|capital]] and [[largest city]] of [[Egypt]] and the [[Cairo Governorate]], being home to more than 10 million people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Cairo |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/CairoInLines.aspx?CiLID=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324064610/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/CairoInLines.aspx?CiLID=9 |archive-date=2023-03-24 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |language=en-US}}</ref> It is also part of the [[List of urban agglomerations in Africa|largest urban agglomeration in Africa]], [[List of largest cities in the Arab world|the Arab world]], and [[List of largest metropolitan areas of the Middle East|the Middle East]]. The [[Greater Cairo]] metropolitan area is [[List of largest cities|one of the largest in the world]] by population with over 22 million people.<ref name="citypopulation2025metro" />

The area that would become Cairo was part of [[ancient Egypt]], as the [[Giza pyramid complex]] and the ancient cities of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] and [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]] are near-by. Located near the [[Nile Delta]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Santa Maria Tours|date=4 September 2009|title=Cairo – "Al-Qahira" – is Egypt's capital and the largest city in the Middle East and Africa.|url=http://www.prlog.org/10332580-cairo-alqahira-is-egypts-capital-and-the-largest-city-in-the-middle-east-and-africa.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130033634/http://www.prlog.org/10332580-cairo-alqahira-is-egypts-capital-and-the-largest-city-in-the-middle-east-and-africa.html|archive-date=30 November 2011|access-date=10 December 2011|publisher=PRLog}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World's Densest Cities - Forbes.com |url=http://www.forbes.com/2006/12/20/worlds-most-congested-cities-biz-energy-cx_rm_1221congested_slide.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806143348/http://www.forbes.com/2006/12/20/worlds-most-congested-cities-biz-energy-cx_rm_1221congested_slide.html |archive-date=2010-08-06 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.forbes.com}}</ref> the predecessor settlement was [[Fustat]] following the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] in 641 next to an existing ancient [[Roman empire|Roman]] fortress, [[Babylon Fortress|Babylon]]. Subsequently, Cairo was founded by the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty]] in 969. It later superseded Fustat as the main urban centre during the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] and [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] periods (12th–16th centuries).{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=83-85}}

Cairo has since become a longstanding centre of [[Politics of Egypt|political]] and [[Culture of Egypt|cultural]] life, and is titled "the city of a thousand [[minaret]]s" for its preponderance of [[Islamic architecture]]. Cairo's [[Islamic Cairo|historic center]] was awarded [[World Heritage Site]] status in 1979.<ref name="UNESCO-2017">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/89 |title=Historic Cairo |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date=7 September 2021 |archive-date=5 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605171630/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/89 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cairo is considered a [[global city|World City]] with a "Beta +" classification according to [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network|GaWC]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The World According to GaWC 2016 |url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2016t.html |website=[[Globalization and World Cities Research Network]] |publisher=[[Loughborough University]] |access-date=26 May 2017 |date=24 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010004859/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html |archive-date=10 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The city is also a center of [[Financial centre|finance]] and [[Economy of Egypt|commerce]], [[Academy|academics]] and [[the arts]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yonga |first=Romuald |date=2020-11-09 |title=About Egyptian Exchange - african markets |url=https://www.african-markets.com/en/stock-markets/egx/about#:~:text=Also%20available:%20Last%20Updated:%20November,Currency:%20Egyptian%20Pound%20(EGP) |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=www.african-markets.com |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Richard |title=JDP Global Expands to Cairo, Egypt – JDP Global |url=https://www.jdpglobal.com/jdp-global-expands-to-cairo-egypt/ |access-date=2025-11-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> and is home to [[Cairo Symphony Orchestra]] and the [[Cairo Opera House]], while the [[Academy of Arts (Egypt)|Academy of Arts]] provides visual arts education. Cairo has the oldest and largest [[Egyptian cinema|film]] and [[Music of Egypt|music industry]] in the [[Arab world]], as well as Egypt's oldest institution of higher learning, [[Al-Azhar University]]. Many international media, businesses, and organisations have regional headquarters in Cairo. The [[Arab League]] has had its headquarters in Cairo for most of its existence.

Cairo, like many other [[Megacity|megacities]], suffers from high levels of pollution and traffic. The [[Cairo Metro]], opened in 1987, is the oldest [[Rapid transit|metro system]] in Africa,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transport and Communications-SIS |url=https://sis.gov.eg/section/337/345?lang=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710122914/https://sis.gov.eg/section/337/345?lang=en-us |archive-date=2022-07-10 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=sis.gov.eg |language=en}}</ref> and ranks amongst the fifteen busiest in the world,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meed.com/supplements/2012/tunnelling/cairos-third-metro-line-beats-challenges/3134558.article |title=Cairo's third metro line beats challenges |access-date=29 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703180753/https://www.meed.com/supplements/2012/tunnelling/cairos-third-metro-line-beats-challenges/3134558.article |archive-date=3 July 2017}}</ref> with over 1 billion<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cairometro.gov.eg/uipages/Statistics.aspx |title=Cairo Metro Statistics |access-date=4 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323180531/http://cairometro.gov.eg/uipages/Statistics.aspx |archive-date=23 March 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005,<ref>{{Cite web |title=City Mayors reviews the richest cities in the world in 2005 |url=http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/richest-cities-2005.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918030640/http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/richest-cities-2005.html |archive-date=2012-09-18 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.citymayors.com}}</ref> and 43rd globally on ''[[Foreign Policy]]''{{'s}} 2010 [[global city|Global Cities Index]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/node/373401 |title=The 2010 Global Cities Index |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202071827/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/node/373401 |archive-date=2 December 2014}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The name of Cairo is derived from the Arabic ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|al-Qāhirah}}'' ({{lang|ar|القاهرة}}), meaning 'the Vanquisher' or 'the Conqueror', given by the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] Caliph [[al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|al-Mu'izz]] following the establishment of the city as the capital of the Fatimid dynasty. Its full, formal name was ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|al-Qāhirah al-Mu'izziyyah}}'' ({{lang|ar|القاهرة المعزيّة}}), meaning 'the Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jiwa |first=Shainool |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89SLDwAAQBAJ&dq=cairo+al-mu%27izziya+al-qahira&pg=PT108 |title=The Fatimids: 1 - The Rise of a Muslim Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris (in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies) |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78672-174-7 |language=en}}</ref> It is also supposedly due to the fact that the planet [[Mars]], known in Arabic by names such as {{lang|ar-Latn|an-Najm al-Qāhir}} ({{lang|ar|النجم القاهر}}, 'the Conquering Star'), was rising at the time of the city's founding.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVQBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |title=Towards a Shi'i Mediterranean Empire: Fatimid Egypt and the Founding of Cairo |year=2009 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-85771-742-9 |page=78}}</ref>

Egyptians often refer to Cairo as ''{{transliteration|arz|Maṣr}}'' ({{IPA|arz|mɑsˤɾ|IPA}}; {{lang|arz|مَصر}}), the [[Egyptian Arabic]] name for Egypt itself, emphasising the city's importance for the country.{{sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|1992|p=8}}{{sfn|Golia|2004|p=152}}

There are a number of [[Coptic language|Coptic]] names for the city. ''Tikešrōmi'' ({{Langx|cop|Ϯⲕⲉϣⲣⲱⲙⲓ}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|dikɑʃˈɾoːmi|}}) is attested in the 1211 text ''The Martyrdom of John of Phanijoit'' and is either a calque meaning 'man breaker' ({{lang|cop|Ϯ-}}, 'the', {{lang|cop|ⲕⲁϣ-}}, 'to break', and {{lang|cop|ⲣⲱⲙⲓ}}, 'man'), akin to Arabic ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|al-Qāhirah}}'', or a derivation from [[Arabic]] {{Lang|ar|قَصْر الرُوم}} (''qaṣr ar-rūm'', "the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] castle"), another name of [[Babylon Fortress]] in [[Old Cairo]].<ref name="Casanova-1901" /> The Arabic name is also calqued as {{coptic|ⲧⲡⲟⲗⲓⲥ ϯⲣⲉϥϭⲣⲟ}}, "the victor city" in the Coptic antiphonary.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crum |first=W.E. |title=Catalogue of the Coptic manuscripts in the collection of the John Rylands library, Manchester |year=1909 |pages=211}}</ref>

The form Khairon ({{Langx|cop|ⲭⲁⲓⲣⲟⲛ}}) is attested in the modern Coptic text Ⲡⲓⲫⲓⲣⲓ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ϯⲁⲅⲓⲁ ⲙ̀ⲙⲏⲓ Ⲃⲉⲣⲏⲛⲁ (The Tale of [[Verena of Zurzach|Saint Verina]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ⲡⲓⲫⲓⲣⲓ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ϯⲁⲅⲓⲁ ⲙ̀ⲙⲏⲓ Ⲃⲉⲣⲏⲛⲁ |url=http://www.coptic.org/language/verenastory.html |access-date=2022-06-29 |publisher=coptic.org |archive-date=14 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714123340/http://www.coptic.org/language/verenastory.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]). More clarity is also needed on the origin and relevance of the "modern Coptic text" noted here; if the text in question is merely this anonymous webpage, then it's not noteworthy here.|date=June 2022}} {{transliteration|cop|Lioui}} ({{Lang|cop|Ⲗⲓⲟⲩⲓ}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|lɪˈjuːj|}}) or {{transliteration|cop|Elioui}} ({{Lang|cop|Ⲉⲗⲓⲟⲩⲓ}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|ælˈjuːj|}}) is another name which is descended from the Greek name of Heliopolis ({{Lang|grc|Ήλιούπολις}}).<ref name="Casanova-1901">{{Cite journal |last=Casanova |first=Paul |date=1901 |title=Les noms coptes du Caire et localités voisines |journal=Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale |volume=1 |pages=139–224|doi=10.3406/bifao.1901.1613 |s2cid=267275122  |issn = 0255-0962}}</ref> Some argue that {{transliteration|cop|Mistram}} ({{Lang|cop|Ⲙⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|ˈmɪstəɾɑm|}}) or {{transliteration|cop|Nistram}} ({{Lang|cop|Ⲛⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|ˈnɪstəɾɑm|}}) is another Coptic name for Cairo, although others think that it is rather a name for the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] province capital [[al-Askar]].<ref name="Amelineau">{{Cite book |title=La géographie de l'Égypte à l'époque copte |last=Amélineau |first=Emile |pages=543}}</ref> {{lang|cop|Ⲕⲁϩⲓⲣⲏ}} ({{lang|cop-Latn|Kahi•ree}}) is a popular modern rendering of an Arabic name (others being {{lang|cop|Ⲕⲁⲓⲣⲟⲛ}} [Kairon] and {{lang|cop|Ⲕⲁϩⲓⲣⲁ}} [Kahira]) which is modern folk etymology meaning 'land of sun'. Some argue that it was  the name of an Egyptian settlement upon which Cairo was built, but it is rather doubtful as this name is not attested in any [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphic]] or [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] source, although some researchers, like Paul Casanova, view it as a legitimate theory.<ref name="Casanova-1901" /> Cairo is also referred to as {{lang|cop|Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}} (<small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|ˈkɪmi|}}) or {{lang|cop|Ⲅⲩⲡⲧⲟⲥ}} (<small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA|cop|ˈɡɪpdos|}}), which means Egypt in Coptic, the same way it is referred to in Egyptian Arabic.<ref name="Amelineau" />

Sometimes the city is informally referred to as ''{{transliteration|arz|Cairo}}'' by people from Alexandria ({{IPA|arz|ˈkæjɾo|IPA}}; {{langx|arz|كايرو}}).<ref>Good News for Me: [http://www.gn4me.com/gn4me/details.jsp?artId=3885468 بلال فضل يتفرغ لـ"أهل اسكندرية" بعد "أهل كايرو"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305042411/http://www.gn4me.com/gn4me/details.jsp?artId=3885468 |date=5 March 2016 }} {{in lang|ar}} (Belal Fadl frees himself [to write] ''Ahl Eskendereyya'' (the People of Alexandria) after ''Ahl Kayro'' (the People of Cairo))</ref>

==History==
{{See also|History of Egypt}}
{{For timeline}}

===Ancient settlements===
[[File:Cairo - Coptic area - Roman Tower.JPG|thumb|The remains of a circular Roman tower at [[Babylon Fortress]], late 3rd century, in [[Old Cairo]]|left]]

The area around present-day Cairo had long been a focal point of [[Ancient Egypt]] due to its strategic location at the junction of the [[Nile|Nile Valley]] and the [[Nile Delta]] regions (roughly [[Upper Egypt]] and [[Lower Egypt]]), which also placed it at the crossing of major routes between [[North Africa]] and the [[Levant]].{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=18}}<ref name="Bloom-2009">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan M.|chapter=Cairo|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], the capital of Egypt during the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] and a major city up until the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic period]], was located a short distance south west of present-day Cairo.<ref name="Snape-2014">{{Cite book|last=Snape|first=Steven |title=The Complete Cities of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2014|isbn=9780500051795|pages=170–177}}</ref> [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]], another important city and major religious center, was located in what are now the modern districts of [[El Matareya, Cairo|Matariya]] and [[Ain Shams]] in northeastern Cairo.<ref name="Snape-2014"/><ref>{{cite web |date=2005-06-01 |title=Al-Ahram Weekly &#124; Features &#124; City of the sun |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/744/fe1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325171032/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/744/fe1.htm |archive-date=2013-03-25 |access-date=2013-03-26 |publisher=Weekly.ahram.org.eg}}</ref> It was largely destroyed by the [[First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|Persian invasions]] in 525 BC and 343 BC and partly abandoned by the late first century BC.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=18}}

However, the origins of modern Cairo are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium AD. Around the turn of the fourth century,{{sfn|Hawass|Brock|2003|p=456}} as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Memphis (Egypt) |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=Microsoft |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573551/memphis_(egypt).html |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006040551/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573551/memphis_(egypt).html |archive-date=6 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] established a large fortress along the east bank of the [[Nile]]. The fortress, called [[Babylon Fortress|Babylon]], was built by the Roman emperor [[Diocletian]] (r. 285–305) at the entrance of a canal connecting the Nile to the [[Red Sea]] that was created earlier by Emperor [[Trajan]] (r. 98–117).{{Efn|The historical chronicler [[John of Nikiou]] attributed the construction of the fortress to Trajan, but more recent excavations date the fortress to the time of Diocletian. A succession of canals connecting the Nile Valley with the Red Sea were also previously dug around this region in different periods prior to Trajan. Trajan's canal fell out of use some time between the reign of Diocletian and the 7th century.}}{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|pp=20–22}} Further north of the fortress, near the present-day district of [[Azbakeya|al-Azbakiya]], was a [[port]] and fortified outpost known as Tendunyas ({{Langx|cop|ϯⲁⲛⲧⲱⲛⲓⲁⲥ}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amelineau |first=Emile |title=La Géographie de l'Egypte À l'Époque Copte |year=1980  |pages=491}}</ref> or Umm Dunayn.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley|first=Bruce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&q=history+of+cairo+encyclopedia|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007 |isbn=978-1-57607-919-5|editor-last=Dumper|editor-first=Michael R.T.|pages=107–114|language=en|chapter=Cairo|editor-last2=Stanley|editor-first2=Bruce}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=6}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meinardus |first=Otto F. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mFXbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169|title=Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|year=2002|isbn=978-1-61797-263-8}}</ref> While no structures older than the 7th century have been preserved in the area aside from the Roman fortifications, historical evidence suggests that a sizeable city existed. The city was important enough that its [[bishop]], Cyrus, participated in the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] in 449.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=33}}

The [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|Byzantine-Sassanian War]] between 602 and 628 caused great hardship and likely caused much of the urban population to leave for the countryside, leaving the settlement partly deserted.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=6}} The site today remains at the nucleus of the [[Coptic Orthodox]] community, which separated from the Roman and Byzantine churches in the late 4th century. Cairo's oldest extant churches, such as the [[Saint Barbara Church in Coptic Cairo|Church of Saint Barbara]] and the [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church (Abu Serga)|Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus]] (from the late 7th or early 8th century), are located inside the fortress walls in what is now known as [[Old Cairo]] or [[Coptic Cairo]].{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=75}}

=== Fustat and other early Islamic settlements ===
{{Further|Egypt in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:CairoFustatHouses.jpg|alt=A man on a donkey walks past a palm tree, with a mosque and market behind Mohamed kamal|thumb|Excavated ruins of [[Fustat]], 2004]]

