View source for Calleva Atrebatum

{{Short description|Former settlement in England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name           = Calleva Atrebatum
| alternate_name = Silchester Roman Town
| image          = Calleva Atrebatum plan.svg
| alt   = The near-true on north-south, grid pattern enclosed by walls of the city, showing a central forum next to baths and an external building: the amphitheatre and even a possible inn.
| caption        = Site plan of Calleva Atrebatum, drawn before 1911
| map_type       = Hampshire
| map_alt        = Position, almost against the southern border of Berkshire, in Hampshire, England.
| map_size       = 300
| relief         = 
| coordinates    = {{coord|51|21|26|N|1|4|57|W|display=inline,title}}
| location       = [[Silchester]], [[Hampshire]], [[England]]
| region         = [[Roman Britain|Britannia]]
| type           = Settlement
| part_of        = Britannia, [[Britannia Superior]], then [[Britannia Prima]]
| length         =
| width          =
| area           = Approximately {{convert|40|ha|abbr=on}}
| builder        = [[Atrebates]] tribe
| material       = 
| built          = Late 1st century BC
| abandoned      = 5th to 7th century AD
| epochs         = [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] to [[Roman Empire]]
| cultures       = 
| dependency_of  = 
| occupants      = 
| event          = 
| excavations    = 
| archaeologists = [[University of Reading]]<ref name=unireading/> and others
| condition      =
| ownership      =
| management     = [[English Heritage]]
| public_access  =
| website        = [https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/silchester-roman-city-walls-and-amphitheatre/ Silchester Roman City Walls and Amphitheatre]
| notes          = [[Ordnance Survey National Grid|OS grid reference]]: [http://toolserver.org/~rhaworth/os/coor_g.php?pagename=Calleva_Atrebatum&params=SU639624_region%3AGB_scale%3A25000 SU639624]
}}
'''Calleva Atrebatum''' ("Calleva of the [[Atrebates]]") was an [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] [[oppidum]], the capital of the Atrebates [[civitas|tribe]]. It then became a walled town in the [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], at a major crossroads of the roads of southern Britain.

The modern village of [[Silchester]] in [[Hampshire]], England, is about a mile (1.6&nbsp;km) to the west of the site. The village's [[Silchester#Church and chapel|parish church of St Mary the Virgin]] is just within the ancient walls. Most of the site lies within the modern civil parish of Silchester, although the [[amphitheatre]] is in the adjoining civil parish of [[Mortimer West End]]. The whole of the site is within the local authority district of [[Basingstoke and Deane]] and the county of Hampshire.<ref>{{cite map |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/election-maps/gb/?x=463451&y=162406&z=8&bnd1=DIS&bnd2=CPC&labels=off |title=Election Maps |publisher=[[Ordnance Survey]] |access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Iter.Britanniarum.jpg|thumb|300px|A map of [[Antonine Itinerary|major 2nd-century]] [[Roman roads in Britain|Roman roads]], showing the importance of Calleva as a crossroads and also point of trifurcation of the routes leading to Glevum (Gloucester), South Wales and the South West Peninsula from [[Londinium]] (London)]]
Unusually for an [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] tribal town in Britain, its exact site was reused for the Roman town.<ref name=unireading/> The Romans changed the layout and defences.<ref name=unireading/> 

Calleva Atrebatum ("Calleva of the [[Atrebates]]") was an Iron Age [[oppidum|settlement]], as capital of the Atrebates [[civitas|tribe]]. It became a walled town in the [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Britain|Britannia]].<ref name=unireading>Silchester: http://www.reading.ac.uk/silchester/about-silchester/sil-about-silchester-calleva.aspx</ref> 

===Celtic beginnings===
The Romanised Celtic "Calleva" can be translated to 'woods' or 'woody place'. The settlement was surrounded by dense woodlands that were used for fuel and to build structures. Given its access to east, west and northern domestic markets it was a centre of trade within Britain and with civilisations across the Channel and as far away as the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fulford |first1=Michael |title=City of the Dead: Calleva Atrebatum |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/archaeology/city_dead_01.shtml |website=BBC |access-date=4 December 2020}}</ref>

===Iron Age===
The Late Iron Age [[oppidum|settlement]] at Silchester has been shown by archaeology and coins of the British Q series{{clarify|date=October 2023|reason=What is this "British Q series"?}} to link Silchester with the seat of power of the [[Atrebates]]. Coins found stamped with "COMMIOS" show that [[Commius]], king of the Atrebates, established his territory and mint here after moving from Gaul.<ref>{{cite book|first=Boon|last=G|title=Roman Silchester|publisher=Max Parrish and Co.|location=London|year=1957}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Creighton|first=John|title=Britannia: the Creation of a Roman Province|publisher=Cambridge|location=Cambridge|year=2006|pages=21–22}}</ref> The inner earthwork, constructed {{circa|1}} AD, enclosed {{convert|32|hectare}} and at a similar time others were built in the surrounds.

