View source for Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

{{Short description|Finnish military leader and statesman (1867–1951)}}
{{Redirect| Mannerheim|the noble family he belonged to|Mannerheim (family)|his grandfather|Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (naturalist)|other uses|Mannerheim (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
| image               = Mannerheim1940.jpg
| caption             = Mannerheim in 1940
| office              = 6th [[President of Finland]]
| term_start          = 4 August 1944
| term_end            = 4 March 1946
| predecessor         = [[Risto Ryti]]
| successor           = [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi]]
| primeminister       = {{plainlist|
*[[Antti Hackzell]]
*[[Urho Castrén]]
*Juho Kusti Paasikivi}}
| office2             = [[Regent of Finland]]
| term_start2         = 12 December 1918
| term_end2           = 26 July 1919
| predecessor2        = [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]]
| successor2          = [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] <small>(as President of the Republic)</small>
| office3             = [[Chief of Defence (Finland)|Chief of Defence of Finland]]
| termstart3          = 28 January 1918
| termend3            = 30 May 1918 <br /> as Supreme Commander of the forces of the Republic of Finland
| predecessor3        = Office established
| successor3          = [[Karl Fredrik Wilkama]]
| termstart4          = 17 October 1939
| termend4            = 12 January 1945 <br />Acting: 17 October 1939 – 20 November 1939
| primeministe45      = 
| president4          = [[Risto Ryti]] <br /> ''Himself''
| predecessor4        = [[Hugo Viktor Österman]]
| successor4          = [[Erik Heinrichs]]
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1867|06|04|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Louhisaari Manor]], Askainen, Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian Empire
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|1951|01|27|1867|06|04|df= y}}
| death_place         = [[Lausanne]], Switzerland
| resting_place       = [[Hietaniemi Cemetery]], [[Helsinki]]
| spouse              = {{marriage| Anastasie Arapova|1892|1919|end= div}}
| children            = {{Plainlist|
* Anastasie "Stasie" Mannerheim (1893–1978)
* Sofia "Sophy" Mannerheim (1895–1963)}}
| parents             = {{Plainlist|
* [[Carl Robert Mannerheim|Count Carl Robert Mannerheim]]
* [[Helene Mannerheim|Hedvig von Julin]]}}
| relatives           = {{Plainlist|
* [[Sophie Mannerheim]] {{Small|(sister)}}
* [[Eva Mannerheim-Sparre]] {{Small|(sister)}}
* [[Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (naturalist)|Carl Gustaf Mannerheim]] <small>(paternal grandfather)</small>
* [[John Jacob von Julin]] <small>(maternal grandfather)</small>
* [[Albert von Julin]] <small>(maternal uncle)</small>
* [[Georg C. Ehrnrooth]] <small>(grandnephew)</small><ref>{{ill|Riku Keski-Rauska|lt=Keski-Rauska, Riku|fi}}. {{cite book
 | title=[[Georg C. Ehrnrooth]] – Kekkosen kauden toisinajattelija | publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] | year=2005 | language = fi}}</ref>
* ''See [[Mannerheim (family)|Mannerheim family]]''
* ''See [[Julin (family)|Julin family]]''}}
| profession          = Military officer, statesman
| party               = Independent
| nationality         = <!--Deprecated per MOS:INFONAT-->
| signature           = CGE Mannerheim autograph.svg
| allegiance          = {{plainlist|
*{{flagcountry|Russian Empire}} {{small|(1889–1917)}}
*{{flagcountry|Finland}} {{small|(1918–1951)}}}}
| branch              = {{plainlist|
*[[Imperial Russian Army]]
*[[White Guard (Finland)|White Army]]
*[[Finnish Army]]}}
| serviceyears        = {{plainlist|
*1889–1917 {{small|(Imperial Russia)}}
*1918 {{small|(Finnish Whites)}}
*1939–1945 {{small|(Finland)}}}}
| rank                = {{plainlist|
*[[File:1914-arm-p03r.png|35px]] [[Lieutenant general]] {{small|(Russia & White Army)}}
*[[File:Sotamarsalkka.svg|35px]] [[Field marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] {{small|(Finland)}}
*[[File:Sotamarsalkka.svg|35px]] [[Marshal of Finland]] {{small|(Finland) }}}}
| battles             = {{tree list}}
*[[Russo-Japanese War]]
*[[First World War]]
**[[Russian Civil War]]
**[[Finnish Civil War]]
*[[Second World War]]
** [[Winter War]]
** [[Continuation War]]
** [[Lapland War]]
{{tree list/end}}
| president3          = ''Vacant''
}}