The [[Arab conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest of Byzantine Egypt]] was led by [[Amr ibn al-As]] from 639 to 642. Babylon Fortress was besieged in September 640 and fell in April 641. In 641 or early 642, after the surrender of [[Alexandria]], the Egyptian capital at the time, he founded a new settlement next to Babylon Fortress.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=16-18}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=161}} The city, known as [[Fustat]] ({{Langx|ar|الفسطاط|translit=al-Fusṭāṭ|lit=the tent|engvar=gb}}), served as a garrison town and as the new administrative capital of Egypt. Historians such as [[Janet Abu-Lughod]] and [[André Raymond]] trace the genesis of present-day Cairo to the foundation of Fustat.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=13}}{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=7}} 

The choice of founding a new settlement at this inland location, instead of using the existing capital of Alexandria on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast, may have been due to the new conquerors' strategic priorities. One of the first projects of the new Muslim administration was to clear and re-open Trajan's ancient [[Canal of the Pharaohs|canal]] in order to ship grain more directly from Egypt to [[Medina]], the capital of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|caliphate]] in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=19}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2007|p=160}}{{Sfn|AlSayyad|2011|p=42}}{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}} Ibn al-As also founded a mosque for the city at the same time, now known as the [[Mosque of Amr ibn al-As|Mosque of Amr Ibn al-As]], the oldest mosque in Egypt and Africa (although the current structure dates from later expansions).<ref name="Bloom-2009" />{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=280}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campanini |first=Massimo|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003 |isbn=9780195125580|editor-last=Esposito|editor-first=John L.|chapter=Cairo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Kane|first=Bernard|title=The Mosques of Egypt|publisher=American University of Cairo Press |year=2016|isbn=9789774167324|page=2}}</ref>

[[File:Nilometer, Cairo; built in 861 during reign of Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil (8).jpg|alt=A man on a donkey walks past a palm tree, with a mosque and market behind Mohamed kamal|thumb|The [[Nilometer]] in Cairo, built by the order of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] (r. 847–861)|left]]

In 750, following the overthrow of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] by the [[Abbasids]], the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became the new provincial capital. This was known as [[al-Askar]] ({{Langx|ar|العسكر|lit=the camp}}) as it was laid out like a military camp. A governor's residence and a new mosque were also added, with the latter completed in 786.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=30-31}} The Red Sea canal re-excavated in the 7th century was closed by the Abbasid Caliph [[al-Mansur]] ({{Reign|754|775}}),{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} but a part of the canal, known as the [[Khalij (Cairo)|Khalij]], continued to be a major feature of Cairo's geography and of its water supply until the 19th century.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}<ref name="Bloom-2009" /> In 861, on the orders of the Abbasid Caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]], a [[Nilometer]] was built on [[Roda Island]] near Fustat. Although it was repaired and given a new roof in later centuries, its basic structure is still preserved today, making it the oldest preserved Islamic-era structure in Cairo today.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=42}}{{Sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|1992|p=50}}

[[File:Kairo_Ibn_Tulun_Moschee_BW_5.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]], built by [[Ahmad ibn Tulun|Ahmad Ibn Tulun]] in 876–879 AD]]

In 868, a commander of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin named Bakbak was sent to Egypt by the Abbasid Caliph [[Al-Mu'tazz|al-Mu'taz]] to restore order after a rebellion in the country. He was accompanied by his stepson, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]], who became effective governor of Egypt. Over time, Ibn Tulun gained an army and accumulated influence and wealth, allowing him to become the ''[[de facto]]'' independent ruler of both Egypt and [[Syria (region)|Syria]] by 878.{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|pp=28-32}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=33}}<ref name="Bloom-2009a">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M.|chapter=Tulunid |editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> In 870, he used his growing wealth to found a new administrative capital, [[al-Qata'i]] ({{Langx|ar|القطائـع|lit=the allotments}}), to the northeast of Fustat and of al-Askar.<ref name="Bloom-2009a"/>{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|p=37}} 

The new city included a palace known as the ''Dar al-Imara'', a parade ground known as ''al-Maydan'', a [[bimaristan]] (hospital), and an [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]] to supply water. Between 876 and 879 Ibn Tulun built a great mosque, now known as the [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]], at the center of the city, next to the palace.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=33}}{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|p=37}} After his death in 884, Ibn Tulun was succeeded by his son and his descendants who continued a short-lived dynasty, the [[Tulunids]]. In 905, the Abbasids sent general Muhammad Sulayman al-Katib to re-assert direct control over the country. Tulunid rule was ended and al-Qatta'i was razed to the ground, except for the mosque which remains standing today.{{Sfn|Swelim|2015|pp=32-37}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=34}}

===Foundation and expansion of Cairo under the Fatimids===
[[File:Al Azhar Mosque (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|The [[Al-Azhar Mosque]], built in 970–972 in the wake of the establishment of Cairo as the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate]]

In 969, the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] [[Fatimid conquest of Egypt|conquered Egypt]] after ruling from Ifriqiya. The Fatimid Caliph [[al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah]] instructed his courtier and general [[Jawhar (general)|Jawhar al-Saqili]] to establish a new fortified city northeast of [[Fustat]] and of former al-Qata'i. It took four years to build the city, initially known as al-Manṣūriyyah,{{sfn|Glassé|Smith|2003|p=96}} which was to serve as the new capital of the caliphate.<ref name="AlSayyad2013">{{cite book |last1=AlSayyad |first1=Nezar |title=Cairo: Histories of a City |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07245-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUkvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58}}</ref> During that time, the construction of the [[al-Azhar Mosque]] was commissioned by order of the caliph, which developed into the third-oldest university in the world. Cairo would eventually become a centre of learning, with the library of Cairo containing hundreds of thousands of books.{{sfn|Meri|Bacharach|2006|p=451}} When Caliph al-Mu'izz arrived from the old Fatimid capital of [[Mahdia]] in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, ''Qāhirat al-Mu'izz'' ("The Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz"),{{sfn|Glassé|Smith|2003|p=96}} from which the name "Cairo" (''al-Qāhira'') originates. The caliphs lived in a vast and lavish [[Fatimid Great Palaces|palace complex]] that occupied the heart of the city. Cairo remained a relatively exclusive royal city for most of this era, but during the tenure of [[Badr al-Jamali|Badr al-Gamali]] as [[vizier]] (1073–1094) the restrictions were loosened for the first time and richer families from Fustat were allowed to move into the city.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=78}} Between 1087 and 1092 Badr al-Gamali also rebuilt the [[Fortifications of Cairo|city walls]] in stone and constructed the city gates of [[Bab al-Futuh]], [[Bab al-Nasr (Cairo)|Bab al-Nasr]], and [[Bab Zuweila]] that still stand today.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=62-63}}

During the Fatimid period Fustat reached its apogee in size and prosperity, acting as a center of craftsmanship and international trade and as the area's main port on the Nile.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=66-69}} Historical sources report that multi-story communal residences existed in the city, particularly in its center, which were typically inhabited by middle and lower-class residents. Some of these were as high as seven stories and could house some 200 to 350 people.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=65}} They may have been similar to Roman ''[[Insula (Roman city)|insulae]]'' and may have been the prototypes for the rental apartment complexes which became common in the later Mamluk and [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman]] periods.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=65}} However, in 1168 the Fatimid vizier [[Shawar]] set fire to the unfortified Fustat to prevent its potential capture by [[Amalric of Jerusalem|Amalric]], the [[Crusades|Crusader]] king of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]. While the fire did not destroy the city and it continued to exist afterward, it did mark the beginning of its decline. Over the following centuries it was Cairo, the former palace-city, that became the new economic center and attracted migration from Fustat.{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|p=213}}{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=83-85, 103}}

[[File:Cairo-citadel-1800s.jpg|thumb|The [[Cairo Citadel]], seen above in the 19th century, commissioned in 1176.|alt=A multi-domed mosque dominates the walled Citadel, with ruined tombs and a lone minaret in front.]]

While the Crusaders did not capture the city in 1168, a continuing power struggle between Shawar, King Amalric, and the [[Zengid]] general [[Shirkuh]] led to the downfall of the Fatimid establishment.{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|pp=213–215}} In 1169, Shirkuh's nephew [[Saladin]] was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he seized power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, [[al-Adid|al-'Āḍid]].{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|p=215}} As the first [[Sultan of Egypt]], Saladin established the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], based in Cairo, and aligned Egypt with the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] Abbasids, who were based in [[Baghdad]].{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=438}} In 1176, Saladin began construction on the [[Cairo Citadel]], which was to serve as the seat of the Egyptian government until the mid-19th century. The construction of the Citadel definitively ended Fatimid-built Cairo's status as an exclusive palace-city and opened it up to common Egyptians and to foreign merchants, spurring its commercial development.<ref name="Denoix-1999">{{Cite book|title=Le Khan al-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle|publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale|year=1999|editor-last=Denoix|editor-first=Sylvie|location=Cairo|editor-last2=Depaule|editor-first2=Jean-Charles|editor-last3=Tuchscherer|editor-first3=Michel}}</ref> Along with the Citadel, Saladin also began the construction of a new 20-kilometre-long wall that would protect both Cairo and Fustat on their eastern side and connect them with the new Citadel. These construction projects continued beyond Saladin's lifetime and were completed under his Ayyubid successors.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=89-97}}

=== Further expansion and decline under the Ayyubids and Mamluks ===
[[File:Cairo, madrasa del sultano qalaun, 04.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|The [[Qalawun complex|Mausoleum-Madrasa-Hospital complex]] of [[Qalawun|Sultan Qalawun]], built in 1284–1285 in the center of Cairo, over the remains of a Fatimid palace]]

In 1250, during the [[Seventh Crusade]], the Ayyubid dynasty had a crisis with the death of [[As-Salih Ayyub|al-Salih]] and power transitioned instead to the [[Mamluk]]s, partly with the help of al-Salih's wife, [[Shajar al-Durr|Shajar ad-Durr]], who ruled for a brief period around this time.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=110}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ruggles|first=D.F.|title=Tree of pearls: The extraordinary architectural patronage of the 13th-century Egyptian slave-queen Shajar al-Durr|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|pages=}}</ref> Mamluks were soldiers who were purchased as young slaves and raised to serve in the sultan's army. Between 1250 and 1517 the throne of the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] passed from one mamluk to another in a system of succession that was generally non-hereditary, but also frequently violent and chaotic.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=115-117}}{{Sfn|Clot|1996|p=47-48}} The Mamluk Empire nonetheless became a major power in the region and was responsible for repelling the advance of the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] (most famously at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260) and for eliminating the last [[Crusader states]] in the Levant.{{Sfn|Clot|1996|p=34-37, 83-107, 112-118}}

Despite their military character, the Mamluks were also prolific builders and left a rich [[Mamluk architecture|architectural legacy]] throughout Cairo.<ref name="Behrens-2007" /> Continuing a practice started by the Ayyubids, much of the land occupied by former Fatimid palaces was sold and replaced by newer buildings, becoming a prestigious site for the construction of Mamluk religious and funerary complexes.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=122}} Construction projects initiated by the Mamluks pushed the city outward while also bringing new infrastructure to the centre of the city.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=120–128}} Meanwhile, Cairo flourished as a centre of [[Islamic studies|Islamic scholarship]] and a crossroads on the [[spice trade]] route among the civilisations in [[Afro-Eurasia]].{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}} Under the reign of the Mamluk sultan [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]] (1293–1341, with [[interregnum]]s), Cairo reached its apogee in terms of population and wealth.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|p=122-124, 140-142}} By 1340, Cairo had a population of close to half a million, making it the largest city west of [[Yuan Dynasty|China]].{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}

Multi-story buildings occupied by [[Renting|rental]] apartments, known as a ''rab'<nowiki/>'' (plural ''ribā''' or ''urbu''), became common in the Mamluk period and continued to be a feature of the city's housing during the later Ottoman period.<ref name="Sayed-1987">{{Cite thesis |last=Sayed |first=Hazem I. |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/75720 |title=The Rab' in Cairo: A Window on Mamluk Architecture and Urbanism |publisher=MIT |year=1987 |pages=7–9, 58 |hdl=1721.1/75720 |language=en |type=PhD thesis |access-date=11 June 2022 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105105118/https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/75720 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=123, 157}} These apartments were often laid out as multi-story [[Duplex (building)|duplexes]] or triplexes. They were sometimes attached to caravanserais, where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants. The oldest partially-preserved example of this type of structure is the Wikala of Amir [[Qawsun]], built before 1341.<ref name="Sayed-1987" />{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=123, 157}} Residential buildings were in turn organised into close-knit neighbourhoods called a ''harat'', which in many cases had gates that could be closed off at night or during disturbances.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=123, 157}}

[[File:Zangaki. 0335. Mosquee Kaïd bey.jpg|thumb|[[Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay|Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]], built in 1470–1474 in the [[City of the Dead (Cairo)|Northern Cemetery]] (seen in 1880)|alt=]]

When the traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] first came to Cairo in 1326, he described it as the principal district of Egypt.{{sfn|Battuta|1829|p=13}} When he passed through the area again on his return journey in 1348, the [[Black Death in Egypt|Black Death]] was ravaging most major cities. He cited reports of thousands of deaths per day in Cairo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bartel |first=Nick |title=Return Home: 1346 - 1349 |work=The Travels of Ibn Battuta |publisher=UC Berkeley, Office of Resources for International and Area Studies |url=https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/travels-ibn-battuta/journey/return-home-1346-1349 |access-date=2021-03-21 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301135537/https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/travels-ibn-battuta/journey/return-home-1346-1349}}</ref>{{sfn|Battuta|1829|p=225}} Although Cairo avoided [[Europe]]'s stagnation during the [[Late Middle Ages]], it could not escape the Black Death, which struck the city more than fifty times between 1348 and 1517.{{sfn|Shoshan|2002|p=4}} 

During its initial, and most deadly waves, approximately 200,000 people were killed by the plague,{{sfn|Byrne|2004|pp=104–105}} and, by the 15th century, Cairo's population had been reduced to between 150,000 and 300,000.{{sfn|Shoshan|2002|p=1}} The population decline was accompanied by a period of political instability between 1348 and 1412. It was nonetheless in this period that the largest Mamluk-era religious monument, the [[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan|Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan]], was built.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=143-147}} In the late 14th century, the [[Burji dynasty|Burji Mamluks]] replaced the [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Mamluks]] as rulers of the Mamluk state, but the Mamluk system continued to decline.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=169-177}}

Though the plagues returned frequently throughout the 15th century, Cairo remained a major metropolis and its population recovered in part through [[Urbanization|rural migration]].{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=169-177}} More conscious efforts were conducted by rulers and city officials to redress the city's infrastructure and cleanliness. Its economy and politics also became more deeply connected with the wider Mediterranean.{{Sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=169-177}} Some Mamluk sultans in this period, such as [[Barsbay|Barbsay]] (r. 1422–1438) and [[Qaitbay|Qaytbay]] (r. 1468–1496), had relatively long and successful reigns.{{Sfn|Clot|1996|pp=183, 222-230}} After al-Nasir Muhammad, Qaytbay was one of the most prolific patrons of art and architecture of the Mamluk era. He built or restored numerous monuments in Cairo, in addition to commissioning projects beyond Egypt.{{Sfn|Clot|1996|p=223}}{{Sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|2007|p=69}} The crisis of Mamluk power and of Cairo's economic role deepened after Qaytbay. The city's status was diminished after [[Vasco da Gama]] discovered a sea route around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] between 1497 and 1499, thereby allowing spice traders to avoid Cairo.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}

===Ottoman rule===
{{Further|History of Ottoman Egypt}}
{{See also|Muhammad Ali's seizure of power}}
[[File:Environs du Kaire (Cairo). Plan général de Boulâq, du Kaire, de l'île de Roudah (el-Rôda), du Vieux Kaire et de Gyzeh (Jîzah) (NYPL b14212718-1268726).jpg|thumb|left|A map of Cairo in 1809, from the ''[[Description de l'Égypte]]'']]

Cairo's political influence diminished significantly after the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] defeated [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri|Sultan al-Ghuri]] in the [[Battle of Marj Dabiq]] in 1516 and [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|conquered Egypt]] in 1517. Ruling from [[Constantinople]], [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan]] [[Selim I]] relegated Egypt to a [[Eyalet|province]], with Cairo as its capital.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=447}} For this reason, the history of Cairo during Ottoman times is often described as inconsequential, especially in comparison to other time periods.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}{{sfn|Winter|1992|p=225}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rose |first1=Christopher |last2=Boxberger |first2=Linda |year=1995 |title=Ottoman Cairo |work=Cairo: Living Past, Living Future |publisher=The University of Texas Centre for Middle Eastern Studies |url=http://menic.utexas.edu/cairo/history/ottoman/ottoman.html |access-date=30 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070606231911/http://menic.utexas.edu/cairo/history/ottoman/ottoman.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 June 2007}}</ref>