Small areas of Late Iron Age occupation were first uncovered on the south side of the inner earthwork<ref>Boon, G. 1969. Belgic and Roman Silchester: excavations of 1954-8 with an excursus on the early history of Calleva. ''Archaeologia'' 102: 1-81.</ref> and around the south gate.<ref>Fulford, M. 1984. Silchester: Excavations on the Defences 1974–80. London: Society for Antiquaries. Britannia Monograph Series No. 5</ref> More detailed evidence for this was excavated below the forum/basilica. Several roundhouses, wells and pits were in a northeast–southwest alignment, dated to {{circa|25}} BC &ndash; 15 BC. Occupation of {{circa|15}} BC to AD 40 or 50 resulted in metalled streets, rubbish pits and palisaded enclosures. Imported Gallo-Belgic fine wares, [[amphorae]] and iron and copper-alloy brooches show that the settlement was high status. Distinctive food was identified, including oyster shell, a large [[briquetage]] assemblage and sherds from various [[Amphora|amphorae]] for olive oil, fish sauce and wine.<ref>Fulford, M. and Timby, J. 2000. Late Iron Age and Roman Silchester: Excavations on the Site of the Forum Basilica, 1977, 1980-86. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Britannia monograph Series No. 15</ref>

Further such material was uncovered by the Insula {{tooltip|IX|See Roman numerals}} 'Town Life' project, including a great boundary ditch probably made about 40 to 20 BC, a large rectangular hall which could have been built any time between 25 BC to AD 10, and the laying out of lanes and new property divisions from about AD 10 to AD 40 or 50.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fulford|first1=M|last2=Clarke|first2=A|last3=Pankhurst|first3=N|last4=Lucas|first4=S|title=Silchester Insula IX: the 'Town Life' Project 2012|publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Reading|location=Reading|year=2013}}</ref> Archaeobotanical studies have demonstrated the import and consumption of celery, coriander and olives in Insula IX before the Claudian Conquest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lodwick|first=Lisa|author-link=Lisa Lodwick|date=2014-09-01|title=Condiments before Claudius: new plant foods at the Late Iron Age oppidum at Silchester, UK|journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany |language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=543–549|doi=10.1007/s00334-013-0407-1|s2cid=128753215|issn=0939-6314}}</ref>

===Roman===
After the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] in 43 AD the settlement developed into the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum. 
[[File:Silchester mosaic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mosaic from Calleva Atrebatum]]
It was slightly larger, covering about {{convert|40|ha}}, and was laid out to a clear, new street grid. The town had several public buildings and flourished until the early [[Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon period]].

A large [[mansio]] was in Insula VIII, near the South Gate, consisting of three wings arranged around a courtyard.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Boon|first1=George|title=Roman Silchester: The Archaeology of a Romano-British Town|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6925|date=1957|publisher=Max Parrish|location=London}}</ref> A possible [[nymphaeum]] was near to the amphitheatre to the north of the walled city.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fulford|first=Michael|date=June 2018|title=The Silchester 'Nymphaeum'|journal=Britannia|volume=49|language=en|pages=7–11|doi=10.1017/S0068113X18000235|s2cid=165431898|issn=0068-113X|url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/81092/5/Silchester%20%2527Nymphaeum%2527%20text.pdf}}</ref>

Calleva was a major [[Roman roads in Britain|crossroads]]. The [[Devil's Highway (Roman Britain)|Devil's Highway]] connected it with the provincial capital [[Londinium]] (London). From Calleva, this road divided into routes to various other points west, including [[Roman road from Silchester to Bath|the road]] to [[Aquae Sulis]] ([[Bath, England|Bath]]); [[Ermin Way]] to [[Glevum]] ([[Gloucester]]); and the [[Port Way]] to [[Sorviodunum]] ([[Old Sarum]] near modern [[Salisbury]]).

