View source for Carbon disulfide

{{chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields  = changed
| verifiedrevid  = 476998332
| Name           = Carbon disulfide
| ImageFile_Ref  = {{chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageFile      = Carbon-disulfide-2D-dimensions.svg
| ImageClass = skin-invert 
| ImageSize      = 150px
| ImageFile1     = Carbon-disulfide-3D-vdW.png
| ImageClass1 = bg-transparent  
| ImageSize1     = 150px
| ImageName      = Carbon disulfide
| IUPACName      = Carbon disulfide
| OtherNames     = Carbon bisulfide<br/>Dithiocarbonic anhydride<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carbon disulfide chemistry |url=https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C75150&Mask=80:~:text=Dithiocarbonic%20Anhydride |access-date=August 24, 2022|publisher=[[PubChem]]}}</ref>
| SystematicName = Methanedithione
| Section1       = {{Chembox Identifiers
| CASNo = 75-15-0
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| Beilstein = 1098293
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 23012
| ChEMBL = 1365180
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 6108
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = C19033
| PubChem = 6348
| EINECS = 200-843-6
| RTECS = FF6650000
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = S54S8B99E8
| UNNumber = 1131
| InChI = 1/CS2/c2-1-3
| InChIKey = QGJOPFRUJISHPQ-UHFFFAOYAS
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/CS2/c2-1-3
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = QGJOPFRUJISHPQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| SMILES = S=C=S
 }}
| Section2       = {{Chembox Properties
| C=1 | S=2
| Appearance   = Colorless liquid<br />Impure: light-yellow
| Odor         = Pleasant, [[diethyl ether|ether]]- or [[chloroform]]-like<br />Commercial: Foul, like rotten [[radish]]
| Density      = 1.539 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (−186°C)<br />1.2927 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (0 °C)<br />1.266 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (25 °C)<ref name="chemister" />
| MeltingPtC   = −111.61
| MeltingPt_notes = 
| BoilingPtC   = 46.24
| Solubility   = 2.58 g/L (0 °C)<br />2.39 g/L (10 °C)<br />2.17 g/L (20 °C)<ref name="sioc">{{cite book |last1=Seidell |first1=Atherton |last2=Linke |first2=William F. |year=1952 |title=Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds |publisher=Van Nostrand }}</ref><br /> 0.14 g/L (50 °C)<ref name="chemister" />
| RefractIndex = 1.627<ref name="sigma" />
| Viscosity    = 0.436 [[Poise (unit)|cP]] (0 °C)<br /> 0.363 cP (20 °C)
| SolubleOther = Soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[benzene]], [[oil]], [[chloroform|CHCl<sub>3</sub>]], [[carbon tetrachloride|CCl<sub>4</sub>]]
| Solubility1 = 4.66 g/100 g<ref name="chemister" />
| Solvent1 = formic acid
| Solubility2 = 45 g/100 g (20.3 °C)<ref name="chemister" />
| Solvent2 = dimethyl sulfoxide
| VaporPressure = 48.1 kPa (25 °C)<br /> 82.4 kPa (40 °C)<ref name="nist">{{nist |name=Carbon disulfide |id=C75150 |accessdate=2014-05-27 |mask=FFFF |units=SI }}.</ref>
| MagSus = −42.2·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol
}}
| Section3       = {{Chembox Structure
| MolShape = Linear
| Dipole = 0 D (20 °C)<ref name="chemister" />
}}
| Section5       = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| DeltaHf = 88.7 kJ/mol<ref name="chemister">{{cite web |url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1955 |website=chemister.ru |title=Properties of substance: carbon disulfide}}</ref>
| DeltaGf = 64.4 kJ/mol<ref name="chemister" />
| Entropy = 151 J/(mol·K)<ref name="chemister" />
| HeatCapacity = 75.73 J/(mol·K)<ref name="chemister" />
| DeltaHc = 1687.2 kJ/mol<ref name="nist" />
 }}
| Section7       = {{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS = 
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS02}} {{GHS06}} {{GHS07}} {{GHS08}} 
| GHS_ref = <ref name="sigma">[[Sigma-Aldrich|Sigma-Aldrich Co.]], [www.sigmaaldrich.com/product/sigald/180173 Carbon disulfide]. Retrieved on 2024-10-23.</ref><ref name="fischer">[https://www.fishersci.com/store/msds?partNumber=C184500&productDescription=CARBON+DISULF+REAG+ACS+500ML&vendorId=VN00033897&countryCode=US&language=en]</ref>
| GHSSignalWord = Danger
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|225|315|319|332|361fd|372}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|202|210|281|303+361+353|304+340+312|305+351+338|308+313}}<br/>[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0022.htm ICSC 0022]
| NFPA-H = 3
| NFPA-F = 4
| NFPA-R = 0
| FlashPtC = −43
| FlashPt_ref = <ref name="chemister" />
| AutoignitionPtC = 102
| AutoignitionPt_ref = <ref name="chemister" />
| ExploLimits = 1.3–50%<ref name="PGCH" />
| LD50 = 3188 mg/kg (rat, oral)
| EyeHazard = Irritant
| SkinHazard = Irritant
| InhalationHazard = Irritant; neurotoxin
| PEL = TWA 20 ppm C 30 ppm 100 ppm (30-minute maximum peak)<ref name="PGCH">{{PGCH|0104}}</ref>
| REL = TWA 1 ppm (3 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) ST 10 ppm (30 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) [skin]<ref name="PGCH" /> 
| IDLH = 500 ppm<ref name="PGCH" />
| LC50 = >1670 ppm (rat, 1&nbsp;h)<br />15500 ppm (rat, 1&nbsp;h)<br />3000 ppm (rat, 4&nbsp;h)<br />3500 ppm (rat, 4&nbsp;h)<br />7911 ppm (rat, 2&nbsp;h)<br />3165 ppm (mouse, 2&nbsp;h)<ref name="IDLH">{{IDLH|75150|Carbon disulfide}}</ref>
| LCLo = 4000 ppm (human, 30&nbsp;min)<ref name="IDLH" />
 }}
| Section8       = {{Chembox Related
| OtherCompounds = [[Carbon dioxide]]<br />[[Carbonyl sulfide]]<br />[[Carbon diselenide]]
 }}
}}