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cairo still remained an important economic and cultural centre. Although no longer on the spice route, the city facilitated the transportation of [[Yemen]]i [[coffee]] and [[India]]n [[textile]]s, primarily to [[Anatolia]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Balkans]]. Cairene merchants were instrumental in bringing goods to the barren [[Hejaz]], especially during the annual [[hajj]] to [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Winter|1992|p=225}}{{sfn|İnalcık|Faroqhi|Quataert|McGowan|1997|pp=507–509}} It was during this same period that [[al-Azhar University]] reached the predominance among Islamic schools that it continues to hold today;{{sfn|Winter|2004|p=115}}{{sfn|Daly|Petry|1998|pp=94–95}} pilgrims on their way to hajj often attested to the superiority of the institution, which had become associated with Egypt's body of [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]].{{sfn|Winter|2004|pp=115–117}} The first printing press of the Middle East, printing in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], was established in Cairo {{circa|1557}} by a scion of the [[Soncino family (printers)|Soncino]] family of printers, [[Italian Jews]] of [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] origin who operated a press in Constantinople. The existence of the press is known solely from two fragments discovered in the [[Cairo Geniza]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=ROWLAND-SMITH |first=DIANA |title=The Beginnings of Hebrew Printing in Egypt |date=1989 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42554269 |journal=The British Library Journal |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=16–22 |jstor=42554269 |issn=0305-5167 |access-date=22 May 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531175722/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42554269 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Louis Comfort Tiffany - On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Louis Comfort Tiffany]] (1848–1933). ''On the Way Between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes'', 1872. Oil on canvas. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]]
Under the Ottomans, Cairo expanded south and west from its nucleus around the Citadel.{{sfn|Winter|1992|p=226}} The city was the second-largest in the empire, behind Constantinople, and, although migration was not the primary source of Cairo's growth, twenty percent of its population at the end of the 18th century consisted of religious minorities and foreigners from around the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].{{sfn|Winter|1992|pp=226–227}} Still, when [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] arrived in Cairo in 1798, the city's population was less than 300,000, forty percent lower than it was at the height of Mamluk—and Cairene—influence in the mid-14th century.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}}{{sfn|Winter|1992|pp=226–227}}

The [[Campaign of Egypt|French occupation]] was short-lived as [[British Empire|British]] and Ottoman forces, including a sizeable [[Albanians|Albanian]] contingent, recaptured the country in 1801. Cairo itself [[Siege of Cairo|was besieged]] by a British and Ottoman force culminating with the French surrender on 22 June 1801.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|p=103}} The British vacated Egypt two years later, leaving the Ottomans, the Albanians, and the long-weakened [[Mamluk]]s jostling for control of the country.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|p=104}}{{sfn|Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot|1984|p=39}} Continued civil war allowed an Albanian named [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] to ascend to the role of [[commander]] and eventually, with the approval of the [[ulema|religious establishment]], viceroy of Egypt in 1805.{{sfn|Sicker|2001|pp=104–105}}

===Modern era===
{{Further|History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty|History of modern Egypt}}
[[File:Georg Macco Kairo.jpg|thumb|Cairo in the late 19th century, [[Georg Macco]] (1863–1933), oil on canvas.]]

Until his death in 1848, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] instituted a number of social and economic reforms that earned him the title of founder of modern Egypt.{{sfn|Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot|1984|p=1}}{{sfn|McGregor|2006|p=53}} However, while Muhammad Ali initiated the construction of public buildings in the city,{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=437}} those reforms had minimal effect on Cairo's landscape.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=291, 302}} Bigger changes came to Cairo under [[Isma'il Pasha]] (r. 1863–1879), who continued the modernisation processes started by his grandfather.<ref>Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, ''Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture'', ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 76</ref> Drawing inspiration from [[Paris]], Isma'il envisioned a city of [[Tahrir Square|maidans]] and wide avenues; due to financial constraints, only some of them, in the area now composing [[Downtown Cairo]], came to fruition.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=313–314}} Isma'il also sought to modernise the city, which was merging with neighbouring settlements, by establishing a [[public works]] ministry, bringing [[natural gas|gas]] and lighting to the city, and opening a theatre and opera house.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=311–313}}{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1965|pp=436–444}}

The immense debt resulting from Isma'il's projects provided a pretext for increasing European control, which culminated with the [[1882 Anglo-Egyptian War|British invasion]] in 1882.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}} The city's economic centre quickly moved west toward the [[Nile]], away from the historic [[Islamic Cairo]] section and toward the contemporary, European-style areas built by Isma'il.{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1965|pp=429–431, 455–457}}{{sfn|Hourani|Khoury|Wilson|2004|p=317}} Europeans accounted for five percent of Cairo's population at the end of the 19th century, by which point they held most top governmental positions.{{sfn|Abu-Lughod|1965|p=431}}

In 1906, the [[Cairo Electric Railways & Heliopolis Oases Company|Heliopolis Oasis Company]] headed by the [[Belgians|Belgian]] industrialist [[Édouard Empain]] and his Egyptian counterpart [[Boghos Nubar]], built a suburb called [[Heliopolis, Cairo|Heliopolis]] (city of the sun in Greek) ten kilometers from the center of Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=329}}{{Sfn|Elyachar|2005|p=56}} In 1905–1907 the northern part of the [[Gezira (Cairo)|Gezira]] island was developed by the Baehler Company into [[Zamalek]], which would later become Cairo's upscale "chic" neighbourhood.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=328}} In 1906 construction began on Garden City, a neighbourhood of urban villas with gardens and curved streets.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=328}}

[[File:كوبري قصر النيل القاهرة.jpg|thumb|The [[Qasr El Nil Bridge]]]]
[[File:CH-NB Photoglob-Wehrli EAD-WEHR-32043-B.tiff|thumb|An aerial view in 1904 from a balloon of the central-eastern edge of Cairo, showing the early development of [[Zamalek|Gezira/Zamalek Island]] (center left), and [[Downtown Cairo|Downtown]] (lower right), as well as [[Boulaq|Bulaq]] (upper right).]]
The British occupation was intended to be temporary, but it lasted well into the 20th century. Nationalists staged [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|large-scale demonstrations]] in Cairo in 1919,{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=199}} five years after Egypt had been declared a British [[protectorate]].{{sfn|Hourani|Khoury|Wilson|2004|p=12}} Nevertheless, this led to Egypt's [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|independence in 1922]].

The [[King Fuad I Edition]] of the [[Qur'an]]<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=Brill Online |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_intro |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_intro |title=Supplement II - Qurʾān Concordance |work=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |access-date=10 July 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110142306/https://dx.doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_intro |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> was first published on 10 July 1924 in Cairo under the patronage of [[Fuad I of Egypt|King Fuad]].<ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Brockett |first=Adrian Alan |date=1985 |url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/2770 |title=Studies in two transmissions of the Qur'an |publisher=University of St Andrews |hdl=10023/2770 |via=St. Andrews Research Repository |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714092045/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/2770 |archive-date=14 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=malay>Peter G. Riddell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tq1v_V4haj4C&q=nafi'%20al%20madani&pg=PA164 Early Malay Qur'anic exegical activity] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727170904/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tq1v_V4haj4C&pg=PA164&dq=nafi%27+al+madani&hl=en#v=onepage&q=nafi'%20al%20madani |date=27 July 2020 }}, p. 164. Taken from ''Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses''. London: [[C. Hurst & Co.]], 2001. {{ISBN|9781850653363}}</ref> The goal of the government of the newly formed [[Kingdom of Egypt]] was not to delegitimise the other variant Quranic texts ("[[qira'at]]"), but to eliminate errors found in Qur'anic texts used in state schools. A committee of teachers chose to preserve a single one of the canonical qira'at "readings", namely that of the "[[Ḥafṣ]]" version,{{Sfn|Böwering|2008|p=74}} an 8th-century [[Kufic recitation]]. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran<ref name="rippin">{{cite book |last=Rippin, Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00ripp_0 |title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an |publisher=Blackwell |year=2006 |isbn=978140511752-4 |edition=[2a reimpr.]|display-authors=etal}}
* For the history of compilation see ''Introduction'' by [[Tamara Sonn]] pp. 5–6</ref><ref name=melchert2>{{cite journal |last=Melchert |first=Christopher |title=Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings |journal=Studia Islamica |year=2000 |issue=91 |pages=5–22 |doi=10.2307/1596266 |jstor=1596266}}</ref> for much of the Islamic world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lPFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=warsh+quran&hl=en |title=Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605044919/https://books.google.com/books?id=7lPFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79&dq=warsh+quran&hl=en |archive-date=2022-06-05}}</ref> The publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur'an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur'an has a single, unambiguous reading". Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, [[King Faruq]].{{Sfn|Reynolds|2008|p=2}}

====British occupation until 1956====
[[File:Cairo Street 1950's.tif|thumb|Everyday life in Cairo, 1950s]]

British troops remained in the country until 1956. During this time, urban Cairo, spurred by new bridges and transport links, continued to expand to include the upscale neighbourhoods of Garden City, Zamalek, and Heliopolis.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=326–329}} Between 1882 and 1937, the population of Cairo more than tripled—from 347,000 to 1.3 million{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=319}}—and its area increased from {{cvt|10|to|163|km2|sqmi|0}}.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=322}}

The city was devastated during the 1952 riots known as the [[Cairo Fire]] or Black Saturday, which saw the destruction of nearly 700 shops, movie theatres, casinos and hotels in downtown Cairo.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/433/2011/02/04/457/55/Malafat.aspx |script-title=ar:خسائر الحريق |date=12 May 2010 |journal=[[Al-Ahram]] |trans-title=The Fire Damage |language=ar |access-date=4 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512021201/http://www.ahram.org.eg/433/2011/02/04/457/55/Malafat.aspx |archive-date=12 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The British departed Cairo following the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]], but the city's rapid growth showed no signs of abating. Seeking to accommodate the increasing population, [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] redeveloped [[Tahrir Square]] and the Nile [[Corniche]], and improved the city's network of bridges and highways.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|p=349}} Meanwhile, additional controls of the Nile fostered development within Gezira Island and along the city's waterfront. The metropolis began to encroach on the fertile [[Nile Delta]], prompting the government to build desert [[satellite town]]s and devise incentives for city-dwellers to move to them.{{sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=343–345}}

====After 1956====
[[File:Cairo March 1965 08.jpg|thumb|[[Qasr El Nil Bridge]], 1965]]

[[File:Cairo in 1967.jpg|thumb|[[Nile Corniche]], 1967]]

In the second half of the 20th century, Cairo continued to grow enormously in both population and area. Between 1947 and 2006, the population of [[Greater Cairo]] went from 2,986,280 to 16,292,269.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|p=83}} The population explosion also drove the rise of "informal" housing (''<nowiki/>'ashwa'iyyat''), meaning housing that was built without any official planning or control.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|p=95}} The exact form of this type of housing varies considerably but usually has a much higher population density than formal housing. By 2009, over 63% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in informal neighbourhoods, even though these occupied only 17% of the total area of Greater Cairo.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|p=96}} According to economist David Sims, informal housing has the benefits of providing affordable accommodation and vibrant communities to huge numbers of Cairo's working classes, but it also suffers from government neglect, a relative lack of services, and overcrowding.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|pp=120-122}}

The "formal" city was also expanded. The most notable example was the creation of [[Nasr City|Madinat Nasr]], a huge government-sponsored expansion of the city to the east which officially began in 1959 but was primarily developed in the mid-1970s.{{Sfn|Sims|2012|pp=52-53}} Starting in 1977 the Egyptian government established the New Urban Communities Authority to initiate and direct the development of new planned cities on the outskirts of Cairo, generally established on desert land.<ref name="Ali-2020a">{{Cite book |last=Ali |first=Amal K. |title=The Routledge Handbook of Planning Megacities in the Global South |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-000-06205-2 |editor-last=Rukmana |editor-first=Deden |pages=337–339 |language=en |chapter=Challenges in Managing Urban Growth: The Case of Cairo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InnpDwAAQBAJ&dq=badr+city+cairo&pg=PT364}}</ref><ref name="UNECA-2017">{{Cite book |last=United Nations Economic Commission for Africa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTHLDwAAQBAJ&dq=cairo+first+generation+cities&pg=PA150 |title=Economic Report on Africa 2017: Urbanization and Industrialization for Africa's Transformation |publisher=United Nations |year=2017 |isbn=978-92-1-060392-8 |pages=150 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sims |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWtjEAAAQBAJ |title=Egypt's Desert Dreams: Development or Disaster? |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-61797-884-5 |language=en|edition=New }}</ref> These new satellite cities were intended to provide housing, investment, and employment opportunities for the region's growing population as well as to pre-empt the further growth of informal neighbourhoods.<ref name="Ali-2020a"/> As of 2014, about 10% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in the new cities.<ref name="Ali-2020a"/>

Concurrently, Cairo established itself as a political and economic hub for [[North Africa]] and the [[Arab world]], with many multinational businesses and organisations, including the [[Arab League]], operating out of the city. In 1979 the [[Islamic Cairo|historic districts]] of Cairo were listed as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name="UNESCO-2017" />

In 1992, Cairo was hit by an [[1992 Cairo earthquake|earthquake]] causing 545 deaths, injuring 6,512 and leaving around 50,000 people homeless.<ref name="NGDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/5339|title=Significant Earthquake Information|last=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|year=1972 |publisher=NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K}}</ref>

====2011 Egyptian revolution====
{{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution}}

[[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|thumb|upright|A protester holding an Egyptian flag during [[2011 Egyptian revolution|the protests]] that started on 25 January 2011]]

Cairo's [[Tahrir Square]] was the focal point of the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]] against former president [[Hosni Mubarak]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hundreds held over Egypt protests |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12289475 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126195024/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12289475 |archive-date=2011-01-26 |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> More than 50,000 protesters first occupied the square on 25 January, during which the area's wireless services were reported to be impaired.<ref name="Egyptians report poor communication services on Day of Anger">{{cite web |url=http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/news/egyptians-report-poor-communication-services-day-anger-1 |title=Egyptians report poor communication services on Day of Anger |publisher=[[Almasry Alyoum]] |date=25 January 2011 |access-date=25 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130064424/http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/news/egyptians-report-poor-communication-services-day-anger-1 |archive-date=30 January 2011}}</ref> In the following days Tahrir Square continued to be the primary destination for protests in Cairo.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Egyptians losing fear of regime |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12312330 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129055957/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12312330 |archive-date=2011-01-29 |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> The uprising was mainly a campaign of non-violent civil resistance, which featured a series of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, and labour strikes. Millions of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of the regime of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests |website=The Guardian |title=Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced to flee Tunisia as protesters claim victory |last1=Chrisafis |first1=Angelique |date=15 January 2011 |access-date=23 April 2018 |last2=Black |first2=Ian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110115053940/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests |archive-date=15 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Despite being predominantly peaceful in nature, the revolution was not without violent clashes between security forces and protesters, with at least 846 people killed and 6,000 injured. The uprising took place in Cairo, Alexandria, and in other cities in Egypt, following the [[Tunisian revolution]] that resulted in the overthrow of the long-time [[President of Tunisia|Tunisian president]] [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests |website=The Guardian |title=Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced to flee Tunisia as protesters claim victory |last1=Chrisafis |first1=Angelique |date=15 January 2011 |access-date=23 April 2018 |last2=Black |first2=Ian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110115053940/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests |archive-date=15 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 11 February, following weeks of determined popular protest and pressure, Hosni Mubarak resigned from office.