The earthworks and, for much of the circumference, the ruined walls are still visible. The remains of the [[amphitheatre]], added about AD 70–80 and outside the city walls, can also be clearly seen. The area inside the walls is now largely farmland with no visible distinguishing features other than the enclosing earthworks and walls, with a tiny [[mediaeval]] church in one corner. At its peak, the Roman amphitheatre would have housed around seven thousand spectators. Within, bear fighting, [[gladiator]] fighting, and other forms of entertainment were put on. Around the third century, renovations were made to the stadium including two new stadium entrances were added and the shape was turned into a more elliptical layout. After the Romans retreated, the British and the [[Anglo-Saxon|Anglo-Saxons]] continued to use the amphitheatre.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Ben |title=Silchester Roman Town (Calleva Atrebatum) |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/Calleva-Atrebatum-Silchester-Roman-Town/ |website=Historic UK |access-date=4 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Hampshire County Council">{{cite web|title= Calleva Atrebatum - Roman Silchester|url= http://www.hants.gov.uk/discover/places/silchester.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930220021/http://www.hants.gov.uk/discover/places/silchester.html|date= 2006-04-03|archive-date= 2007-09-30|work= Discover Hampshire|publisher= Hampshire County Council|access-date= 2009-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Silchester Roman City Walls and Amphitheatre|url= https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/whats-on/|publisher= [[English Heritage]]|access-date= 2005-09-22}}</ref>

In the southeast of the city were the thermal baths. They belong to the earliest stone buildings of the city, which were perhaps built around 50 AD. The baths are not aligned with the later city grid, and the entrance area was rebuilt to fit into the new road network. Several construction phases can be distinguished. At first they consisted of a portico, a [[palaestra]] and the bath rooms behind. The portico was later removed and the bathrooms divided in half, presumably so that men and women could bathe separately.

There is a [[spring water|spring]] that emanates from inside the walls, near the original baths, and flows south-eastwards where it joins [[Foudry Brook|Silchester Brook]]. The Roman Calleva flourished (to nearly 10,000 inhabitants in the third/fourth century) around these springs that served the Roman baths excavated in summer 2019.<ref>[https://research.reading.ac.uk/silchester/the-silchester-bathhouse/ Calleva-Silchester bathhouse]</ref>

===Sub-Roman and medieval===

After the Roman withdrawal from Britain, Calleva Atrebatum remained inhabited, but its fortunes began to falter. Major buildings at the site were used {{circa}} 400–430, but evidence of occupation begins to decline sharply after AD 450. According to Daniel G. Russo the hypothesis that the city remained in use during the sixth century, thanks to its sturdy walls, is "attractive," but based largely on guesswork, as "there is no firm written or archaeological evidence that organised Romano-British urban life existed at Calleva beyond {{circa}} 450 at the latest."<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn = 978-0-313-30079-0| last = Russo| first = Daniel G.| title = Town Origins and Development in Early England, C.400-950 A.D.| date = 1998}}</ref> This is in contrast to most other Roman towns in Britain, which continued to exist after the end of the Roman era; Calleva is one of the six that did not survive the sub-Roman era, and disappeared in the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Archaeological Institute of America| title = Archaeological Fieldwork and Opportunities Bulletin| date = 2002|page=63}}</ref>  (That said, the historian David Nash Ford identifies the site with the Cair Celemion of [[Nennius]]'s list of the [[Caer#Britain|28 cities]] of [[Sub-Roman Britain]], which, if true, would mean that the site was at least partially extant during the [[Early Middle Ages]].)<ref name=nashford>{{cite web|author=Ford, David Nash|url=http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html|title=The Archaeology of Nennius' 28 British Cities|publisher=Britannia|date=2000|archive-date=27 January 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010127024500/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html|access-date=28 February 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A hypothesis has emerged that the Saxons deliberately avoided Calleva after it was abandoned, preferring to maintain their existing centres at [[Winchester]] and [[Dorchester, Oxfordshire|Dorchester]].<ref>{{cite news |first= Maev |last= Kennedy |author-link= Maev Kennedy |title= Burials 'show Roman city was cursed' |url= https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/apr/09/maevkennedy1 |work= The Guardian |date= 1999-04-09 |access-date= 2008-12-17}}</ref> There was a gap of perhaps a century before the twin Saxon towns of [[Old Basing|Basing]] and [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] were founded on rivers either side of Calleva. As a consequence, Calleva has been subject to relatively benign neglect for most of the last two millennia.<ref>{{cite web |title= A Guide to Silchester |url= http://www.silchester.rdg.ac.uk/guide |date=June 2009 |work= Silchester Insula IX|publisher= University of Reading |access-date= 2005-09-22}}</ref>