'''Carbon disulfide''' (also spelled as '''carbon disulphide''') is an [[inorganic compound]] with the [[chemical formula]] {{chem2|CS2}} and [[Chemical structure|structure]] {{chem2|S\dC\dS}}. It is also considered as the anhydride of [[thiocarbonic acid]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Informatics |first=NIST Office of Data and |title=Carbon disulfide |url=https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C75150&Mask=80 |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=webbook.nist.gov |language=en}}</ref> It is a colorless, flammable, [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxic]] liquid that is used as a building block in organic synthesis. Pure carbon disulfide has a pleasant, [[diethyl ether|ether]]- or [[chloroform]]-like odor, but commercial samples are usually yellowish and are typically contaminated with foul-smelling impurities.<ref name="Holleman">{{Holleman&Wiberg}}.</ref>

== History ==

In 1796, the German chemist [[Wilhelm August Lampadius]] (1772–1842) first prepared carbon disulfide by heating [[pyrite]] with moist charcoal. He called it "liquid sulfur" (''flüssig Schwefel'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lampadius |title=Etwas über flüssigen Schwefel, und Schwefel-Leberluft |journal=Chemische Annalen für die Freunde der Naturlehre, Arzneygelährtheit, Haushaltungskunst und Manufacturen (Chemical Annals for the Friends of Science, Medicine, Economics, and Manufactures)|date=1796 |issue=2 |pages=136–137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqk5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA136 |trans-title=Something about liquid sulfur and liver-of-sulfur gas (i.e., hydrogen sulfide) |language=de}}</ref>  The composition of carbon disulfide was finally determined in 1813 by the team of the Swedish chemist [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] (1779–1848) and the Swiss-British chemist [[Alexander Marcet]] (1770–1822).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berzelius |first1=J. |last2=Marcet |first2=Alexander |title=Experiments on the alcohol of sulphur, or sulphuret of carbon |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=1813 |volume=103 |pages=171–199 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1813.0026 |s2cid=94745906 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  Their analysis was consistent with an [[empirical formula]] of CS<sub>2</sub>.<ref>(Berzelius and Marcet, 1813), p. 187.</ref>