====Post-revolutionary Cairo====
Under the rule of President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi|el-Sisi]], in March 2015 plans were announced for another yet-unnamed [[planned city]] to be built further east of the existing satellite city of [[New Cairo]], intended to serve as the [[Proposed new capital of Egypt|new capital of Egypt]].<ref name="BBC: new capital">{{cite news |date=13 March 2015 |title=Egypt unveils plans to build new capital east of Cairo |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-31874886 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313202550/http://www.bbc.com/news/business-31874886 |archive-date=13 March 2015 |access-date=14 March 2015 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Cairo,_Egypt_ESA349457.jpg|thumb|[[Greater Cairo]] seen from [[Sentinel-2A]]]]
[[File:Cairo-Nile-2020(2).jpg|thumb|The river [[Nile]] flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.]]
[[File:Zamalek Arial.jpg|thumb|An aerial view looking south, with the [[Zamalek]] and [[Gezira (Cairo)|Gezira]] districts on Gezira Island, surrounded by the Nile]]

Cairo is located in northern [[Egypt]], known as [[Lower Egypt]], {{cvt|165|km|mi|-1}} south of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and {{cvt|120|km|mi}} west of the [[Gulf of Suez]] and [[Suez Canal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=cairo to suez - Wolfram{{!}}Alpha |url=http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=cairo+to+suez |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811211550/http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=cairo+to+suez |archive-date=2011-08-11 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.wolframalpha.com}}</ref> The city lies along the [[Nile|Nile River]], immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and branches into the low-lying [[Nile Delta]] region. Although the Cairo metropolis extends away from the Nile in all directions, the city of Cairo resides only on the east bank of the river and two islands within it on a total area of {{cvt|453|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/C17/C8/Cairo%20Maps/default.aspx |publisher=Cairo Governorate |access-date=10 September 2009 |title=Cairo Maps |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419130737/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/C17/C8/Cairo%20Maps/default.aspx}}</ref><ref name="citypop">{{cite web |url=http://www.citypopulation.de/Egypt.html |publisher=City Population |last=Brinkhoff |first=Thomas |access-date=12 September 2009 |title=Egypt: Governorates & Cities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902164545/http://www.citypopulation.de/Egypt.html |archive-date=2 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Geologically, Cairo lies on [[alluvium]] and [[sand dune]]s which date from the [[quaternary]] period.<ref>El-Shazly E.M. (1977) ''The Ocean Basins and Margins, The Geology of the Egyptian Region'' (Plenum press, New York-London) "The Eastern Mediterranean". Retrieved 20 September 2020</ref><ref>El-Sohby M.A., Mazen S.O (1985) ''Proceedings, Eleventh International Conference on soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering (san Francisco), Geological Aspects in Cairo subsoil Development'', 4, pp 2401–2415. Retrieved 20 September 2020</ref>

Until the mid-19th century, when the river was tamed by dams, levees, and other controls, the Nile in the vicinity of Cairo was highly susceptible to changes in course and surface level. Over the years, the Nile gradually shifted westward, providing the site between the eastern edge of the river and the [[Mokattam]] highlands on which the city now stands. The land on which Cairo was established in 969 (present-day [[Islamic Cairo]]) was located underwater just over three hundred years earlier, when [[Fustat]] was first built.{{sfn|Collins|2002|p=125}}

Low periods of the Nile during the 11th century continued to add to the landscape of Cairo; a new island, known as ''Geziret al-Fil'', first appeared in 1174, but eventually became connected to the mainland. Today, the site of ''Geziret al-Fil'' is occupied by the [[Shubra]] district. The low periods created another island at the turn of the 14th century that now composes [[Zamalek]] and [[Gezira (Cairo)|Gezira]]. [[Land reclamation]] efforts by the [[Mamluk]]s and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] further contributed to expansion on the east bank of the river.{{sfn|Collins|2002|p=126}}

Because of the Nile's movement, the newer parts of the city—[[Garden City (Cairo)|Garden City]], [[Downtown Cairo]], and Zamalek—are located closest to the riverbank.<ref name="riverbank">{{cite web |url=http://geography.about.com/od/egyptmaps/a/cairo-geography.htm |title=Ten Facts about Cairo, Egypt |author=Amanda Briney |date=20 February 2011 |work=Geography of Cairo |publisher=About.com |access-date=14 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328101627/http://geography.about.com/od/egyptmaps/a/cairo-geography.htm |archive-date=28 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The areas, which are home to most of Cairo's [[diplomatic mission|embassies]], are surrounded on the north, east, and south by the older parts of the city. [[Old Cairo]], located south of the centre, holds the remnants of [[Fustat]] and the heart of Egypt's [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christian]] community, [[Coptic Cairo]]. The [[Boulaq]] district, which lies in the northern part of the city, was born out of a major 16th-century port and is now a major industrial centre. 

The Citadel is located east of the city centre around [[Islamic Cairo]], which dates back to the Fatimid era and the foundation of Cairo. While western Cairo is dominated by wide boulevards, open spaces, and [[modern architecture]] of European influence, the eastern half, having grown haphazardly over the centuries, is dominated by small lanes, crowded tenements, and [[Islamic architecture]].

Northern and extreme eastern parts of Cairo, which include [[satellite town]]s, are among the most recent additions to the city, as they developed in the late-20th and early-21st centuries to accommodate the city's rapid growth. The western bank of the Nile is commonly included within the urban area of Cairo, but it composes the city of [[Giza]] and the [[Giza Governorate]]. Giza city has also undergone significant expansion over recent years, and today has a population of 2.7 million.<ref name="citypop"/> The Cairo Governorate was just north of the [[Helwan Governorate]] from 2008 when some Cairo's southern districts, including [[Maadi]] and [[New Cairo]], were split off and annexed into the new governorate,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2008/894/eg6.htm |publisher=al-Ahram Weekly |last=Leila |first=Reem |number=894 |date=24–30 April 2008 |access-date=12 September 2009 |title=Redrawing the Map |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810065313/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2008/894/eg6.htm |archive-date=10 August 2009}}</ref> to 2011 when the Helwan Governorate was reincorporated into the Cairo Governorate.

According to the [[World Health Organization]], the level of air pollution in Cairo is nearly 12 times higher than the recommended safety level.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://afrique.le360.ma/autres-pays/societe/2018/09/04/22762-egypte-pollution-forbes-fache-les-autorites-du-caire-22762 |title=Egypte. Pollution: Forbes fâche les autorités du Caire |date=4 September 2018 |access-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529043115/http://afrique.le360.ma/autres-pays/societe/2018/09/04/22762-egypte-pollution-forbes-fache-les-autorites-du-caire-22762 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{wide image|Panocairo1.jpg|800px|A panorama of the Nile in central Cairo showing the west side of [[Gezira Island]], located in the middle of the Nile, with the [[Cairo Tower]] in the middle, the [[6th October Bridge]] on the far left and [[El Galaa Bridge]] on the far right}}

===Climate===
[[File:Cairo weather observations by French savants.jpg|thumb|Cairo weather observations by French savants]]

In Cairo, and along the Nile River Valley, the climate is a [[hot desert climate]] (''BWh'' according to the [[Köppen climate classification]] system<ref>{{cite web |url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif |title=World Map of Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification |publisher=Köppen-Geiger |access-date=22 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017125921/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif |archive-date=17 October 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>).

Wind storms can be frequent, bringing [[Mineral dust|Saharan dust]] into the city, from March to May and the air often becomes uncomfortably dry. Winters are mild to warm, while summers are long and hot. High temperatures in winter range from {{cvt|14|to|22|°C|0}}, while night-time lows drop to below {{cvt|11|°C|0}}, often to {{cvt|5|°C|0}}. In summer, the highs often exceed {{cvt|31|°C|0}} but rarely surpass {{cvt|40|°C|0}}, and lows drop to about {{cvt|20|°C|0}}. Rainfall is sparse and only happens in the colder months, but sudden showers can cause severe flooding. The summer months have high humidity due to its proximity to the Mediterranean coast. Snowfall is extremely rare; a small amount of [[graupel]], widely believed to be [[snow]], fell on Cairo's easternmost suburbs on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo's area received this kind of precipitation in many decades.<ref>{{cite news |title=Biblical snowstorm: Rare flakes in Cairo, Jerusalem paralyzed by over a foot |first=Jason |last=Samenow |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=13 December 2013 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/ |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233952/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/ |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Dew points in the hottest months range from {{cvt|13.9|°C|0}} in June to {{cvt|18.3|°C|0}} in August.<ref name=NOAA>{{cite web |url=ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-VI/BH/14654.TXT |title=Sarajevo Climate Normals 1961–1990 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153920/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-VI/BH/14654.TXT |archive-date=2020-07-28 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 August 2016 }}</ref>

{{Cairo weatherbox}}

=== Metropolitan area and districts ===
{{See also|Greater Cairo|Cairo Governorate}}

[[File:Cairo city administrative boundary and districts En.jpg|thumb|Cairo city administrative boundary and districts in English]]

The city of Cairo forms part of [[Greater Cairo]], the largest metropolitan area in Africa.<ref>R.L. Forstall, R.P. Greene, and J.B. Pick, [http://www.uic.edu/cuppa/cityfutures/papers/webpapers/cityfuturespapers/session3_4/3_4whicharethe.pdf "Which are the largest? Why published populations for major world urban areas vary so greatly"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531212605/http://www.uic.edu/cuppa/cityfutures/papers/webpapers/cityfuturespapers/session3_4/3_4whicharethe.pdf|date=31 May 2010}}, City Futures Conference, (University of Illinois at Chicago, July 2004) – Table 5 (p.34)</ref> While it has no administrative body, the Ministry of Planning considers it as an [[Economic Regions of Egypt|economic region]] consisting of [[Cairo Governorate]], [[Giza Governorate]], and [[Qalyubia Governorate]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The strategic urban development master plan study for a sustainable development of the Greater Cairo region in the Arab Republic of Egypt : final report ; Vol. 2. -Main report : strategic urban develo pment master plan |url=https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/618/618/618_405_11893427.html |access-date=2022-12-22 |website=openjicareport.jica.go.jp |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034243/https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/618/618/618_405_11893427.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As a contiguous metropolitan area, various studies have considered Greater Cairo be composed of the administrative cities that are Cairo, [[Giza]] and [[Shubra El Kheima|Shubra al-Kheima]], in addition to the [[Satellite city|satellite cities]]/[[New Towns|new towns]] surrounding them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sims |first=David |date=2011 |title=Understanding Cairo: The Logic of a City Out of Control |chapter=A History of Modern Cairo: Three Cities in One |url=https://academic.oup.com/cairo-scholarship-online/book/23147/chapter-abstract/184014364?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2022-12-22 |pages=45–90 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |doi=10.5743/cairo/9789774164040.003.0004 |isbn=978-977-416-404-0 |archive-date=22 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222015714/https://academic.oup.com/cairo-scholarship-online/book/23147/chapter-abstract/184014364?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref>

Cairo is a city-state where the governor is also the head of the city. Cairo City itself differs from other Egyptian cities in that it has an extra [[Local Government in Egypt|administrative division]] between the city and district levels, and that is areas, which are headed by deputy governors. Cairo consists of 4 areas ''(manatiq, singl. mantiqa)'' divided into 38 districts ''(ahya', singl. hayy)'' and 46 qisms (police wards, 1-2 per district):<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regions |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Regions.aspx?SubmID=141 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207130230/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Regions.aspx?SubmID=141 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |language=en-US}}</ref>

The '''Northern Area''' is divided into 8 Districts:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Northern Area |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=14 |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034248/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=14 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Shubra]]
* Al-Zawiya al-Hamra
* [[El Qobbah|Hadayek al-Qubba]]
* [[Rod El Farag|Rod al-Farg]]
* Al-Sharabia
* [[El Sahel|Al-Sahel]]
* [[Zeitoun, Cairo|Al-Zeitoun]]
* Al-Amiriyya

[[File:Map of Northern Area, Cairo (En).jpg|thumb|Map of Northern Area, Cairo (En)]]

The '''Eastern Area''' divided into 9 Districts and three new cities:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eastern Area |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=12 |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034256/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=12 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Misr al-Gadidah and Al-Nozha ([[Heliopolis, Cairo|Heliopolis]])
* [[Nasr City]] East and [[Nasr City]] West
* Al-Salam 1 (Awwal) and al-Salam 2 (Than)
* [[Ain Shams]]
* [[El Matareya, Cairo|Al-Matariya]]
* [[El Marg|Al-Marg]]
* [[El Shorouk|Shorouk]] (Under jurisdiction of [[New Urban Communities Authority|NUCA]])
* [[Badr, Egypt|Badr]] (Under jurisdiction of [[New Urban Communities Authority|NUCA]])
* [[New Cairo|Al-Qahira al-Gadida]] (New Cairo, three qisms, under jurisdiction of [[New Urban Communities Authority|NUCA]])

[[File:Map of Eastern Area, Cairo (En).jpg|thumb|Cairo Eastern Area map]]
The '''Western Area''' divided into 9 Districts:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Areas |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034256/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=13 |archive-date=2023-03-26 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Manshiyat Naser|Manshiyat Nasser]]
* [[Al Waily|Al-Wayli]] (Incl. qism [[Daher, Egypt|al-Daher]])
* Wasat al-Qahira (Central Cairo, incl. [[Al-Darb al-Ahmar]], [[Al-Mu'izz Street|al-Gamaliyya]] qisms)
* [[Boulaq|Bulaq]]
* Gharb al-Qahira (West Cairo, incl. [[Zamalek]] qism, Qasr al-Nil qism incl. [[Garden City, Cairo|Garden City]] and part of [[Downtown Cairo|Down Town]])
* [[Abdeen Palace|Abdeen]]
* [[Al Azbakiya|Al-Azbakiya]]
* Al-Muski
* Bab al-Sha'aria

[[File:Map of Western Area, Cairo (En).jpg|thumb|Cairo Western Area map]]
The '''Southern Area''' divided into 12 Districts:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Southern Area |url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=11 |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.cairo.gov.eg |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034303/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Region.aspx?ReID=11 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Masr El-Qadima (Old Cairo, including [[Roda Island|Al-Manial]])
* [[Al-Khalifa District|Al-Khalifa]]
* [[Mokattam|Al-Moqattam]]
* Al-Basatin
* [[Dar El Salam|Dar al-Salam]]
* [[Sayyidah Zainab District]]
* [[El Tebbin]]
* [[Helwan]]
* [[El Masara|Al-Ma'sara]]
* [[Maadi|Al-Maadi]]
* [[Tura, Egypt|Tora]]
* [[15th of May (city)|15th of May]] (Under jurisdiction of [[New Urban Communities Authority|NUCA]])

[[File:Map of Southern Area, Cairo (En).jpg|thumb|Cairo Southern Area map]]

==== Satellite cities ====
{{see also|Greater Cairo}}

Since 1977 a number of [[Planned community|new towns]] have been planned and built by the [[New Urban Communities Authority]] (NUCA) in the [[Eastern Desert]] around Cairo, ostensibly  to accommodate additional population growth and development of the city and stem the development of self-built informal areas, especially over agricultural land. As of 2022 four new towns have been built and have residential populations: [[15th of May (city)|15th of May City]], [[Badr City]], [[El Shorouk City|Shorouk City]], and [[New Cairo]]. In addition, two more are under construction: the [[New Administrative Capital]].<ref name="Ali-2020a"/><ref name="UNECA-2017"/><ref>{{cite news |last=Cambanis |first=Thanassis |date=24 August 2010 |title=To Catch Cairo Overflow, 2 Megacities Rise in Sand |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/25/world/africa/25egypt.html |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311041220/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/25/world/africa/25egypt.html |archive-date=11 March 2017}}</ref> And Capital Gardens, where land was allocated in 2021, and which will house most of the civil servants employed in the new capital.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Gardens |url=http://www.newcities.gov.eg/know_cities/Capital_Gardens/default.aspx |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=New Urban Communities Authority |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230205031/http://www.newcities.gov.eg/know_cities/Capital_Gardens/default.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Planned new capital ====
{{main|New Administrative Capital}}

In March 2015, plans were announced for a [[Planned community|new city]] to be built east of Cairo, in an undeveloped area of the Cairo Governorate,<ref name="BBC: new capital"/> which would serve as the [[New Administrative Capital]] of Egypt. Cairo also introduced more modern metro lines to reduce traffic in central areas.