== Culture ==
=== Agriculture ===
The study of waterlogged macrofossils through a series of wells throughout the abandoned civilisation resulted in key evidence of animal stabling, hay meadows management, and the use of [[heath]] resources (such as heathers, gorse, and heathland grasses). The most abundant crops that were found in the area are ''Capsella bursa pastoris'', ''Chenopodium album'', ''Polygonum aviculare'', ''Stellaria media'' and ''Urtica urens'', ''Fallopia convolvulus'' and ''Sisymbrium''. The use of new oil crops and grassland management is evident that the agricultural upheaval changes were related to those that provide food to livestock rather than providing food to the population of the civilisation. The development of the land represents a major change in the social organisation and settlement form. This is evident in the ample earthwork or large artificial banks of soil. Between the [[Hampshire]] chalk downs and alluvium-rich flood plains of the Thames valley, the civilisation is on a gravel terrace of the [[River Kennet]], a major tributary of the Thames. This has left beneath its thin much later organic topsoil, feet of tertiary clay and sand.  If ploughed the result is a "well-drained brown-earth soil" which, unirrigated, and without high fertilisation, yields low cereal returns. It is traditionally often cleared as pasture, orchards or kept as bramble-rich woodland for hogs and game. Palaeoenvironmental studies of the Early Iron Age at this site expose largely cleared land. Development of the heath from this time is evidenced by pollen analysis.<ref name="Agricultural innovations at a Late Iron Age oppidum">{{cite journal |last1=Lodwick |first1=Lisa A |title=Agricultural innovations at a Late Iron Age oppidum: Archaeobotanical evidence for flax, food and fodder from Calleva Atrebatum, UK |journal=Quaternary International |year=2017 |volume=460 |pages=198–219 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.058 |bibcode=2017QuInt.460..198L |s2cid=62815053 |ref=1|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Diet ===
The study of plant remains from the across the city and especially Insula IX have shown that [[spelt]], wheat and barley were the most common cereals consumed. A wide range of fruits (apple, fig, grape), flavourings (celery, coriander, dill), and pulses (celtic bean, pea) were consumed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lodwick|first=Lisa A.|date=2016-01-07|title='The debatable territory where geology and archaeology meet': reassessing the early archaeobotanical work of Clement Reid and Arthur Lyell at Roman Silchester|journal=Environmental Archaeology|volume=22|issue=1|pages=56–78|doi=10.1080/14614103.2015.1116218|s2cid=162420770|issn=1461-4103|url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/54531/1/Lodwick_2016.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Agricultural innovations at a Late Iron Age oppidum"/> Many houses had their own rotary [[Quern-stone|querns]] for grinding flour.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=[[Ruth Shaffrey|Shaffrey]]|first=Ruth|date=2003|title=The Rotary Querns from the Society of Antiquaries' Excavations at Silchester, 1890-1909|journal=Britannia|volume=34|pages=143–174|doi=10.2307/3558543|issn=0068-113X|jstor=3558543|s2cid=163126925}}</ref> Cattle, sheep/goat and pig were the major sources of meat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Silchester and the Study of Romano-British Urbanism|last=Ingrem|first=Claire|publisher=Journal of Roman Archaeology|year=2012|editor-last=Fulford|editor-first=Michael|location=London|pages=184–212|chapter=Animals in the economy and culture of Roman Britain: a case study from southern England}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
There is a range of evidence for religious practices in the town. A possible church was to the south-east of the Forum in Insula IV. The apse-ended basilica building has a layout comparable to early churches in the western Roman empire, but the date is likely to be pre-Constantinian.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=King|first=Anthony|date=1983|title=The Roman Church at Silchester Reconsidered|journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology|language=en|volume=2|issue=2|pages=225–237|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0092.1983.tb00108.x|issn=1468-0092}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Petts|first=David|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697731.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199697731-e-036|title=Christianity in Roman Britain|date=2015-10-05|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor-last=Millett|editor-first=Martin|volume=1|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697731.013.036|isbn=978-0-19-969773-1|editor2-last=Revell|editor2-first=Louise|editor3-last=Moore|editor3-first=Alison}}</ref> A Romano-Celtic temple was in Insula XXXV, where an inscription shows a dedication by the guild of ''peregrini''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/69|title=RIB 69. Fragmentary dedication {{!}} Roman Inscriptions of Britain|website=romaninscriptionsofbritain.org|language=en|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> Three Romano-Celtic temples were in Insula XXX, just inside the east gate. These temples were constructed in the mid first century AD and went out of use after c. AD 200.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fulford|first=Michael|url=https://research.reading.ac.uk/silchester/wp-content/uploads/sites/33/PDFs/2017-Silchester-Temple-report-small.pdf|title=Silchester Insula XXX Temple Excavation 2017|publisher=University of Reading|location=Reading}}</ref> A limestone head of [[Serapis]] was discovered in 1899 at Silchester Common.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://collections.readingmuseum.org.uk/index.asp?page=record&mwsquery=%7Btotopic%7D=%7BSilchester%20Collection%7D&filename=REDMG&hitsStart=5|title=Reading Museum|website=collections.readingmuseum.org.uk|access-date=2020-01-10}}</ref>