==Occurrence, manufacture, properties==
Small amounts of carbon disulfide are released by [[volcano|volcanic]] eruptions and [[marsh]]es. CS<sub>2</sub> once was manufactured by combining [[carbon]] (or [[Coke (fuel)|coke]]) and [[sulfur]] at 800–1000&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Warnecke | first=Friedrich | title=Die gewerbliche Schwefelkohlenstoffvergiftung | journal=Archiv für Gewerbepathologie und Gewerbehygiene | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=11 | issue=2 | year=1941 | issn=0340-0131 | doi=10.1007/bf02122927 | pages=198–248 | bibcode=1941ArGG...11..198W | s2cid=72106188 | language=de}}</ref>
:C + 2S → CS<sub>2</sub>

A lower-temperature reaction, requiring only 600&nbsp;°C, utilizes [[natural gas]] as the carbon source in the presence of [[silica gel]] or [[alumina]] [[catalyst]]s:<ref name="Holleman" />
:2 CH<sub>4</sub> + S<sub>8</sub> → 2 CS<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>S

The reaction is analogous to the combustion of [[methane]].

Global production/consumption of carbon disulfide is approximately one million tonnes, with China consuming 49%, followed by India at 13%, mostly for the production of rayon fiber.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/carbon-disulfide.aspx |title=Carbon Disulfide report from IHS Chemical |access-date= June 15, 2013 }}</ref> United States production in 2007 was 56,000 tonnes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icis.com/Articles/2008/09/08/9154319/chemical-profile-carbon-disulfide.html |title=Chemical profile: carbon disulfide from ICIS.com |access-date= June 15, 2013 }}</ref>

===Solvent===
Carbon disulfide can dissolve a variety of [[Chemical polarity#Nonpolar molecules|nonpolar]] chemicals including [[phosphorus]], sulfur, [[selenium]], [[bromine]], [[iodine]], [[fat]]s, [[resin]]s, [[rubber]], and [[Bitumen|asphalt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.akzonobel.com/sulfurderivatives/products/carbon_disulfide/ |title=Carbon Disulfide |publisher=Akzo Nobel |access-date=2010-12-16 |archive-date=2017-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903211829/https://www.akzonobel.com/sulfurderivatives/products/carbon_disulfide/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Extraterrestrial ===
In March 2024, possible traces of CS<sub>2</sub> were detected in the atmosphere of the temperate [[mini-Neptune]] planet [[TOI-270|TOI-270 d]] by the [[James Webb Space Telescope]].<ref >{{Citation |last1=Benneke |first1=Björn |title=JWST Reveals CH$_4$, CO$_2$, and H$_2$O in a Metal-rich Miscible Atmosphere on a Two-Earth-Radius Exoplanet |date=2024-03-05 |last2=Roy |first2=Pierre-Alexis |last3=Coulombe |first3=Louis-Philippe |last4=Radica |first4=Michael |last5=Piaulet |first5=Caroline |last6=Ahrer |first6=Eva-Maria |last7=Pierrehumbert |first7=Raymond |last8=Krissansen-Totton |first8=Joshua |last9=Schlichting |first9=Hilke E.|arxiv=2403.03325 }}</ref>

==Reactions==
Combustion of CS<sub>2</sub> affords [[sulfur dioxide]] according to this ideal stoichiometry:
:CS<sub>2</sub>  +  3{{nbsp}}O<sub>2</sub> → CO<sub>2</sub>  +  2{{nbsp}}SO<sub>2</sub>

===With nucleophiles===
Compared to the [[Isoelectronicity|isoelectronic]] [[carbon dioxide]], CS<sub>2</sub> is a weaker [[electrophile]]. While, however, reactions of [[nucleophile]]s with CO<sub>2</sub> are highly reversible and products are only isolated with very strong nucleophiles, the reactions with CS<sub>2</sub> are thermodynamically more favored allowing the formation of products with less reactive nucleophiles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Zhen|last2=Mayer|first2=Robert J.|last3=Ofial|first3=Armin R.| last4=Mayr|first4=Herbert|date=2020-04-27|title= From Carbodiimides to Carbon Dioxide: Quantification of the Electrophilic Reactivities of Heteroallenes|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=142|issue=18|pages=8383–8402|doi=10.1021/jacs.0c01960|pmid=32338511|bibcode=2020JAChS.142.8383L |s2cid=216557447}}</ref>