==Demographics==
{{Historical populations
|align=right
| percentages = pagr
|source = Decennial census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Recensement général de l'Égypte, 15 Gamad Akher 1299 / 3 mai 1882 |date=1884 |publisher=Imprimerie Nationale de Boulaq |location=Cairo}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The census of Egypt taken in 1907 |date=1909 |publisher=National Printing Department |location=Cairo |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/101690132}}</ref> For Cairo agglomeration:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/cairo-population// |title=Cairo population |access-date=12 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709230940/http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/cairo-population/ |archive-date=9 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|1884|352416
|1907|654476
|1950|2493514
|1960|3680160
|1970|5584507
|1980|7348778
|1990|9892143
|2000|13625565
|2010|16899015
|2019|20484965
}}
According to the 2017 census, Cairo had a population of 9,539,673 people, distributed across 46 [[Local Government in Egypt|qisms]] (police wards):<ref>{{Cite web |last=Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics (CAPMAS) |date=2017 |title=2017 Census for Population and Housing Conditions |url=https://www.cedejcapmas.org/adws/app/4d5b52dc-669d-11e9-b6a6-975656a88994/index.html |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=CEDEJ-CAPMAS |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410043544/https://www.cedejcapmas.org/adws/app/4d5b52dc-669d-11e9-b6a6-975656a88994/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Note01">The interactive census site is the only available digital source (non-pdf) and must be queried as follows: Statistics and analysis > Population > 2017 Data > Gender >Statistical Tables >Total population and population by sex (Choose location).</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Qism
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Code 2017
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Total Population
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Male
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Female
|-
|[[El Tebbin|El Tibbin]]
|010100
|72,040
|36,349
|35,691
|-
|[[Helwan]]
|010200
|521,239
|265,347
|255,892
|-
|Al [[El Masara|Maasara]]
|010300
|270,032
|137,501
|132,531
|-
|[[15th of May (city)|15 May City]]
|010400
|93,574
|49,437
|44,137
|-
|[[Tura, Egypt|Tura]]
|010500
|230,438
|168,152
|62,286
|-
|[[Maadi]]
|010600
|88,575
|43,972
|44,603
|-
|El Basatin
|010700
|495,443
|260,756
|234,687
|-
|Dar El Salam
|010800
|525,638
|273,603
|252,035
|-
|[[Old Cairo|Masr El Qedima]]
|010900
|250,313
|129,582
|120,731
|-
|El Sayeda Zeinab
|011000
|136,278
|68,571
|67,707
|-
|[[Al-Khalifa District|El Khalifa]]
|011100
|105,235
|54,150
|51,085
|-
|[[Mokattam]]
|011200
|224,138
|116,011
|108,127
|-
|[[Manshiyat Naser]]
|011300
|258,372
|133,864
|124,508
|-
|[[Al-Darb al-Ahmar|Al Darb Al Ahmar]]
|011400
|58,489
|30,307
|28,182
|-
|El Muski
|011500
|16,662
|8,216
|8,446
|-
|[[Abdeen Palace|Abdeen]]
|011600
|40,321
|19,352
|20,969
|-
|[[Garden City, Cairo|Garden City]]
|011700
|10,563
|4,951
|5,612
|-
|[[Zamalek]]
|011800
|14,946
|7,396
|7,550
|-
|[[Boulaq|Bulaq]]
|011900
|48,147
|24,105
|24,042
|-
|[[Azbakeya]]
|012000
|19,763
|9,766
|9,997
|-
|[[Bab El Shaariya station|Bab El Shariya]]
|012100
|46,673
|24,261
|22,412
|-
|El Gamaliya
|012200
|36,368
|18,487
|17,881
|-
|[[Al-Wayli and al-Daher, Cairo|Al Daher]]
|012300
|71,870
|35,956
|35,914
|-
|[[Al-Wayli and al-Daher, Cairo|Al Wayli]]
|012400
|79,292
|39,407
|39,885
|-
|[[El Qobbah|Hadayek El Qobbah]]
|012500
|316,072
|161,269
|154,803
|-
|El Sharabiya
|012600
|187,201
|94,942
|92,259
|-
|[[Shubra]]
|012700
|76,695
|38,347
|38,348
|-
|[[Rod El Farag]]
|012800
|145,632
|72,859
|72,773
|-
|[[El Sahel]]
|012900
|316,421
|162,063
|154,358
|-
|El Zawya El Hamra
|013000
|318,170
|162,304
|155,866
|-
|Amairiya
|013100
|152,554
|77,355
|75,199
|-
|[[Zeitoun, Cairo|Zeitoun]]
|013200
|174,176
|87,235
|86,941
|-
|[[El Matareya, Cairo|El Matareya]]
|013300
|602,485
|312,407
|290,078
|-
|[[Ain Shams]]
|013400
|614,391
|315,394
|298,997
|-
|[[El Marg]]
|013500
|798,646
|412,476
|386,170
|-
|El Salam 1
|013600
|480,721
|249,639
|231,082
|-
|El Salam 2
|013700
|153,772
|80,492
|73,280
|-
|[[El Nouzha Airport|El Nozha]]
|013800
|231,241
|117,910
|113,331
|-
|[[Heliopolis, Cairo|Heliopolis]]
|013900
|134,116
|68,327
|65,789
|-
|[[Nasr City|Nasr City 1]]
|014000
|634,818
|332,117
|302,701
|-
|[[Nasr City|Nasr City 2]]
|014100
|72,182
|38,374
|33,808
|-
|[[New Cairo|New Cairo 1]]
|014200
|135,834
|70,765
|65,069
|-
|[[New Cairo|New Cairo 2]]
|014300
|90,668
|46,102
|44,566
|-
|[[New Cairo|New Cairo 3]]
|014400
|70,885
|37,340
|33,545
|-
|[[El Shorouk]]
|014500
|87,285
|45,960
|41,325
|-
|[[Badr, Egypt|Badr City]]
|014600
|31,299
|17,449
|13,850
|}

=== Religion ===
{{See also|Religion in Egypt}}
The majority of Egypt and Cairo's population is Sunni Muslim.<ref name="Britannica-2023">{{Cite web |title=People of Cairo |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Cairo/People |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=Britannica |language=en |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607000400/https://www.britannica.com/place/Cairo/People |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="US Embassy Egypt-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Egypt |url=https://eg.usembassy.gov/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom-egypt/ |access-date=6 June 2006 |website=U.S. Embassy in Egypt |archive-date=24 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524050046/https://eg.usembassy.gov/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom-egypt/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A significant Christian minority exists, among whom [[Coptic Orthodox]] are the majority.<ref name="Britannica-2023" /><ref name="US Embassy Egypt-2022" /> Precise numbers for each religious community in Egypt are not available and estimates vary.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hackett |first=Conrad |date=16 February 2011 |title=How many Christians are there in Egypt? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/ |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=2 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002004401/https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other churches that have, or had, a presence in modern Cairo include the [[Catholic Church]] (including [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholic]], [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic Catholic]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean Catholic]], [[Syriac Catholic Church|Syrian Catholic]], and [[Maronite Church|Maronite]]), the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria|Greek Orthodox Church]], the [[Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)]], and some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meinardus |first=Otto Friedrich August |url=http://archive.org/details/x-christian-egypt-ancient-and-modern |title=Christian Egypt, Ancient and Modern |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=1977 |edition=2nd |pages=272–339 |language=en}}</ref> Cairo has been the seat of the Coptic Orthodox Church since the 12th century,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Micheau |first1=Françoise |editor1-last=Angold |editor1-first=Michael |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 5: Eastern Christianity |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-81113-2 |pages=371–403 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-christianity/eastern-christianities-eleventh-to-fourteenth-century-copts-melkites-nestorians-and-jacobites/E76D6F90D45A81BC32149E8D24135DBD |access-date=20 December 2021 |language=English |chapter=Eastern Christianities (eleventh to fourteenth century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites |archive-date=10 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610000445/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-christianity/eastern-christianities-eleventh-to-fourteenth-century-copts-melkites-nestorians-and-jacobites/E76D6F90D45A81BC32149E8D24135DBD |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria|seat]] of the [[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox Pope]] is located in [[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-11-19 |title=50 years on St Mark's, Pope consecrates renovated Cathedral |url=https://en.wataninet.com/coptic-affairs-coptic-affairs/coptic-affairs/50-years-on-st-marks-pope-consecrates-renovated-cathedral/26664/ |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=Watani |language=en-US}}</ref> Until the 20th century, Cairo had a sizeable [[History of the Jews in Egypt|Jewish community]], but as of 2022 only three Jews were reported to be living in the city. A total of 12 [[synagogues in Cairo]] still exist.<ref name="Shawkat-2022">{{Cite web |last=Shawkat |first=Ahmed |date=15 December 2022 |title=How Egypt's last Jews will mark Hanukkah, and make sure their culture doesn't "disappear" with them |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/egypt-last-jews-hanukkah-ensuring-culture-doesnt-disappear-with-them/ |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=CBS News |language=en-US |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606235524/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/egypt-last-jews-hanukkah-ensuring-culture-doesnt-disappear-with-them/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Talat Harb Square - Statue.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of [[Talaat Harb|Talaat Pasha Harb]], the father of the modern [[Egyptian economy]], in [[Downtown Cairo]]]]
[[File:National Bank of Egypt.JPG|thumb|right|The [[National Bank of Egypt|NBE]] towers as viewed from the Nile]]
[[File:Street Vendors of Cairo (Full).webm|thumb|Informal economy in Cairo]]

Cairo's economy has traditionally been based on governmental institutions and services, with the modern productive sector expanding in the 20th century to include developments in textiles and food processing – specifically the production of [[sugar cane]]. As of 2005, Egypt has the largest non-oil based GDP in the Arab world.{{sfn|UN-Habitat|2011|page=20-21}}

Cairo accounts for 11% of Egypt's population and 22% of its economy (PPP). The majority of the nation's commerce is generated there, or passes through the city. The great majority of [[publishing|publishing houses]] and media outlets and nearly all [[Movie studio|film studios]] are there, as are half of the nation's hospital beds and universities. This has fuelled rapid construction in the city, with one building in five being less than 15 years old.{{sfn|UN-Habitat|2011|page=20-21}}

This growth until recently surged well ahead of [[Municipal services|city services]]. Homes, roads, electricity, telephone and sewer services were all in short supply. Analysts trying to grasp the magnitude of the change coined terms like "hyper-urbanization".{{sfn|UN-Habitat|2011|page=20-21}}

===Automobile manufacturers from Cairo===
* Arab American Vehicles Company (vehicles by [[Stellantis]]&nbsp;alliance)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aav.com.eg/ |title=Arab American Vehicles Co |publisher=Aav.com.eg |access-date=14 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112035234/http://www.aav.com.eg/ |archive-date=12 November 2010}}</ref>
* Egyptian Light Transport Manufacturing Company (Egyptian NSU pedant)
* [[Ghabbour Group]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ghabbourauto.com/ |title=Ghabbourauto.com |publisher=Ghabbourauto.com |access-date=10 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203160336/http://www.ghabbourauto.com/ |archive-date=3 December 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> (Fuso, Hyundai and Volvo)
* [[Manufacturing Commercial Vehicles|MCV Corporate Group]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcv-eg.com/ |title=Welcome to MCV Web Site |publisher=Mcv-eg.com |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516112739/http://mcv-eg.com/ |archive-date=16 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> (a part of the [[Daimler AG]])
* [[Mod Car]]<ref>{{cite web |author=TradeHolding.com B2B Network |url=http://gulfbusiness.tradeholding.com/default.cgi/action/viewproducts/productid/61183/productname/Panda/ |title=Panda, Buy from Mod Car. Egypt – Ash Sharqiyah – Middle East Business B2B Directory – Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain Companies, Middle East Businesses, Products & Trade Leads, Arab Business |publisher=Gulfbusiness.tradeholding.com |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717083119/http://gulfbusiness.tradeholding.com/default.cgi/action/viewproducts/productid/61183/productname/Panda/ |archive-date=17 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Seoudi Group<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seoudi.com/ |title=Seoudi Group 1001 opportunities for investment in Egypt and Arab World |publisher=Seoudi.com |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201111144/http://seoudi.com/ |archive-date=1 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> (Modern Motors: Nissan, BMW (formerly); El-Mashreq: Alfa Romeo and Fiat)
* [[Speranza Motors|Speranza]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.speranza-egypt.com/ |title=اسبرانزا ايجيبت |publisher=Speranza Egypt |access-date=14 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830062334/http://www.speranza-egypt.com/ |archive-date=30 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aboulfotouh.com/ |title=Welcome to Daewoo Motor Website |publisher=Aboulfotouh.com |access-date=14 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131074224/http://www.aboulfotouh.com/ |archive-date=31 January 2010}}</ref> (former Daewoo Motors Egypt; [[Chery Automobile|Chery]], [[GM Korea|Daewoo]])
* General Motors Egypt

==Infrastructure==
===Health===
{{See also|List of hospitals in Egypt}}

Cairo, as well as neighbouring Giza, has been established as Egypt's main centre for medical treatment, and despite some exceptions, has the most advanced level of [[Health care|medical care]] in the country. Cairo's hospitals include the [[Joint Commission|JCI]]-accredited [[As-Salaam International Hospital]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.esmo.org/for-patients/esmo-designated-centres-of-integrated-oncology-palliative-care/esmo-accredited-designated-centres/as-salam-international-hospital#:~:text=The%20hospital%20has%20been%20Joint,culture%20is%20provided%20for | title=As-Salam International Hospital &#124; Cairo }}</ref> [[Ain Shams University]] Hospital,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.asu.edu.eg/healthcare#:~:text=Ain%20Shams%20University%20chooses%20Ain,26831231 | title=Ain Shams university }}</ref> [[Dar Al Fouad]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.daralfouad.org/__top-hospital-in-egypt-jci#:~:text=In%202020%2C%20Dar%20Al%20Fouad,renewed%20for%20the%20second%20time | title=Dar al Fouad Hospital &#124; Leading hospital in Egypt and Middle East | access-date=31 December 2023 | archive-date=27 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227101426/https://www.daralfouad.org/__top-hospital-in-egypt-jci#:~:text=In%202020%2C%20Dar%20Al%20Fouad,renewed%20for%20the%20second%20time | url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Nile Badrawi Hospital]], [[57357 Hospital]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.57357.org/en/category/honor-and-prizes/57357/#:~:text=Hospital%205357%20is%20proud%20to,for%20Africa%20November%2024%2C%202019 | title=Children's Cancer Hospital Egypt 57357(CCHE) website }}</ref> as well as [[Qasr El Eyni Hospital]].

===Education===
[[Greater Cairo]] has long been the hub of education and educational services for Egypt and the region.

Today, Greater Cairo is the centre for many government offices governing the [[Education in Egypt|Egyptian educational system]], has the largest number of educational schools, and [[Egyptian universities|higher education institutes]] among other cities and governorates of Egypt.

'''Some of the International Schools found in Cairo:'''
{{Further|List of schools in Egypt}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| align             = right
| image1            = Eng asu main bldng.JPG
| caption1          = Faculty of Engineering, [[Ain Shams University]]
| image2            = ASU Faculty of Pharmacy.JPG
| caption2          = Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University
}}

[[File:Cairo University after sunset.JPG|thumb|[[Cairo University]] is the largest university in Egypt, and is located in [[Giza]].]]
[[File:AUC New Library garden.jpg|thumb|Library building at the new campus of the [[American University of Cairo]] in [[New Cairo]]]]

'''Universities in Greater Cairo:'''

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+ <!-- initially sorted by date established -->
|-
! University
! Date of Foundation
|-
|[[Al-Azhar University|Al Azhar University]]
|970–972
|-
|[[Cairo University]]
|1908
|-
|[[American University in Cairo]]
|1919
|-
|[[Ain Shams University]]
|1950
|-
|[[Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport|Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime Transport]]
|1972
|-
|[[Helwan University]]
|1975
|-
|[[Sadat Academy for Management Sciences]]
|1981
|-
|[[Higher Technological Institute]]
|1989
|-
|[[Modern Academy In Maadi]]
|1993
|-
|[[Misr International University]]
|1996
|-
|[[Misr University for Science and Technology]]
|1996
|-
|[[Modern Sciences and Arts University]]
|1996
|-
|[[Université Française d'Égypte]]
|2002
|-
|[[German University in Cairo]]
|2003
|-
|[[Arab Open University]]
|2003
|-
|[[Canadian International College]]
|2004
|-
|[[British University in Egypt]]
|2005
|-
|[[Ahram Canadian University]]
|2005
|-
|[[Nile University]]
|2006
|-
|[[Future University in Egypt]]
|2006
|-
|[[Egyptian Russian University]]
|2006
|-
|[[Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development]]
|2009
|-
|[[New Giza University]]
|2016
|-
|}

== Transport ==
{{Main|Transport in Cairo}}

{{multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| align             = right
| image1            = CairoIntlAirportTerminal3.jpg
| caption1          = Façade of Terminal 3 at Cairo International Airport
| image2            = CairoAirport-Terminal1.JPG
| caption2          = Departures area of Cairo International Airport's Terminal 1
}}