=== Death and burial ===
Late Iron Age cremation burials have been excavated at Latchmere Green<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fulford|first1=Michael|last2=Creighton|first2=John|date=1998|title=A Late Iron Age Mirror Burial from Latchmere Green, near Silchester, Hampshire|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/late-iron-age-mirror-burial-from-latchmere-green-near-silchester-hampshire/683AA97F94F7C28FB4C504490C70C156|journal=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society|language=en|volume=64|pages=331–342|doi=10.1017/S0079497X00002267|s2cid=193125149 |issn=2050-2729|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and Windabout Copse.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://research.reading.ac.uk/silchester/projects/silchester-environs-project/|title=Silchester Environs Project|website=Silchester Archaeology|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> The Roman cemeteries are thought to have been to the north and west of the Outer Earthwork, and have not been investigated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/Guide/sil-guide-cemeteries.aspx|title=Cemeteries and Suburbs}}</ref> A tombstone recovered in 1577 reads "To the memory of Flavia Victorina Titus Tammonius, Her husband set this up".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/87|title=RIB 87. Funerary inscription for Flavia Victorina {{!}} Roman Inscriptions of Britain|website=romaninscriptionsofbritain.org|language=en|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref>
=== Defence ===
Built in two phases, the defence system of Calleva Atrebatum is evident in the remains of the North Gate. Construction of the wall surrounding the area first began around 200 AD. Parts of this rampart still remain in stone and tile remnants. In 270 AD, the defences were strengthened with an even larger stone wall. Defences were most probably strengthened due to the increasing number of Saxon raids in the area. The defence systems worked to protect from local uprisings, pillaging, and invaders from abroad. They also allowed for traffic to be monitored both in and out of the city.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Ben |title=Silchester Roman Town (Calleva Atrebatum) |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/Calleva-Atrebatum-Silchester-Roman-Town/ |website=Historic UK |access-date=4 December 2020}}</ref>

== Economy ==

=== Craft production ===
Various craft activities have been evidenced through excavations in Insula IX, including bone- and antler- working,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bacon|first1=Joanna|last2=Crummy|first2=Nina|date=2015|title=Bone- and Antler-Working at Silchester: Evidence from Early Excavations|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0068113X1500032X/type/journal_article|journal=Britannia|language=en|volume=46|pages=251–262|doi=10.1017/S0068113X1500032X|s2cid=165111378|issn=0068-113X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> the working of copper-alloys,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cook|first1=Samantha R.|last2=Banerjea|first2=Rowena Y.|last3=Marshall|first3=Lisa-Jayne|last4=Fulford|first4=Michael|last5=Clarke|first5=Amanda|last6=van Zwieten|first6=Cindy|date=2010|title=Concentrations of copper, zinc and lead as indicators of hearth usage at the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester, Hampshire, UK)|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|language=en|volume=37|issue=4|pages=871–879|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2009.11.017|bibcode=2010JArSc..37..871C }}</ref> and leather-working.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/silchester/i3/cit/index.htm|title=Silchester Town Life Project - The City in Transition}}</ref> Imported whetstones were recycled into whetstones.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=J.R.L.|date=2019|title=Tilestones into Whetstones in Seven Steps: the Brownstones, Pennant Sandstone and Stonesfield Slate at Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum), North Hampshire|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0068113X19000047/type/journal_article|journal=Britannia|language=en|volume=50|pages=321–330|doi=10.1017/S0068113X19000047|s2cid=166846991|issn=0068-113X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Building material ===
Production taking place in the area around Silchester includes a complex of tile kilns at [[Little London, Tadley, Hampshire|Little London]], including two tiles stamped with the title of the Emperor [[Nero]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fulford|first1=Michael|url=https://research.reading.ac.uk/silchester/wp-content/uploads/sites/33/PDFs/2017-Silchester-Kilns-report-small.pdf|title=The Silchester Environs Project. The Roman Tilery and Pottery Industry at Little London, Pamber 2017|last2=Pankhurst|first2=Nicholas|last3=Wheeler|first3=Daniel|last4=Machin|first4=Sara|publisher=University of Reading|year=2017|location=Reading}}</ref> Because of the abundance of woods in the area, most of the structures were built out of timber.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fulford |first1=Michael |title=City of the Dead: Calleva Atrebatum |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/archaeology/city_dead_01.shtml |website=BBC |access-date=4 December 2020}}</ref>