For example, amines afford [[dithiocarbamate]]s:<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1=Yokoyama | first1=Masataka | last2=Imamoto | first2=Tsuneo | title=Organic Reactions of Carbon Disulfide | journal=Synthesis | publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag KG | volume=1984 | issue=10 | year=1984 | issn=0039-7881 | doi=10.1055/s-1984-30978 | pages=797–824}}</ref>
:2{{nbsp}}R<sub>2</sub>NH + CS<sub>2</sub> → [R<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>][R<sub>2</sub>NCS<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>]
[[Xanthate]]s form similarly from [[alkoxide]]s:<ref name=":0"/>
:RONa  +  CS<sub>2</sub>   →   [Na<sup>+</sup>][ROCS<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>]
This reaction is the basis of the manufacture of regenerated [[cellulose]], the main ingredient of [[viscose]], [[rayon]], and [[cellophane]]. Both xanthates and the related [[thioxanthate]]s (derived from treatment of CS<sub>2</sub> with sodium [[thiolate]]s) are used as [[Froth flotation|flotation agents]] in mineral processing.

Upon treatment with [[sodium sulfide]], carbon disulfide affords [[trithiocarbonate]]:<ref name=":0"/>
:Na<sub>2</sub>S  +  CS<sub>2</sub>   →  [Na<sup>+</sup>]<sub>2</sub>[CS<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>]

Carbon disulfide does not hydrolyze readily, although the process is catalyzed by [[carbon disulfide hydrolase|an enzyme]].

===Reduction===
Reduction of carbon disulfide with [[sodium]] affords [[sodium 1,3-dithiole-2-thione-4,5-dithiolate]] together with sodium [[trithiocarbonate]]:<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Org. Synth.|year=1996|volume=73|page=270|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.073.0270|title=4,5-Dibenzoyl-1,3-dithiole-1-thione}}</ref>
: 4{{nbsp}}Na  +  4{{nbsp}}CS<sub>2</sub>   →   Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>S<sub>5</sub>  +   Na<sub>2</sub>CS<sub>3</sub>

===Chlorination===
[[Chlorination reaction|Chlorination]] of CS<sub>2</sub> provides a route to [[carbon tetrachloride]]:<ref name="Holleman" />
:CS<sub>2</sub>  +  3 [[chlorine|Cl<sub>2</sub>]]   →   CCl<sub>4</sub> + [[disulfur dichloride|S<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub>]]

This conversion proceeds via the intermediacy of [[thiophosgene]], CSCl<sub>2</sub>.

===Coordination chemistry===
CS<sub>2</sub> is a ligand for many metal complexes, forming pi complexes. One example is [[Cyclopentadienyl complex|Cp]]Co([[hapticity|η<sup>2</sup>]]-CS<sub>2</sub>)(P[[Methyl group|Me]]<sub>3</sub>).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Werner |first=Helmut |title=Novel Coordination Compounds formed from CS<sub>2</sub> and Heteroallenes |journal=Coordination Chemistry Reviews |year=1982 |volume=43 |pages=165–185 |doi=10.1016/S0010-8545(00)82095-0 }}</ref>

==Polymerization==
CS<sub>2</sub> polymerizes upon photolysis or under high pressure to give an insoluble material called car-sul or "Bridgman's black", named after the discoverer of the polymer, [[Percy Williams Bridgman]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bridgman |first1=P.W. |title=Explorations toward the limit of utilizable pressures |journal=Journal of Applied Physics |date=1941 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=461–469|doi=10.1063/1.1712926 |bibcode=1941JAP....12..461B }}</ref> Trithiocarbonate (-S-C(S)-S-) linkages comprise, in part, the backbone of the polymer, which is a [[semiconductor]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Carbon dioxide and carbon disulfide as resources for functional polymers |first1=Bungo |last1=Ochiai |first2=Takeshi |last2=Endo |journal=Progress in Polymer Science |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=183–215 |doi=10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2005.01.005 |year=2005 }}</ref>

==Uses==
The principal industrial uses of carbon disulfide, consuming 75% of the annual production, are the manufacture of [[viscose rayon]] and [[cellophane]] film.<ref name="Ullmann" />

It is also a valued intermediate in chemical synthesis of [[carbon tetrachloride]].  It is widely used in the synthesis of [[Organosulfur chemistry|organosulfur compounds]] such as [[xanthate]]s, which are used in [[froth flotation]], a method for extracting metals from their ores.  Carbon disulfide is also a precursor to [[dithiocarbamates]], which are used as drugs (e.g. [[Metam sodium]]) and [[rubber chemistry]].