Cairo has an extensive road network, [[rail system]], [[Rapid transit|subway system]] and maritime services. Road transport is facilitated by personal vehicles, taxi cabs, privately owned public buses and [[Microbus#Van conversions|microbuses]]. [[Cairo International Airport]] is the country's largest airport and one of the busiest airports in Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dcVBgAAQBAJ&dq=egypt+busiest+airport&pg=PA133 |title=The Report: Egypt 2013 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-907065-91-0 |pages=133 |language=en |access-date=6 June 2023 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606215645/https://books.google.com/books?id=-dcVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133&dq=egypt+busiest+airport&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiIkNb_z6__AhU0kYkEHTaQC8EQ6AF6BAgCEAI#v=onepage&q=egypt%20busiest%20airport&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Public transportation ===
[[File:Ramses-Station.jpg|thumb|The interior of [[Ramses Station]]]]Cairo, specifically [[Ramses Station]], is the centre of almost the entire Egyptian transportation network.<ref name="TravelCairo">{{Cite book |title=Travel Cairo |year=2007 |publisher=MobileReference |isbn=978-1-60501-055-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=50O9dQlwreYC&pg=PT44 |page=44 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[Cairo Transportation Authority]] (CTA) manages Cairo's public transit and runs the [[Cairo Metro]]. The metro network covers [[Helwan]] and other suburbs. It can get very crowded during [[rush hour]]. Two train cars (the fourth and fifth ones) are reserved for women only, although women may ride in any car they want. [[Trams in Greater Cairo]] and Cairo trolleybus were used as modes of transportation, but were closed in the 1970s everywhere except Heliopolis and Helwan. These were shut down in 2014, after the Egyptian Revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=On Cairo's dying trams |url=http://cairobserver.com/post/30531431811/on-cairos-dying-trams |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128184112/http://cairobserver.com/post/30531431811/on-cairos-dying-trams |archive-date=2016-01-28 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=cairobserver.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, the [[Cairo Light Rail Transit]] system opened. Despite the name, the CLRT is more like a commuter rail system than a Light Rail system. As of 2025, the system consists of a single bifurcating line of 12 stations over 70 km, with a top speed of 12p km/h. In 2017, plans to construct [[Cairo Monorail|two monorail systems]] were announced, one linking [[6th of October (city)|6th of October]] to suburban [[Giza]], a distance of {{cvt|35|km}}, and the other linking [[Nasr City]] to [[New Cairo]], a distance of {{cvt|52|km}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Klaassen |first=Davy |date=2023-08-03 |title=q88 |url=https://q88.fyi/ |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=q88.fyi |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-21 |title=Egypt to build country's first ever monorail in Cairo - Egypt Independent |url=https://www.egyptindependent.com/egypt-build-countrys-first-ever-monorail-cairo/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529001422/https://www.egyptindependent.com/egypt-build-countrys-first-ever-monorail-cairo/ |archive-date=2019-05-29 |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=Egypt Independent |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Cairo monorail trains to be built in UK |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-derbyshire-48435983 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529002924/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-derbyshire-48435983 |archive-date=2019-05-29 |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>[[File:Cairo Rapid Transit map.png|center|thumb|600px|Cairo Metro, LRT, BRT and monorail expansion plans]]

=== Roads ===
[[File:Cairo, Egypt (46845880222).jpg|thumb|right|[[6th October Bridge]] in Cairo]]

Two trans-African automobile routes originate in Cairo: the [[Cairo-Cape Town Highway]] and the [[Cairo-Dakar Highway]]. An extensive road network connects Cairo with other Egyptian cities and villages. There is a new [[Ring road|Ring Road]] that surrounds the outskirts of the city, with exits that reach outer Cairo districts. There are flyovers and bridges, such as the [[6th October Bridge]] that, when the traffic is not heavy, allow fast means of transportation from one side of the city to the other.<ref name="TravelCairo" />

Cairo traffic is known to be overwhelming and overcrowded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/779/feature.htm |work=Al-Ahram Weekly |title = Reaching an impasse |publisher=Weekly.ahram.org.eg |date=1 February 2006 |access-date= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420135315/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/779/feature.htm |archive-date=20 April 2009|author = Reem Leila}}</ref> Traffic moves at a relatively fluid pace. Drivers tend to be aggressive, but are more courteous at junctions, taking turns going, with police aiding in [[Road traffic control|traffic control]] of some congested areas.<ref name=TravelCairo/>

=== Other forms of transport ===
* [[Bolt (company)|Bolt]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-05 |title=Bolt launches its ride-hailing operations in Cairo — Trade with Estonia |url=https://tradewithestonia.com/bolt-launches-its-ride-hailing-operations-in-cairo/ |access-date=2025-10-03 |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Cairo Nile Ferry
* Cairo Taxi/Yellow Cab
* [[Careem]]
* [[DiDi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese ride sharing app Didi Chuxing to operate in Egypt mid-September |url=https://dailynewsegypt.com/2021/09/10/chinese-ride-sharing-app-didi-chuxing-to-operate-in-egypt-mid-september/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212915/https://dailynewsegypt.com/2021/09/10/chinese-ride-sharing-app-didi-chuxing-to-operate-in-egypt-mid-september/ |archive-date=2022-02-08 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=dailynewsegypt.com}}</ref>
* [[Uber]]

==Culture==
{{More citations needed|date=August 2022}}
[[File:Cairo opera house.jpg|right|thumb|Cairo Opera House, at the National Cultural Center, [[Zamalek]] district]]
[[File:ModernEgypt, Khedivial Opera House, BAP 25178.jpg|thumb|Khedivial Opera House, 1869]]

===Cultural tourism in Egypt===
{{Main|Cultural tourism in Egypt}}

===Cairo Opera House===
{{Main|Cairo Opera House}}

[[President Mubarak]] inaugurated the new Cairo Opera House of the Egyptian National Cultural Centres on 10 October 1988, 17 years after the Royal Opera House had been destroyed by fire. The National Cultural Centre was built with the help of [[JICA]], the Japan International Co-operation Agency and stands as a prominent feature for the [[Egypt–Japan relations|Japanese-Egyptian co-operation]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zuhur|first1=Sherifa|title=Images of Enchantment: Visual and Performing Arts of the Middle East|date=1998|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=978-9774244674|page=127|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd5g1ohkocAC&q=Cairo+Opera+House&pg=PA127}}</ref> and the friendship between the two nations.

===Khedivial Opera House===
{{Main|Khedivial Opera House}}

The [[Khedivial Opera House]], or Royal Opera House, was the original opera house in Cairo. It was dedicated on 1 November 1869 and burned down on 28 October 1971. After the original opera house was destroyed, Cairo was without an opera house for nearly two decades until the opening of the new Cairo Opera House in 1988.

===Cairo International Film Festival===
{{Main|Cairo International Film Festival}}

Cairo held its first international [[film festival]] 16 August 1976, when the first [[Cairo International Film Festival]] was launched by the Egyptian Association of Film Writers and Critics, headed by Kamal El-Mallakh. The Association ran the festival for seven years until 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cairo International Film Festival - Short Film Competition |url=https://filmfreeway.com/CairoInternationalFilmFestival |access-date=2023-12-11 |website=FilmFreeway |language=en}}</ref>

This achievement lead to the President of the Festival again contacting the [[FIAPF]] with the request that a competition should be included at the 1991 Festival. The request was granted.

In 1998, the Festival took place under the presidency of one of Egypt's leading actors, [[Hussein Fahmy]], who was appointed by the [[Ministry of Culture (Egypt)|Minister of Culture]], [[Farouk Hosny|Farouk Hosni]], after the death of Saad El-Din Wahba. Four years later, the journalist and writer Cherif El-Shoubashy became president.

===Cairo Geniza===
{{Main|Cairo Geniza}}

[[File:Solomon Schechter studying the fragments of the Cairo Genizah, c. 1898.jpg|thumb|[[Solomon Schechter]] at work in Cambridge University Library, studying the fragments of the [[Cairo Geniza]], {{Circa|1898}}]]

The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200,000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the ''[[genizah]]'' of the [[Ben Ezra Synagogue]] (built 882) of Fustat, Egypt (now Old Cairo), [[the Basatin cemetery]] east of Old Cairo, and a number of old documents that were bought in Cairo in the later 19th century. These documents were written from about 870 to 1880 AD and have been archived in various American and European libraries. The Taylor-Schechter collection in the [[University of Cambridge]] runs to 140,000 manuscripts; a further 40,000 manuscripts are housed at the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]].

==Sports==
[[File:Crowd in Cairo Stadium.jpg|thumb|[[Cairo International Stadium]] with 75,100 seats]]

[[Association football|Football]] is the most popular sport in Egypt,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sport in Egypt |url=https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/egypt.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731230107/https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/egypt.htm |archive-date=2021-07-31 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.topendsports.com |language=en}}</ref> and Cairo has sporting teams that compete in national and regional leagues, most notably [[Al Ahly SC|Al Ahly]] and [[Zamalek SC]], who were the [[Confederation of African Football|CAF]] first and second African clubs of the 20th century. The annual match between Al Ahly and El Zamalek is one of the most watched sports events in Egypt. The teams form the major rivalry of Egyptian football. They play their home games at [[Cairo International Stadium]], which is the second largest stadium in Egypt, as well as the largest in Cairo.

The Cairo International Stadium was built in 1960. Its multi-purpose sports complex houses the main football stadium, an [[Cairo Stadium Indoor Halls Complex|indoor stadium]], satellite fields that hold regional and continental games, including the [[All-Africa Games|African Games]], U17 Football World Championship and the [[2006 Africa Cup of Nations]]. Egypt later won the competition and the next edition in Ghana (2008) making the Egyptian and Ghanaian national teams the only to win the African Nations Cup back to back. Egypt won the title for a record six times in the history of African Continental Competition. This was followed by a third consecutive win in Angola in 2010, making Egypt the only country with a record 3-consecutive and 7-total Continental Football Competition winner. As of 2021, Egypt's national team is ranked #46 in the world by FIFA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FIFA |url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/EGY |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731232221/https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/EGY |archive-date=2021-07-31 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.fifa.com |language=en}}</ref>

Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]], which was hosted in Beijing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008 |publisher=International Olympic Committee |date=2000-08-18 |url=https://doc.rero.ch/record/20222/files/2008_-_Rapport_du_groupe_de_travail_du_cio_pour_acceptation_des_candidatures_-_eng.pdf |access-date=1 August 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731230854/https://doc.rero.ch/record/20222/files/2008_-_Rapport_du_groupe_de_travail_du_cio_pour_acceptation_des_candidatures_-_eng.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Cairo did host the [[2007 Pan Arab Games]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egypt2007.com.eg/En/Pages/default.aspx |title=The 11th Arab Games |website=www.egypt2007.com.eg |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114132939/http://www.egypt2007.com.eg/En/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=14 November 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

There are other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including [[Gezira Sporting Club]], el Shams Club, [[Egyptian Shooting Club|Shooting Club]], [[Heliopolis Sporting Club]], and several smaller clubs. There are new sports clubs in the area of New Cairo (one hour far from Cairo's downtown), these are Al Zohour sporting club, Wadi Degla sporting club and Platinum Club.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.egyptindependent.com/four-clubs-four-communities-gezira-sporting-club/ |title=Four clubs, four communities: The Gezira Sporting Club |date=16 March 2012 |first1=Heba |last1=Helmy |access-date=1 August 2021 |publisher=Egyptian Independent |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731232417/https://egyptindependent.com/four-clubs-four-communities-gezira-sporting-club/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Most of the sports federations of the country are located in the city suburbs, including the [[Egyptian Football Association]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=CAF - Confedération Africaine du Football |title=CAFOnline.com |url=https://www.cafonline.com/member-associations/egy/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731231901/https://www.cafonline.com/member-associations/egy/ |archive-date=2021-07-31 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=CAFOnline.com |language=en}}</ref> The headquarters of the [[Confederation of African Football]] (CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in [[6th of October City|6 October City]], a small city away from Cairo's crowded districts. In 2008, the Egyptian Rugby Federation was officially formed and granted membership into the [[International Rugby Board]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rugbyegypt.com/ |title=Welcome to the website of the Egyptian Rugby Football Union (ERFU)! |archive-date=2009-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228150552/http://rugbyegypt.com/ |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Egypt is internationally known for the excellence of its squash players who excel in professional and junior divisions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://theculturetrip.com/africa/egypt/articles/egyptians-squash-dominance/ |title=Why Egyptians Are so Dominant at Squash |first=Michael |last=LoRé |date=9 February 2018 |publisher= |access-date=14 April 2018 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415063331/https://theculturetrip.com/africa/egypt/articles/egyptians-squash-dominance/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Egypt has seven players in the top ten of the PSA men's world rankings, and three in the women's top ten. [[Mohamed El Shorbagy]] held the world number one position for more than a year. [[Nour El Sherbini]] has won the Women's World Championship twice and has been the women's world number one. On 30 April 2016, she became the youngest woman to win the Women's World Championship. In 2017 she retained her title.

Cairo is the official endpoint of [[Cross Egypt Challenge]] where its route ends yearly in the most sacred place in Egypt, under the [[Great Pyramids of Giza]] with a huge trophy-giving ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.crossegyptchallenge.com/ |title=Cross Egypt Challenge |website=crossegyptchallenge.com |access-date=31 July 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731231230/http://www.crossegyptchallenge.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cityscape and landmarks==
{{scalable image|Cairo, Egypt (46846056782).jpg|1200px|[[Cityscape]] of the banks of the Nile.}}

===Tahrir Square===
{{Main|Tahrir Square}}

[[File:TahrirSQ-2020(2).jpg|thumb|View of [[Tahrir Square]] (in 2020)|alt=]]

Tahrir Square was founded during the mid 19th century with the establishment of modern downtown Cairo. It was first named Ismailia Square, after the 19th-century ruler Khedive Ismail, who commissioned the new downtown district's 'Paris on the Nile' design. After the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919]] the square became widely known as Tahrir (Liberation) Square, though it was not officially renamed as such until after the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]] which eliminated the monarchy. Several notable buildings surround the square including, the American University in Cairo's downtown campus, the [[Mogamma]] governmental administrative Building, the headquarters of the [[Arab League]], the Nile Ritz Carlton Hotel, and the [[Egyptian Museum]]. Being at the heart of Cairo, the square has witnessed several major protests over the years. However, the most notable event in the square was being the focal point of the [[2011 Egyptian Revolution]] against former president Hosni Mubarak.<ref>{{cite book |author=Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. |title=The Middle East: From the End of Empire to the End of the Cold War |url=https://archive.org/details/middleeastfromen0000vati |url-access=registration |year=1997 |publisher=Routledge |page=[https://archive.org/details/middleeastfromen0000vati/page/194 194] |isbn=9780415158497}}</ref> In 2020 the government completed the erection of a new monument in the center of the square featuring an ancient [[obelisk]] from the reign of [[Ramesses II|Ramses II]], originally unearthed at [[Tanis]] (San al-Hagar) in 2019, and four ram-headed [[sphinx]] statues moved from [[Karnak]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Michaelson |first=Ruth |date=2020-05-07 |title=Egyptologists attack transfer of sphinxes to Tahrir Square |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/07/egyptologists-pan-transfer-of-sphinxes-to-tahrir-square |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-16 |title=Tahrir Square soon to boast ancient obelisk and stone rams |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/6/81712/Tahrir-Square-soon-to-boast-ancient-obelisk-and-stone-rams |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=EgyptToday |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529062935/https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/6/81712/Tahrir-Square-soon-to-boast-ancient-obelisk-and-stone-rams |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Machemer |first2=Theresa |title=Egypt Defies Archaeologists' Protests by Relocating Four Ancient Sphinxes |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/egypt-relocated-four-ancient-sphinxes-despite-archaeologist-protests-180974844/ |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en |archive-date=23 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123113411/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/egypt-relocated-four-ancient-sphinxes-despite-archaeologist-protests-180974844/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Egyptian Museum===
[[File:Kairo Ägyptisches Museum 03.jpg|thumb|Main entrance of the [[Egyptian Museum]], located at Tahrir Square]]

The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the world. It has 136,000 items on display, with many more hundreds of thousands in its basement storerooms. Among the collections on display are the finds from the [[KV62|tomb of Tutankhamun]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Under Constraction |url=http://www.antiquities.gov.eg/DefaultEn/Pages/UnderConstraction.aspx/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802060113/http://www.antiquities.gov.eg/DefaultEn/Pages/UnderConstraction.aspx/ |archive-date=2022-08-02 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.antiquities.gov.eg |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Grand Egyptian Museum====
{{Main|Grand Egyptian Museum}}

Much of the collection of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, including the Tutankhamun collection, are slated to be moved to the new [[Grand Egyptian Museum]], under construction in [[Giza]] and was due to open by the end of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cntraveler.com/story/grand-egyptian-museum-cairo-everything-we-know |title=Everything We Know About Cairo's New Grand Egyptian Museum |last=Sattin |first=Anthony |website=Condé Nast Traveler |date=30 July 2019 |language=en |access-date=2020-03-10 |archive-date=17 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417050417/https://www.cntraveler.com/story/grand-egyptian-museum-cairo-everything-we-know |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/grand-egyptian-museum |title=The Grand Egyptian Museum will finally open at the end of 2020 |last=Keith |first=Lauren |website=Lonely Planet |language=en |access-date=2020-03-10 |archive-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303011639/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/grand-egyptian-museum |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Cairo Tower===
{{Main|Cairo Tower}}

[[File:Cairotower.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cairo Tower]] at night]]

The Cairo Tower is a free-standing tower with a revolving restaurant at the top. It is one of Cairo's landmarks and provides a bird's eye view of the city to restaurant patrons. It stands in the Zamalek district on Gezira Island on the Nile River, in the city centre. At {{cvt|187|m|ft|abbr=off}}, it is {{cvt|44|m|ft|abbr=off}} higher than the Great Pyramid of Giza, which stands some {{cvt|15|km|0|abbr=off}} to the southwest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ask-Aladdin |title=Cairo Tower {{!}} Cairo Tower , Egypt Cairo Tower {{!}} Cairo Tower information {{!}} Cairo Tower Facts - AskAladdin |url=https://ask-aladdin.com/egypt-sites/cairo-tower/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411213136/https://ask-aladdin.com/egypt-sites/cairo-tower/ |archive-date=2022-04-11 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=Egypt Travel Experts |language=en}}</ref>