=== Trade ===
A wide range of objects were imported to Silchester from the Roman Empire, including an ivory razor handle, a handle from a ''Fusshenkelkruge'' and a [[Harpocrates]] figure from a Campanian brazier.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crummy|first=Nina|date=2011|title=A Campanian Vessel Foot from Silchester|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0068113X11000018/type/journal_article|journal=Britannia|language=en|volume=42|pages=157–165|doi=10.1017/S0068113X11000018|issn=0068-113X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Imported ceramics include Central Gaulish samian produced in [[Lezoux]], Dressel 2-4 and 14 amphora, Rhineland white ware mortaria, Moselkeramik black slipped ware and Cologne colour coated ware.<ref name=":0" />

==Archaeology==
[[File:The wall of the Roman city of Calleva - geograph.org.uk - 39846.jpg|thumb|Part of the city walls (2004)]]
[[File:Reading Museum (7690279788).jpg|thumb|[[Silchester eagle]]]]
[[File:Silchester Excavation.JPG|thumb|right|Excavations at Calleva (Insula IX)]]
Calleva Atrebatum was first excavated by the [[Ellen Joyce|Reverend James Joyce]] who, in 1866, discovered the bronze eagle known as the [[Silchester eagle]], now in the [[Museum of Reading]]. It may originally have formed part of a [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] statue in the forum.

Although it had long been known that there was an abandoned Roman civilisation, excavations ordered by the landowner, the [[Arthur Wellesley, 2nd Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], only began in the late nineteenth century. Joyce was the designated observer and recorder of all archaeological records. His overall goal was to reveal the complete plan of the Roman town. Little further investigation occurred until the 1961 re-excavation of the early Christian Church where the researchers found that eighty to ninety percent of the excavation had been completed. Within those limited excavations, the foundation and the plans of the masonry buildings were exposed. They were discovered by digging trenches through the area. The architecture and archaeology of the timber buildings of the ancient Roman town were misunderstood at the time of the excavation, timber was the most notable material.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fulford |first1=Michael |title=City of the Dead: Calleva Atrebatum |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/archaeology/city_dead_01.shtml |website=BBC History |access-date=4 December 2020}}</ref>

[[Molly Cotton]] carried out excavations on the defences in 1938–39.<ref>Cotton, M. A. (1947). "Excavations at Silchester 1938–9". ''Archaeologia'' 92: 121–167.</ref> Since the 1970s [[Michael Fulford]] and the [[University of Reading]] have undertaken several excavations on the town walls (1974–1980),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fulford|first=M|title=Silchester: Excavations on the Defences 1974–80|publisher=Society for Antiquaries |series=Britannia Monograph Series |volume=5|location=London|year=1984}}</ref> [[amphitheatre]] (1979–1985)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fulford |first=M|title=The Silchester Amphitheatre: Excavations of 1979-85 |publisher=Society for Antiquaries |series=Britannia Monograph Series |volume=10|location=London|year=1989}}</ref> and the [[basilica|forum basilica]] (1977, 1980–1986),<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fulford |first1=M. |last2=Timby |first2=J.|title=Late Iron Age and Roman Silchester: Excavations on the Site of the Forum Basilica, 1977, 1980–86|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies |series=Britannia Monograph Series |volume=15|location=London|year=2000}}</ref> which have revealed remarkably good preservation of items from both the [[Iron Age]] and early Roman occupations.