===Niche uses===
[[File:Carbon disulfide insecticide ad, 1896 - The American elevator and grain trade (IA CAT31053470064) (page 3 crop).jpg|left|thumb|Carbon disulfide insecticide ad from the 1896 issue of ''The American Elevator and Grain Trade'' magazine]]
It can be used in [[fumigation]] of airtight storage warehouses, airtight flat storage, bins, [[Grain elevator|grain elevators]], railroad [[Boxcar|box cars]], ship holds, [[Barge|barges]], and cereal mills.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=}}</ref>  Carbon disulfide is also used as an [[insecticide]] for the fumigation of grains, nursery stock, in fresh fruit conservation, and as a [[soil disinfectant]] against insects and [[nematodes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Worthing |first1=Charles R. |last2=Hance |first2=Raymond J. |title=The Pesticide Manual, A World Compendium |publisher=British Crop Protection Council |year=1991 |edition=9th |isbn=9780948404429 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/pesticidemanualw0000unse }}</ref>

It can also be used for the [[Barking dog reaction]].

==Health effects==
Carbon disulfide has been linked to both [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] and chronic forms of [[poisoning]], with a diverse range of symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=472&tid=84#bookmark05|title=ATSDR - Public Health Statement: Carbon Disulfide|website=www.atsdr.cdc.gov|access-date=2020-01-17|archive-date=2019-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214052436/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.asp?id=472&tid=84#bookmark05|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Concentrations of 500–3000&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> cause acute and subacute poisoning. These include a set of mostly neurological and psychiatric symptoms, called encephalopathia sulfocarbonica. Symptoms include acute [[psychosis]] (manic [[delirium]], [[hallucinations]]), [[paranoia|paranoic]] ideas, loss of appetite, gastrointestinal and sexual disorders, [[polyneuritis]], [[myopathy]], and mood changes (including irritability and anger). Effects observed at lower concentrations include neurological problems ([[encephalopathy]], psychomotor and psychological disturbances, [[polyneuritis]], abnormalities in nerve conduction), [[Hearing loss|hearing]] problems, vision problems (burning eyes, abnormal light reactions, increased [[intraocular pressure|ophthalmic pressure]]<!--blurred vision{{cn}}-->), heart problems (increased deaths for heart disease, [[angina pectoris]], [[hypertension|high blood pressure]]),  reproductive problems (increased [[miscarriages]], [[Asthenozoospermia|immobile]] or [[Teratospermia|deformed]] sperm), and decreased immune response.<ref name="WHO">{{cite book |title=Air Quality Guidelines |date=2000 |publisher=WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark |edition=2 |url=https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/123058/AQG2ndEd_5_4carbodisulfide.PDF |access-date=31 July 2021 |chapter=Chapter 5.4 : Carbon disulfide |archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018194943/https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/123058/AQG2ndEd_5_4carbodisulfide.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2018-124/ |title=Preventing hearing loss caused by chemical (ototoxicity) and noise exposure. |date=2018-03-01 |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |doi=10.26616/nioshpub2018124 |language=en|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref><!--cramps, muscle weakness, pain, [[Neurophysiology|neurophysiological]] impairment, [[priapism]], [[erectile dysfunction]], [[psychosis]], [[keratitis]], and death by [[respiratory failure]]{{cn}}<ref name="Ullmann">Lay, Manchiu D. S.; Sauerhoff, Mitchell W.; Saunders, Donald R.; "Carbon Disulfide", in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000 {{DOI| 10.1002/14356007.a05_185}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Golden Thread: How Fabric Changed History|last=St. Clair|first=Kassia|publisher=John Murray|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4736-5903-2|location=London|pages=213–215|oclc=1057250632}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blanc, M.D. |first1=Paul David |title=Fake Silk / The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon |date=15 November 2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300204667 |page=79 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk |access-date=17 December 2020 |quote=in 1915,...[of 16] carbon disulfide poisoning cases....one worker had been briefly committed to an asylum and several others had experienced nervous system complaints...}}</ref>-->