===Old Cairo===
{{Main|Old Cairo|Coptic Cairo}}

[[File:Hanging Church Cairo.jpg|thumb|The [[Hanging Church]] in [[Old Cairo]]|left]]
This area of Cairo is so-named as it contains the remains of the ancient Roman fortress of Babylon and also overlaps the original site of Fustat, the first Arab settlement in Egypt (7th century AD) and the predecessor of later Cairo. The area includes Coptic Cairo, which holds a high concentration of old Christian churches such as the [[Hanging Church]], the [[Church of St. George (Cairo)|Greek Orthodox Church of St. George]], and other Christian or Coptic buildings, most of which are located in an enclave on the site of the ancient Roman fortress. It is also the location of the [[Coptic Museum]], which showcases the history of [[Coptic art]] from Greco-Roman to Islamic times, and of the [[Ben Ezra Synagogue]], the oldest and best-known [[synagogue]] in Cairo, where the important collection of Geniza documents were discovered in the 19th century.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=43}}

[[File:010112 00001 Koptisches Viertel, Kairo.jpg|thumb|Cemetery in Coptic Cairo]]
To the north of this Coptic enclave is the Amr ibn al-'As Mosque, the first mosque in Egypt and the most important religious centre of what was formerly Fustat, founded in 642 AD right after the Arab conquest but rebuilt many times since.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=39}} A part of the former city of Fustat has also been excavated to the east of the mosque and of the Coptic enclave,{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=|pp=275–279}}{{Sfn|Williams|2018|pp=47–48}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Toler |first=Pamela D. |date=2016 |title=In Fragments from Fustat, Glimpses of a Cosmopolitan Old Cairo |url=https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/January-2016/In-Fragments-from-Fustat-Glimpses-of-a-Cosmopolit |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=AramcoWorld |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606192722/https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/January-2016/In-Fragments-from-Fustat-Glimpses-of-a-Cosmopolit |url-status=live }}</ref> although the archeological site is threatened by encroaching construction and modern development.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|pp=47–48}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-04-17 |title=Islamic Egypt's first capital under threat |url=http://en-maktoob.news.yahoo.com/islamic-egypts-first-capital-under-threat-232512028.html |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-US}}</ref> To the northwest of Babylon Fortress and the mosque is the Monastery of Saint Mercurius (or ''Dayr Abu Sayfayn''), an important and historic Coptic religious complex consisting of the [[Saint Mercurius Church in Coptic Cairo|Church of Saint Mercurius]], the Church of Saint Shenute, and the Church of the Virgin (also known as ''al-Damshiriya'').{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=178}} Several other historic churches are also situated to the south of Babylon Fortress.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=230}}

===Islamic Cairo===
{{main|Islamic Cairo}}

[[File:Al-Azhar (inside) 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|Al-Azhar Mosque, view of Fatimid-era courtyard and Mamluk minarets]]
[[File:El-Moez Street-Old Cairo-Egypt.jpg|thumb|[[Muizz Street|Al-Muizz Street]] in [[Islamic Cairo]]]]
[[File:مصر القديمه ..حى الخانكه.jpg|thumb|[[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan]] and the [[al-Rifa'i Mosque]], seen from the Citadel]]

Cairo holds one of the greatest concentrations of historical monuments of [[Islamic architecture]] in the world.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p={{page needed|date=March 2022}}}} The areas around the old walled city and around the Citadel are characterised by hundreds of mosques, tombs, [[madrasas]], mansions, [[caravanserais]], and fortifications dating from the Islamic era and are often referred to as "[[Islamic Cairo]]", especially in English travel literature.<ref>e.g. {{harvnb|O'Neill et al|2012|}}</ref> It is also the location of several important religious shrines such as the [[al-Hussein Mosque]] (whose shrine is believed to hold the head of [[Husayn ibn Ali]]), the Mausoleum of Imam [[al-Shafi'i]] (founder of the [[Shafi'i]] ''[[madhhab]]'', one of the primary schools of thought in Sunni [[Islamic jurisprudence]]), the [[Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya|Tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya]], the [[Al-Sayeda Nafeesah Mosque|Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa]], and others.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=}}

The first mosque in Egypt was the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in what was formerly Fustat, the first Arab-Muslim settlement in the area. However, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun is the oldest mosque that still retains its original form and is a rare example of Abbasid architecture from the [[Islamic Golden Age|classical period of Islamic civilisation]]. It was built in 876–879 AD in a style inspired by the Abbasid capital of [[Samarra]] in Iraq.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=50–54}} It is one of the largest mosques in Cairo and is often cited as one of the most beautiful.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=50}}{{sfn|O'Neill et al|2012|p=87}} Another Abbasid construction, the [[Nilometer]] on Roda Island, is the oldest original structure in Cairo, built in 862 AD. It was designed to measure the level of the Nile, which was important for agricultural and administrative purposes.<ref>Yeomans, Richard. 2006. ''The Art and Architecture of Islamic Cairo''. Garnet Publishing, p 29.</ref>

The settlement that was formally named Cairo (Arabic: ''al-Qahira'') was founded to the northeast of Fustat in 959 AD by the victorious Fatimid army. The Fatimids built it as a separate palatial city which contained their palaces and institutions of government. It was enclosed by a circuit of walls, which were rebuilt in stone in the late 11th century AD by the vizier Badr al-Gamali,{{sfn|Raymond|1993|p=62}} parts of which survive today at Bab Zuwayla in the south and Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr in the north. Among the extant monuments from the Fatimid era are the large [[Al-Hakim Mosque|Mosque of al-Hakim]], the [[Aqmar Mosque]], [[Juyushi Mosque]], [[Lulua Mosque]], and the [[Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque|Mosque of Al-Salih Tala'i]].{{Sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|1992|pp=58-77}}{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=}}

One of the most important and lasting institutions founded in the Fatimid period was the Mosque of al-Azhar, founded in 970 AD, which competes with the [[al-Qarawiyyin]] in [[Fes]] for the title of oldest university in the world.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=169}} Today, al-Azhar University is the foremost Center of Islamic learning in the world and one of Egypt's largest universities with campuses across the country.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=169}} The mosque itself retains significant Fatimid elements but has been added to and expanded in subsequent centuries, notably by the Mamluk sultans Qaytbay and al-Ghuri and by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Behrens-Abouseif|1992|pp=62}}

The most prominent architectural heritage of medieval Cairo, however, dates from the Mamluk period, from 1250 to 1517 AD. The Mamluk sultans and elites were eager patrons of religious and scholarly life, commonly building religious or funerary complexes whose functions could include a mosque, madrasa, [[khanqah]] (for [[Sufis]]), a [[Sebil (fountain)|sabil]] (water dispensary), and a mausoleum for themselves and their families.<ref name="Behrens-2007">Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. 2007. ''Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture''. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.</ref> Among the best-known examples of Mamluk monuments in Cairo are the huge [[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan]], the [[Mosque of Amir al-Maridani]], the [[Mosque of Sultan al-Muayyad|Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad]] (whose twin minarets were built above the gate of Bab Zuwayla), the [[Sultan Al-Ghuri Complex|Sultan Al-Ghuri complex]], the [[Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay|funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay]] in the [[City of the Dead (Cairo)|Northern Cemetery]], and the trio of monuments in the [[Bayn al-Qasrayn]] area comprising the [[Qalawun complex|complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun]], the [[Madrassa of Al-Nasir Muhammad|Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad]], and the [[Madrasa of Sultan Barquq]]. Some mosques include [[spolia]] (often columns or [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]]) from earlier buildings built by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], or [[Copts]].{{sfn|Williams|2008|p={{page needed|date=March 2022}}}}

The Mamluks, and the later Ottomans, also built ''wikala''s or caravanserais to house merchants and goods due to the important role of trade and commerce in Cairo's economy.{{sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=90–97}} Still intact today is the [[Wikala of Al-Ghuri|Wikala al-Ghuri]], which today hosts regular performances by the Al-[[Tannoura]] Egyptian Heritage Dance Troupe.{{sfn|O'Neill et al|2012|p=81}} The [[Khan el-Khalili|Khan al-Khalili]] is a commercial hub which also integrated caravanserais (also known as ''khan''s).<ref name="Denoix-1999a">{{Cite book |title=Le Khan al-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale |year=1999 |editor-last=Denoix |editor-first=Sylvie |location=Cairo |editor-last2=Depaule |editor-first2=Jean-Charles |editor-last3=Tuchscherer |editor-first3=Michel}}</ref>

===Citadel of Cairo===
{{Main|Cairo Citadel}}

[[File:Flickr - HuTect ShOts - Citadel of Salah El.Din and Masjid Muhammad Ali قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي ومسجد محمد علي - Cairo - Egypt - 17 04 2010 (4).jpg|thumb|The Citadel of Cairo, with the [[Mosque of Muhammad Ali]]|alt=]]

The Citadel is a fortified enclosure begun by [[Saladin|Salah al-Din]] in 1176 AD on an outcrop of the [[Muqatam|Muqattam Hills]] as part of a large defensive system to protect both Cairo to the north and [[Fustat]] to the southwest.{{sfn|Raymond|1993|pp=90–97}} It was the centre of Egyptian government and residence of its rulers until 1874, when [[Isma'il Pasha|Khedive Isma'il]] moved to [[Abdeen Palace|'Abdin Palace]].{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=221}} It is still occupied by the military today, but is now open as a tourist attraction comprising, notably, the [[Egyptian National Military Museum|National Military Museum]], the 14th century [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque|Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad]], and the 19th century [[Mosque of Muhammad Ali]] which commands a dominant position on Cairo's skyline.{{sfn|Williams|2018|p=|pp=259-272}}

===Khan el-Khalili===
{{Main|Khan el-Khalili}}

[[File:Khan el-Khalili, Old Cairo, al-Qāhirah, CG, EGY (40944894033).jpg|thumb|A medieval gateway in [[Khan el-Khalili|Khan al-Khalili]]]]

Khan el-Khalili is an ancient [[bazaar]], or marketplace adjacent to the [[Al-Hussein Mosque]]. It dates back to 1385, when Amir Jarkas el-Khalili built a large caravanserai, or khan. (A caravanserai is a hotel for traders, and usually the focal point for any surrounding area.) This original caravanserai building was demolished by [[qansuh al-Ghuri|Sultan al-Ghuri]], who rebuilt it as a new commercial complex in the early 16th century, forming the basis for the network of souqs existing today.{{sfn|Raymond|1993|p=179}} Many medieval elements remain today, including the ornate Mamluk-style gateways.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=179}} Today, Khan el-Khalili is a major tourist attraction and popular stop for tour groups.{{sfn|O'Neill et al|2012|pp=74–75}}

==Society==
In the present day, Cairo is a heavily urbanised city. Because of the influx of people into the city, lone standing houses are rare, and apartment buildings accommodate for the limited space and abundance of people. Single detached houses are usually owned by the wealthy.<ref name="february">{{Cite web |title=Life in Modern Cairo |url=https://www.laits.utexas.edu/cairo/modern/life/life.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225093029/http://www.laits.utexas.edu/cairo/modern/life/life.html |archive-date=25 February 2021 |access-date=2021-03-24 |website=www.laits.utexas.edu}}</ref> Formal education is also seen as important, with twelve years of standard formal education. Cairenes can take a standardised test similar to the [[SAT]] to be accepted to an institution of higher learning, but most children do not finish school and opt to pick up a trade to enter the workforce.<ref name="february" /> Egypt still struggles with [[poverty]], with almost half the population living on $2 or less a day.<ref>Mitchell Hartman, ''On Rich and Poor in Egypt''. Marketplace, 2011.</ref>

===Women's rights===
{{main|Women in Egypt}}

The civil rights movement for women in Cairo – and by extent, Egypt – has been a struggle for years. Women are reported to face constant discrimination, sexual harassment, and abuse throughout Cairo. A 2013 [[United Nations|UN]] study found that over 99% of [[Women in Egypt|Egyptian women]] reported experiencing sexual harassment at some point in their lives.<ref>United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerement of Women, [https://www.eisf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/2172-UN-Women-2013-Study-on-Ways-and-Methods-to-Eliminate-Sexual-Harassment-in-Egypt.pdf Study on Ways and Methods to Eliminate Sexual Harassment in Egypt] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528205636/https://gisf.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/2172-UN-Women-2013-Study-on-Ways-and-Methods-to-Eliminate-Sexual-Harassment-in-Egypt.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729170507/https://gisf.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/2172-UN-Women-2013-Study-on-Ways-and-Methods-to-Eliminate-Sexual-Harassment-in-Egypt.pdf |archive-date=2020-07-29 |url-status=live |date=28 May 2021 }}</ref> The problem has persisted in spite of new national laws since 2014 defining and criminalising sexual harassment.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Egypt brings in new sex assault laws |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27726849 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012162357/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27726849 |archive-date=2019-10-12 |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> The situation is so severe that in 2017, Cairo was named by one poll as the most dangerous [[megacity]] for women in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cairo 'most dangerous' city for women |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-41637383 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305110340/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-41637383 |archive-date=2020-03-05 |access-date=2025-10-03 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2020, the social media account "Assault Police" began to name and shame perpetrators of violence against women, in an effort to dissuade potential offenders.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Walsh |first=Declan |date=2020-10-02 |title=The 22-Year-Old Force Behind Egypt's Growing #MeToo Movement |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/world/middleeast/egypt-metoo-sexual-harassment-ashraf.html |access-date=2021-01-09 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=11 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311144311/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/world/middleeast/egypt-metoo-sexual-harassment-ashraf.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The account was founded by student [[Nadeen Ashraf]], who is credited for instigating an iteration of the [[Me Too movement|#MeToo movement]] in Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt’s #MeToo Activists See Progress, but ‘the Road Ahead Is Long’ |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/29295/in-egypt-women-s-rights-activists-see-progress-but-the-road-ahead-is-long |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311144312/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/29295/in-egypt-women-s-rights-activists-see-progress-but-the-road-ahead-is-long |archive-date=2021-03-11 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=www.worldpoliticsreview.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Pollution==
[[File:NilPollution.jpg|thumb|Smog in Cairo]]
[[File:Cairo Traffic.jpg|thumb|Traffic in Cairo]]

The [[air pollution]] in Cairo is a matter of serious concern. Greater Cairo's volatile [[aromatic hydrocarbon]] levels are higher than many other similar cities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khoder |first=M.I. |title=Ambient levels of volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere of Greater Cairo |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=554–66 |date=January 2007 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.051 |issn=1352-2310 |bibcode=2007AtmEn..41..554K}}<!-- |access-date=1 January 2007 --></ref> Air quality measurements in Cairo have also been recording dangerous levels of [[lead]], [[carbon dioxide]], [[sulfur dioxide|sulphur dioxide]], and [[suspended solids|suspended particulate matter]] concentrations due to decades of unregulated [[vehicle emissions control|vehicle emissions]], urban industrial operations, and chaff and trash burning. There are over 4,500,000 cars on the streets of Cairo, 60% of which are over 10 years old, and therefore lack modern emission cutting features. Cairo has a very poor dispersion factor because of its lack of rain and its layout of tall buildings and narrow streets, which create a bowl effect.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.theecoexperts.co.uk/most-polluted-cities |title=The Most Polluted Cities in the World |publisher=The Eco Experts |first=Fran |last=Whittaker-Wood |date=25 July 2018 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701230800/https://blog.theecoexperts.co.uk/most-polluted-cities |archive-date=1 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In recent years, a black cloud (as Egyptians refer to it) of [[smog]]  has appeared over Cairo every autumn due to [[Inversion (meteorology)|temperature inversion]]. Smog causes serious respiratory diseases and eye irritations for the city's citizens. Tourists who are not familiar with such high levels of pollution must take extra care.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Black cloud reappears over Cairo |journal=Middle East Online |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=554 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.051 |author=Khoder, M |year=2007 |bibcode=2007AtmEn..41..554K}}</ref>

Cairo also has many unregistered lead and [[copper]] [[smelter]]s which heavily pollute the city. The results of this has been a permanent haze over the city with [[particulate matter]] in the air reaching over three times normal levels. It is estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people a year in Cairo die due to air pollution-related diseases. Lead has been shown to cause harm to the [[central nervous system]] and neurotoxicity particularly in children.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates |journal=Brain |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |date=January 2003 |doi=10.1093/brain/awg014 |author=Lidsky, T. I. |pmid=12477693 |last2=Schneider |first2=JS |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1995, the first environmental acts were introduced and the situation has seen some improvement with 36 air monitoring stations and [[Emissions testing|emissions tests]] on cars. Twenty thousand buses have also been commissioned to the city to improve congestion levels, which are very high.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A black cloud over Cairo {{!}} Earthdata |url=https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/sensing-our-planet/a-black-cloud-over-cairo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016182202/https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/sensing-our-planet/a-black-cloud-over-cairo |archive-date=2020-10-16 |access-date=2025-10-03 |website=earthdata.nasa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

The city also suffers from a high level of land pollution. Cairo produces 10,000 tons of waste material each day, 4,000 tons of which are not [[Waste collection|collected]] or [[Waste management|managed]]. This is a huge health hazard, and the Egyptian Government is looking for ways to combat this. The Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Agency was founded to collect and recycle the waste; they work with the [[Zabbaleen]] community that has been collecting and recycling Cairo's waste since the turn of the 20th century and live in an area known locally as [[Manshiyat Naser]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/06/03/MNGKOJ82991.DTL |title=From Cairo's trash, a model of recycling / Old door-to-door method boasts 85% reuse rate |publisher=Sfgate.com |date=3 June 2006 |access-date=5 May 2009 |first=Jack |last=Epstein |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010222736/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F06%2F03%2FMNGKOJ82991.DTL |archive-date=10 October 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Both are working together to pick up as much waste as possible within the city limits, though it remains a pressing problem.