From 1997 to 2014<ref>{{cite web|title= The Insula IX Excavation|url= http://www.rdg.ac.uk/AcaDepts/la/silchester/publish/townlife/insula_ix.php|year= 2004|work= Silchester Roman Town – The 'Town Life' Project 1997–2002|publisher= University of Reading|access-date= 2008-12-07|archive-date= 10 December 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081210020558/http://www.rdg.ac.uk/acadepts/la/silchester/publish/townlife/insula_ix.php|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fulford |first=Michael |journal=Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal |date=2015 |title=Silchester: The Town Life Project 1997–2014: Reflections on a Long Term Research Excavation |issue=2014 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxbow Books |editor1-last=Brindle |editor1-first=T. |editor2-last=Allen |editor2-first=M. |editor3-last=Durham |editor3-first=E. |editor4-last=Smith |editor4-first=A. |language=en |pages=114–121|doi=10.16995/TRAC2014_114_121 |issn=2515-2289|doi-access=free}}</ref> Reading University carried out sustained and concentrated excavations in Insula IX. Results of the Late Roman,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fulford|first1=M.|last2=Clarke|first2=A.|last3=Eckardt|first3=H.|title=Life and Labour in Late Roman Silchester: Excavations in Insula IX since 1997|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies |series=Britannia Monograph Series |volume=22|location=London|year=2006}}</ref> Mid Roman<ref>{{Cite book|title=Silchester: City in Transition: the Mid-Roman Occupation of Insula IX c. A.D. 125–250/300: a Report on Excavations Undertaken Since 1997|last1=Fulford|first1=M.|last2=Clarke|first2=A.|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies |series=Britannia Monograph Series |volume=25|year=2011|location=London}}</ref> and Late Iron Age phases have been published.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Late Iron Age Calleva: the pre-conquest occupation at Silchester Insula IX|last1=Fulford |first1=Michael |last2=Allen |first2=John R. L.|date=2018|publisher=The Society for the promotion of Roman Studies|isbn=978-0-907764-45-8|oclc=1105613800}}</ref> In 2013, excavations began in Insula III, investigating a structure identified by the Victorian excavations as a bathhouse.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fulford|first1=M.|last2=Clarke|first2=A.|last3=Pankhurst|first3=N.|last4=Lambert-Gates|first4=S.|title=Silchester: The 'Town' Life Project 2014|date=2015|publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Reading|location=Reading|url=http://www.reading.ac.uk/web/FILES/silchester/Silchester_interim_report_2015.pdf}}</ref> From 2018, the University of Reading has re-explored the previously excavated ruins of the public bathhouse looking at what earlier excavators may have missed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://research.reading.ac.uk/silchester/the-silchester-bathhouse/ | title=The Silchester Baths 2018-21 }}</ref>

{{wide image|Silchester Ampitheatre Panorama 360 degrees.jpg|1800px|alt=Silchester Amphitheatre Panorama 360 degrees|Silchester Amphitheatre Panorama 360 degrees (2016)}}

==Access==
Now primarily owned by [[Hampshire County Council]] and managed by [[English Heritage]], the site of Calleva is open to the public during daylight hours, seven days a week and without charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/silchester-roman-city-walls-and-amphitheatre/prices-and-opening-times|title=PRICES AND OPENING TIMES FOR SILCHESTER ROMAN CITY WALLS AND AMPHITHEATRE|website=English Heritage}}</ref> The full circumference of the walls is accessible, as is the amphitheatre. The interior is farmed and, with the exception of the church and a single track that bisects the interior, inaccessible.<ref name="Hampshire County Council"/>