[[Chemical hazard|Occupational exposure]] to carbon disulfide is also associated with [[cardiovascular disease]], particularly [[stroke]].<ref name="SBU2017">{{cite web |url=http://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/occupational-health-and-safety--chemical-exposure/ |title=Occupational health and safety – chemical exposure |publisher=[[Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services]] (SBU) |website=www.sbu.se |language=en |access-date=2017-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606093333/http://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/occupational-health-and-safety--chemical-exposure/ |archive-date=2017-06-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2000, the WHO believed that health harms were unlikely at levels below 100 μg/m<sup>3</sup>, and set this as a guideline level.{{needs update|date=November 2023}} Carbon disulfide can be smelled at levels above 200 μg/m<sup>3</sup>, and the WHO recommended a sensory guideline of below 20 μg/m<sup>3</sup>. Exposure to carbon disulfide is well-established to be harmful to health in concentrations at or above 30&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>. Changes in the function of the central nervous system have been observed at concentrations of 20–25&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>. There are also reports of harms to health at 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>, for exposures of 10–15 years, but the lack of good data on past exposure levels make the association of these harms with concentrations of 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> findings uncertain. The measured concentration of 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> may be equivalent to a concentration in the general environment of 1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref name="WHO"/>

===Environmental sources===
The primary source of carbon disulfide in the environment is [[rayon]] factories.<ref name="WHO"/> Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008.<ref name=dir/> Other sources include the production of [[cellophane]], [[carbon tetrachloride]],<ref name=dir>{{cite web |url=https://www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/DoshReg/CarbonDisulfide5155-4-08.doc|type=DOC|title=Carbon Disulfide Health Effects Assessment for HEAC Discussion April 2008|date=April 2008|website=Division of Occupational Safety and Health|publisher=State of California Department of Industrial Relations|access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref> [[carbon black]], and sulfur recovery. Carbon disulfide production also emits hydrogen sulfide.<ref name=large-scale/>

{{as of|2004}}, about 250 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced. About 30 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of carbon black produced. About 0.341 g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of sulfur recovered.<ref name=large-scale/>

Japan has reduced carbon disulfide emissions per kilogram of rayon produced, but in other rayon-producing countries, including China, emissions are assumed to be uncontrolled (based on global modelling and large-scale free-air concentration measurements). Rayon production is steady or decreasing except in China, where it is increasing, {{as of|lc=yes|2004}}.<ref name=large-scale>{{cite journal |last1=Blake |first1=Nicola J. |title=Carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide: Large-scale distributions over the western Pacific and emissions from Asia during TRACE-P |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date=2004 |volume=109 |issue=D15 |pages=D15S05 |article-number=2003JD004259 |doi=10.1029/2003JD004259|bibcode=2004JGRD..10915S05B |s2cid=43793469 |url=https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1072&context=earthsci_facpub |doi-access=free }}</ref> Carbon black production in Japan and Korea uses incinerators to destroy about 99% of the carbon disulfide that would otherwise be emitted.<ref name=large-scale/> When used as a [[solvent]], Japanese emissions are about 40% of the carbon disulfide used; elsewhere, the average is about 80%.<ref name=large-scale/>

Most rayon production uses carbon sulfide.<ref name=SwanBlanc>{{cite news |last1=Swan |first1=Norman |last2=Blanc |first2=Paul |title=The health burden of viscose rayon |url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/healthreport/the-health-burden-of-viscose-rayon/8286870 |work=ABC Radio National |date=20 February 2017 |language=en|access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="scientificamerican.com">{{cite magazine|title=Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You?|author=Nijhuis, Michelle |magazine=Scientific American Special Editions|volume=19|issue=2|pages=60–65|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bamboo-boom/|access-date=24 March 2023|year=2009|bibcode=2009SciAm..19f..60N}}</ref> One exception is rayon made using the [[lyocell]] process, which uses a different solvent; {{as of|lc=yes|2018}} the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is more expensive than the viscose process.<ref name=brief>{{cite journal |title=Regenerated cellulose by the Lyocell process, a brief review of the process and properties :: BioResources |journal=BioRes |url=https://bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu/resources/regenerated-cellulose-by-the-lyocell-process-a-brief-review-of-the-process-and-properties/ |date=2018}}</ref><ref name=thesis>{{cite thesis |last1=Tierney |first1=John William |title=Kinetics of Cellulose Dissolution in N-MethylMorpholine-N-Oxide and Evaporative Processes of Similar Solutions |date=2005 |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=3796&context=utk_gradthes}}</ref> [[Cuprammonium rayon]] also does not use carbon disulfide.