==International relations==
The [[Headquarters of the Arab League]] is located at [[Tahrir Square]] in downtown Cairo.

===Twin towns – sister cities===
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt}}

Cairo is [[sister city|twinned]] with:<ref>{{cite web|title=Brotherhood & Friendship Agreements|url=http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/agreements.aspx|website=cairo.gov.eg|publisher=Cairo|access-date=2022-03-09|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124123644/http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/agreements.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Abu Dhabi]], United Arab Emirates
* [[Al-Quds]], Palestine
* [[Amman]], Jordan
* [[Baghdad]], Iraq
* [[Beijing]], China
* [[Damascus]], Syria
* [[Istanbul]], Turkey
* [[Kairouan]], Tunisia
* [[Khartoum]], Sudan
<!--Los Angeles - not twinning-->
* [[Muscat]], Oman
* [[Province of Palermo|Palermo Province]], Italy
* [[Rabat]], Morocco
* [[Sanaa]], Yemen
* [[Seoul]], South Korea
* [[Stuttgart]], Germany <!--confirmed-->
* [[Tashkent]], Uzbekistan
* [[Tbilisi]], Georgia
* [[Tokyo]], Japan
* [[Tripoli, Libya]]
{{div col end}}

==Notable people==
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦--->
* [[Zulfikar family]], Egyptian noble family
* [[Rabab Al-Kadhimi]] (1918–1998), dentist and poet
* [[Neobyrd|Wael Alaa]] (born 1987), musician known as Neobyrd 
* [[Amr Aly]] (born 1962), American soccer player and Olympian 
* [[Gamal Aziz]], also known as Gamal Mohammed Abdelaziz, former president and chief operating officer of [[Wynn Resorts]], and former CEO of [[MGM Resorts International]], indicted as part of the [[2019 college admissions bribery scandal]]
* [[Yasser Arafat]] (1929–2004), born Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was the 3rd Chairman of The [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] and first president of the [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian Authority]]
* [[Abu Sa'id al-Afif]], 15th-century Samaritan
* [[Ezz El-Dine Zulficar]] (1919–1963), Egyptian film director, screenwriter, actor and producer, known for his distinctive style, which blends romance and action. Zulficar was one of the most influential filmmakers in the [[Cinema of Egypt|Egyptian Cinema's]] golden age.
* [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|Boutros Ghali]] (1922–2016), former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]
* [[Dalida]] (1933–1987), Italian-Egyptian singer who lived most of her life in France, received 55 golden records and was the first singer to receive a [[Music recording sales certification|diamond disc]]
* [[Farouk El-Baz]] (born 1938), [[Egyptian American]] [[space scientist]] who worked with [[NASA]] to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography
* [[Ahmed Mourad Bey Zulfikar]] (1888–1945), Egyptian chief of police
* [[Freddy Elbaiady]] (born 1971), Egyptian politician
* [[Mohamed ElBaradei]] (born 1942), former [[Director-general|Director General]] of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], [[Nobel Peace Prize|2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate]]
* [[C. S. Forester]] (1899–1966), English novelist known for writing tales of naval warfare, born in Cairo.
* [[Nourane Fotsing Moluh Hassana|Nourane Foster]] (born 1987), Cameroonian entrepreneur, politician and member of the National Assembly
* [[William Donald Hamilton]] (1936–2000), British evolutionary biologist, was born in Cairo
* [[Mauro Hamza]] (born 1965/1966), fencing coach
* [[Ahmed Hassanein (American football)|Ahmed Hassanein]], [[NFL]] player for the [[Detroit Lions]], spent most of his childhood in Cairo
* [[Taco Hemingway]] (born 1990), Polish hip-hop artist
* [[Dorothy Hodgkin]] (1910–1994), British chemist, credited with the development of [[protein crystallography]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1964
* [[Sonallah Ibrahim]] (1937–2025), novelist and short story writer
* [[Naguib Mahfouz]] (1911–2006), novelist, [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] laureate in 1988
* [[Roland Moreno]] (1945–2012), French inventor, engineer, humorist and author who invented the [[smart card]]
* [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] (1918–1970), Egyptian politician who served as the [[List of Presidents of Egypt|second President of Egypt]] from 1954 until his death in 1970.
* [[Ahmed Sabri]] (1889–1955), painter
* [[Dina Zulfikar]] (born 1962), film distributor and animal welfare activist
* [[Mohamed Sobhi (actor)|Mohamed Sobhi]] (born 1948), film, television and stage actor, and director
* [[Beatification|Blessed]] [[Maria Caterina Troiani]] (1813–1887), [[mercy|charitable activist]]
* [[Magdi Yacoub]] (born 1935), Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon
* [[Hesham Youssef]], Egyptian diplomat
* [[Ahmed Zulfikar]] (1952–2010), mechanical engineer and entrepreneur
* [[Naguib Sawiris]] (born 1954), businessman, 62nd richest person on Earth in 2007 [[billionaire|list of billionaires]], reaching US$10.0 billion with his company [[Orascom Telecom Holding]]
* [[Yakub Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] (1889–1974), Turkish novelist
* [[Mona Zulficar]] (born 1950), lawyer and [[Human rights defender|human rights activist]]. She was included in the [[Forbes]] 2021 list of the "100 most powerful businesswomen in the Arab region".
* [[Isma'il Pasha of Egypt|Ismail Pacha]] (1830–1895), Egyptian politician who served as [[Khedive]] of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]] from 1863 to 1879
* [[Avi Cohen]] (1956–2010), Israeli international footballer
* [[Maghlatay ibn Qalij]] (1291–1361), Islamic scholar and author of the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk era]].

==See also==
* [[Charles Ayrout]]
* [[Cultural tourism in Egypt]]
* [[List of buildings in Cairo]]
* [[List of cities and towns in Egypt]]
* [[Outline of Cairo]]
* [[Outline of Egypt]]
* [[Architecture of Egypt]]

==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|23em}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |title=Tale of Two Cities: The Origins of Modern Cairo |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=7 |issue=4 |last=Abu-Lughod |first=Janet |issn=0010-4175 |date=July 1965 |pages=429–457 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500003819|s2cid=145607590 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Abu-Lughod |first=Janet L.|author-link=Janet Abu-Lughod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVmYDwAAQBAJ |title=Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-691-65660-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |title=Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali |author=Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot |author-link=Afaf Lufti al-Sayyid-Marsot |isbn=978-0-521-28968-9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |location=Cambridge, UK |edition=illustrated, reprint}}
* {{Cite book |last=AlSayyad |first=Nezar |title=Cairo: Histories of a City |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780674047860}}
* {{cite book |last=Battuta |first=Ibn |title=The Travels of Ibn Battuta |author-link=Ibn Battuta |date=1829 |publication-date=2009|orig-date=1355 |translator-last1=Lee |translator-first1=Samuel |publisher=Cosimo Classics |isbn=9781616402624}}
* {{Cite book |title=Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |edition=2nd |year=1992 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-09626-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=INsmT6zjAl8C |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=1 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701182946/http://books.google.com/books?id=INsmT6zjAl8C |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2007|isbn=9789774160776}}
* {{cite book |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Gabriel Said |title=The Qur'an in its Historical Context |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415491693 |pages=1–26 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |chapter=Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Black Death |last=Byrne |first=Joseph Patrick |isbn=978-0-313-32492-5 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |location=Westport, Conn. |edition=illustrated, annotated}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clot |first=André |title=L'Égypte des Mamelouks: L'empire des esclaves, 1250–1517 |publisher=Perrin |year=1996 | isbn=2-262-01030-7 | oclc=911345545 | language=fr}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Nile |last=Collins |first=Robert O. |isbn=978-0-300-09764-1 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |location=New Haven, Conn. |edition=illustrated |url=https://archive.org/details/nile00robe}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Egypt: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517 |last1=Daly |first1=M. W. |last2=Petry |first2=Carl F. |isbn=978-0-521-47137-4 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |location=Cambridge, UK}}
* {{Cite book |last=Elyachar |first=Julia |title=Markets of Dispossession: NGOs, Economic Development, and the State in Cairo |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xoy_Z0ohsYYC&pg=PA56 |isbn=978-0-8223-8713-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gabra |first1=Gawdat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOxcBgAAQBAJ |title=The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque |last2=van Loon |first2=Gertrud J.M. |last3=Reif |first3=Stefan |last4=Swelim |first4=Tarek |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2013 |isbn=9789774167690 |editor-last=Ludwig |editor-first=Carolyn |editor-last2=Jackson |editor-first2=Morris}}
* {{Cite book |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |last2=Smith |first2=Huston |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |year=2003 |publisher=Tien Wah Press |location=Singapore |edition=2nd revised |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas}}
* {{Cite book |title=Cairo: city of sand |last=Golia |first=Maria |isbn=978-1-86189-187-7 |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFRRkvmtSOIC |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421211257/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFRRkvmtSOIC |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |title=Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: Archaeology |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi A. |last2=Brock |first2=Lyla Pinch |isbn=978-977-424-674-6 |publisher=American University in Cairo |year=2003 |location=Cairo |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Modern Middle East: A Reader |last1=Hourani |first1=Albert Habib |last2=Khoury |first2=Philip Shukry |last3=Wilson |first3=Mary Christina |isbn=978-1-86064-963-9 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |location=London |year=2004 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire |last1=İnalcık |first1=Halil |last2=Faroqhi |first2=Suraiya |last3=Quataert |first3=Donald |last4=McGowan |first4=Bruce |last5=Pamuk |first5=Sevket |isbn=978-0-521-57455-6 |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |edition=illustrated, reprinted}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HuQyAgAAQBAJ|title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=2007|isbn=9780297846574|location=London}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War |last=McGregor |first=Andrew James |isbn=978-0-275-98601-8 |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Conn. |url=https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo00andr}}
* {{Cite book |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |last1=Meri |first1=Josef W. |last2=Bacharach |first2=Jere L. |isbn=978-0-415-96692-4 |year=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Neill |first1=Zora |last2=Benanav |first2=Michael |last3=Lee |first3=Jessica |last4=Sattin |first4=Anthony |title=Lonely Planet Egypt |date=2012 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74179-959-0 |edition=11th |ref={{harvid|O'Neill et al|2012}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raymond |first1=André |title=Le Caire |date=1993 |publisher=Fayard |isbn=978-2-213-02983-2 |language=fr}} '''English translation:''' {{Cite book |title=Cairo |last=Raymond |first=André |translator-last1=Wood |translator-first1=Willard |isbn=978-0-674-00316-3 |year=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |url=https://archive.org/details/cairo0000raym |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Reynolds |first1=Gabriel Said |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Gabriel Said |title=The Qur'an in its Historical Context |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415491693 |pages=1–26 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |chapter=Introduction: Qur'anic Studies and its Controversies}}
* {{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of African History |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |isbn=978-1-57958-453-5 |year=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |title=Popular Culture in Medieval Cairo |last=Shoshan |first=Boaz |editor=David Morgan |isbn=978-0-521-89429-6 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire |last=Sicker |first=Martin |isbn=978-0-275-96891-5 |year=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Conn. |edition=illustrated}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sims |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFzbAgAAQBAJ |title=Understanding Cairo: The Logic of a City Out of Control |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2012 |isbn=9789774165535 |orig-date=2010}}
* {{Cite book |last=Swelim |first=Tarek |title=Ibn Tulun: His Lost City and Great Mosque |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2015 |isbn=9789774166914}}
* {{Cite book |title=Cairo - a City in Transition |last1=UN-Habitat |date=2011 |isbn=978-9-211-32353-5 |publisher=UN-Habitat |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |date=2008 |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-416-205-3 |edition=6th, Revised |language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Caroline|title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2018|isbn=|edition=7th|location=Cairo|pages=}}
* {{Cite book |title=Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798 |last=Winter |first=Michael |isbn=978-0-415-02403-7 |year=1992 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |title=Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798 |last=Winter |first=Michael |isbn=978-0-203-16923-0 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{See also|Timeline of Cairo#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Cairo}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674060791 |title=Cairo |year=2011 |last1=Alsayyad |first1=Nezar |isbn=9780674060791}}
* {{Cite book |title=Cairo: A Cultural History |last=Beattie |first=Andrew |isbn=978-0-19-517893-7 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |location=New York |edition=illustrated}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Arab Conquest of Egypt – And the Last Thirty Years of the Roman Dominion |last=Butler |first=Alfred J. |author-link=Alfred J. Butler |isbn=978-1-4437-2783-9 |publisher=Butler Press |year=2008 |location=Portland, OR}}
* Artemis Cooper, ''Cairo in the War, 1939–1945'', [[Hamish Hamilton]], 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. {{ISBN|0-14-024781-5}} (Pbk)
* [[Max Rodenbeck]], ''Cairo– the City Victorious'', Picador, 1998. {{ISBN|0-330-33709-2}} (Hbk) {{ISBN|0-330-33710-6}} (Pbk)
* Wahba, Magdi (1990). ''Cairo Memories" in Studies in Arab History: The Antonius Lectures, 1978–87''. Edited by Derek Hopwood. London: Macmillan Press.
* {{Cite journal |url=http://www.islamicamagazine.com/issue-15/rescuing-cairos-lost-heritage.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402113109/http://www.islamicamagazine.com/issue-15/rescuing-cairos-lost-heritage.html |archive-date=2 April 2007 |title=Rescuing Cairo's Lost Heritage |journal=[[Islamica Magazine]] |issue=15 |year=2006 |access-date=6 December 2006}}
* [[Peter Theroux]], ''Cairo: Clamorous heart of Egypt'' [[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic Magazine]] April 1993
* Cynthia Myntti, ''Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle Epoque'', American University in Cairo Press, 2003.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101004190448/http://www.egy.com/people/98-10-01.shtml Cairo's belle époque architects 1900–1950], by Samir Raafat.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160109161128/http://antoinenahas.com/ Antonine Selim Nahas], one of city's major belle époque (1900–1950) architects.
* Nagib Mahfooz novels, all tell great stories about Cairo's deep conflicts.
* {{cite book |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004194724.i-626 |title=Food and Foodways of Medieval Cairenes |year=2011 |last1=Lewicka |first1=Paulina |isbn=9789004206465}}
* {{Cite book |title=Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-Century Egypt |last=Sanders |first=Paula |isbn=978-977-416-095-0 |year=2008 |publisher=American University in Cairo |location=Cairo}}
* Jörg Armbruster, Suleman Taufiq (Eds.) ''مدينتي القاهرة (MYCAI – My Cairo Mein Kairo)'', text by different authors, photos by Barbara Armbruster and Hala Elkoussy, edition esefeld & traub, Stuttgart 2014, {{ISBN|978-3-9809887-8-0}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=yes|commonscat=yes|d=yes}}
* [http://www.cairo.gov.eg/ Cairo City Government]
* [http://st-takla.org/Links/Coptic-Links-02-Churches-a-Egypt.html#Cairo%20&%20Giza: Coptic Churches of Cairo]
* {{osmrelation-inline|5466227}}
* [http://beta.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002370085/NLI Map of Cairo, 1914.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724013332/http://beta.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002370085/NLI |date=24 July 2019 }} Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel.
* [http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/egypt/cairo/cairo.html Maps of Cairo.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018215105/http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/egypt/cairo/cairo.html |date=18 October 2021 }} [http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html Historic Cities Research Project.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325051637/http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html |date=25 March 2022 }}

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