The [[Museum of Reading]] in [[Reading Town Hall]] has a gallery devoted to Calleva, displaying many archaeological finds from the excavations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.readingmuseum.org.uk/your-visit/permanent-galleries/silchester-gallery|title=Silchester Gallery|date=2017-04-03|website=Reading Museum|access-date=23 June 2018}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<!--unused
<ref name=eh1>{{cite web|title=History and Research: Silchester Roman City Walls and Amphitheatre|url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/whats-on/history-and-research/|publisher=English Heritage|access-date=22 September 2013}}</ref>-->
}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Page|editor1-first=William|title=A History of the County of Hampshire: Volume 1, part of the collaborative [[Victoria County History]] series |year=1911|location=London|pages=350–72}}
*{{cite book |last1=Aston |first1=Michael |last2=Bond |first2=James |title=The Landscape of Towns |series=Archaeology in the Field Series |year=1976 |publisher=[[J. M. Dent]] & Sons Ltd |location=London |isbn= 978-0-460-04194-2 |pages=45–49}}
*{{cite web |last1= Clarke |first1= A |last2= Fulford |first2=M |last3=Rains |first3=M |last4=Shaffrey |first4=R |title= The Victorian Excavations of 1893 |url= http://www.silchester.rdg.ac.uk/victorians/vic_home.php |year= 2001 |work= Silchester Roman Town - The Insula IX Town Life Project |publisher= University of Reading |access-date= 2005-12-20}}
*{{cite web |last1= Clarke |first1= A |last2= Eckardt |first2=H |last3=Fulford |first3=M |last4=Rains |first4=M |last5=Tootell |first5=K |title= Late Roman Insula IX |url= http://www.silchester.rdg.ac.uk/later/ |year= 2005 |work= Silchester Roman Town - The Insula IX Town Life Project |publisher= University of Reading |access-date= 2005-12-20}}
*[[John Creighton (archaeologist)|Creighton, John]]. (2016). ''[https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/issue.xhtml?recordId=1161494 Silchester: Changing Visions of a Roman Town: Integrating Geophysics and Archaeology: the Results of the Silchester Mapping Project 2005-10]''. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Britannia monograph Series No. 28. {{open access}}
*Fulford, M., & Timby, J. (2000). [http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/issue.xhtml?recordId=1161481&recordType=MonographSeries ''Late Iron Age and Roman Silchester: Excavations on the Site of the Forum Basilica, 1977, 1980-86'']. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Britannia monograph Series No. 15. {{open access}}
*{{cite book|last1=Fulford|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Fulford|last2=Clarke|first2=Amanda|last3=Eckardt|first3=Hella|author-link3=Hella Eckardt|url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/issue.xhtml?recordId=1161488&recordType=MonographSeries|title=Life and Labour in Late Roman Silchester: Excavations in Insula IX since 1997|year=2006|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Britannia Monograph Series no. 22|location=London}} {{open access}}
*{{cite book|last1=Fulford|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Fulford|last2=Clarke|first2=Amanda|url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/issue.xhtml?recordId=1161491&recordType=MonographSeries|title=Silchester City in Transition: the Mid-Roman Occupation of Insula IX c. A.D. 125-250/300: a Report on Excavations Undertaken Since 1997|year=2011|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Britannia Monograph Series no. 25|location=London}} {{open access}}
*Fulford, Michael; Clarke, Amanda; Durham, Emma; Pankhurst, Nick (2018). ''Late Iron Age Calleva: The Pre-Conquest Occupation at Silchester Insula IX. Silchester Roman Town: The Insula IX Town Life Project: Volume 3''. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Britannia Monograph Series no. 32.
*{{cite book |last1=Pevsner |first1=Nikolaus |author-link1=Nikolaus Pevsner |last2=Lloyd |first2=David |series=[[Pevsner Architectural Guides#Buildings of England|The Buildings of England]] |title=Hampshire and the Isle of Wight |year=1967 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=Harmondsworth |pages=503–505}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/silchester-roman-city-walls-and-amphitheatre/ Official website]
*[http://www.reading.ac.uk/silchester/visit-the-roman-town/sil-visit-silchester-roman-town.aspx Details of archaeological open days]
*[http://www.reading.ac.uk/silchester/ Reading University web site on Silchester Roman Town]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090125210038/http://readingmuseum.org.uk/collections/silchester.htm Reading Museum web site on Silchester Roman Town]
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/archaeology/city_dead_01.shtml City of the Dead: the Roman Town of Calleva Atrebatum], BBC article by Professor [[Michael Fulford]].
*[https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/jul/31/silchester-iron-age-roman-britain Pre-Roman Silchester] Guardian article on discoveries in 2011-12 leading to reassessment of pre-Roman culture and history

{{Major towns of Roman Britain}}
{{Roman visitor sites in the UK}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:English Heritage sites in Hampshire]]
[[Category:History of Hampshire]]
[[Category:Iron Age sites in England]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in England]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Hampshire]]
[[Category:Basingstoke and Deane]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st century BC]]