===Incidence of exposure===
Industrial workers working with carbon disulfide are at high risk. Emissions may also harm the health of people living near rayon plants.<ref name="WHO"/>

Concerns about carbon disulfide exposure have a long history.<ref name="Ullmann">Lay, Manchiu D. S.; Sauerhoff, Mitchell W.; Saunders, Donald R.; "Carbon Disulfide", in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000 {{doi| 10.1002/14356007.a05_185}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Golden Thread: How Fabric Changed History|last=St. Clair|first=Kassia|publisher=John Murray|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4736-5903-2|location=London|pages=213–215|oclc=1057250632}}</ref><ref name="Blanc 2016">{{cite book |last1=Blanc, M.D. |first1=Paul David |title=Fake Silk / The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon |date=15 November 2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300204667 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk |access-date=17 December 2020 |quote=in 1915,...[of 16] carbon disulfide poisoning cases....one worker had been briefly committed to an asylum and several others had experienced nervous system complaints...}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Around 1900, carbon disulfide came to be widely used in the production of [[vulcanized rubber]]. The [[psychosis]] produced by high exposures was soon apparent (it has been reported with 6 months of exposure<ref name="WHO"/>). [[Sir Thomas Oliver]] told a story about a [[Rubber_technology|rubber factory]] that put bars on its windows so that the workers would not [[Suicide|leap out to their deaths]].<ref name="Blanc 2016"/>{{rp|17|\}} Carbon disulfide use in the US as a heavier-than-air burrow poison for [[Richardson's ground squirrel]] also led to reports of psychosis. No systematic medical study of the issue was published, and knowledge was not transferred to the rayon industry.<ref name=SwanBlanc/>

The first large epidemiological study of rayon workers was done in the US in the late 1930s, and found fairly severe effects in 30% of the workers. Data on increased risks of heart attacks and strokes came out in the 1960s. [[Courtaulds]], a major rayon manufacturer, worked hard to prevent publication of this data in the UK.<ref name=SwanBlanc/> Average concentrations in sampled rayon plants were reduced from about 250&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> in 1955–1965 to about 20–30&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> in the 1980s (US figures only?{{globalize inline|US|date=October 2021}}).<ref name="WHO"/> Rayon production has since largely moved to the developing world, especially China, Indonesia and India.<ref name="scientificamerican.com"/><ref name=SwanBlanc/>

Rates of [[disability]] in factories are unknown {{as of|lc=yes|2016}}.<ref name="scientificamerican.com"/><ref name="Monosson">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1126/science.aak9834|pmid=27884997|title=Toxic textiles|year= 2016 |last1= Monosson |first1= Emily |journal= Science|volume= 354|issue= 6315 |page=977|bibcode= 2016Sci...354..977M|s2cid=45869497}}</ref> Manufacturers using the [[viscose]] process do not provide any information on harm to their workers.<ref name=SwanBlanc/><ref name="scientificamerican.com"/>

==See also==
* [[Carbon monosulfide]]
* [[Ethenedithione]] 
* [[Carbon subsulfide]]
* [[Carbon diselenide]]
* [[Carbon dioxide]] 
* [[1949 Holland Tunnel fire]], accident with truck carrying carbon disulfide.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Carbon disulfide}}
{{EB1911 poster|Carbon Bisulphide}}
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/carbon-disulfide/index.html Australian National Pollutant Inventory: Carbon disulfide]
*[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0104.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Carbon Disulfide]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305094145/http://www.innomotionengg.com/ Inno Motion Engineering]
* Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=472&tid=84#bookmark05 Public Health Statement for Carbon Disulfide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214052436/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.asp?id=472&tid=84#bookmark05 |date=2019-12-14 }}, 1996. 
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/carbon-disulfide/default.html Resources on Carbon Disulfide] by the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]
* {{cite book |last1=Blanc |first1=Paul David |title=Fake silk : the lethal history of viscose rayon |date=2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=9780300204667 |pages=328 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk}}

{{Carbon compounds}}
{{Sulfides}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon Disulfide}}
[[Category:Sulfides]]
[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]
[[Category:Inorganic sulfur compounds]]
[[Category:Inorganic solvents]]
[[Category:Neurotoxins]]
[[Category:Dichalcogenides]]
[[Category:Chemical hazards]]
[[Category:Foul-smelling chemicals]]
[[Category:IV-VI semiconductors]]