[[Baron]] '''Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim''' ({{IPA|sv-FI|kɑːrl ˈɡʉstɑv ˈeːmil ˈmɑnːærhejm|lang|Gustaf Mannerheim.ogg}}, 4 June 1867 – 27 January 1951) was a Finnish military commander and statesman.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Gustaf-Emil-Mannerheim C. G. E. Mannerheim] at the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref><ref name="NBF">{{cite web | url= http://www.kansallisbiografia.fi/english/person/625 | title= Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951) |work= National Biography of Finland |first= Matti |last= Klinge |author-link=Matti Klinge |access-date= 21 April 2017}}</ref> He served as the military leader of the [[White Guard (Finland)|Whites]] in the [[Finnish Civil War]] (1918), as [[regent of Finland]] (1918–1919), as [[Chief of Defence (Finland)|commander-in-chief]] of the [[Finnish Defence Forces]] during [[Finland in World War II|World War II]] (1939–1945), and as the [[president of Finland]] (1944–1946). He became Finland's only [[Field marshal (Finland)|field marshal]] in 1933 and was appointed honorary [[Marshal of Finland]] in 1942.<ref>[https://www.hs.fi/kotimaa/art-2000003147966.html HS: Muodikas Marski] (in Finnish).</ref>

Born into a [[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|Swedish-speaking]] aristocratic family in the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], Mannerheim made a career in the [[Imperial Russian Army]], serving in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] and the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War I]] and rising by 1917 to the rank of [[lieutenant general]]. He had a prominent place in the [[Coronation of Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna|1896 coronation ceremonies]] for Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] and later had several private meetings with him. After the [[October Revolution|Bolshevik coup]] of November 1917 in Russia, Finland [[Finnish Declaration of Independence|declared its independence]] on 6 December, but soon became embroiled in the 1918 [[Finnish Civil War]] between the [[Whites (Finland)|Whites]], who were the troops of the [[Senate of Finland]], supported by troops of the [[German Empire]], and the pro-[[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Reds]].

A Finnish delegation appointed Mannerheim as the military chief of the Whites in January 1918; and he led them to victory, holding a triumphal [[Valkoisten Voitonparaati|victory parade]] in [[Helsinki]] in May. After spending some time abroad, he was invited back to Finland to serve as the country's second regent, or head of state, from December 1918 to July 1919. He secured the recognition of Finnish independence by multiple [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] powers{{efn|Including the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], the [[Empire of Japan]] and the [[Kingdom of Italy]]; see [[Independence of Finland#List of recognition]].}} and, despite being a [[monarchism|monarchist]], formally ratified the republican [[Constitution of Finland]]. He then ran against [[K. J. Ståhlberg]] in the [[1919 Finnish presidential election|first Finnish presidential elections in 1919]] but lost and quit politics. Mannerheim helped found the [[Mannerheim League for Child Welfare]] in 1920 and headed the [[Finnish Red Cross]] from 1922 to his death.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.fi/08_sivil/e_siviil.htm | title=MANNERHEIM - Civilian }}</ref> He was restored to a central role in national defence policy when [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud|President Svinhufvud]] appointed him as the Chairman of the Finnish Defence Council in 1931, tasked with making preparations for a potential war with the [[Soviet Union]]. It was also agreed that he would temporarily take over as commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces should there be a war.<ref name="NBF" /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.fi/09_pneuv/e_neuvos.htm | title=Mannerheim - Defence Council }}</ref>

Accordingly, after the Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939 in what became the [[Winter War]], Mannerheim replaced President [[Kyösti Kallio]] as commander-in-chief, and occupied the post for the next five years. He became a unifying symbol of the war effort and part of the core leadership of the country.<ref name="NBF" /> He personally participated in the planning of [[Operation Barbarossa]]<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last= Zeiler |editor1-first= Thomas W. |editor2-last= DuBois |editor2-first= Daniel M. |title=A Companion to World War II|series=Wiley Blackwell Companions to World History|chapter= Scandinavian Campaigns |volume=11 | year=2012 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|isbn=978-1-4051-9681-9|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=q7ovUxI8_5YC}}</ref> and led the Finnish Defence Forces in an invasion of the Soviet Union alongside [[Nazi Germany]] known as the [[Continuation War]] (1941–1944). As a representative of Finland, Mannerheim refused to deport [[Finnish Jews]] to Nazi Germany during the [[Holocaust]]. In 1944, when the prospect of Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II became clear, the [[Parliament of Finland]] unanimously appointed Mannerheim as the President, and he oversaw peace negotiations with the Soviet Union and the [[United Kingdom]], leading to the [[Lapland War]]. Already in declining health, he resigned the presidency in 1946 and spent much of his remaining life in a [[sanatorium]] in [[Switzerland]], where he wrote his memoirs, and where he died in 1951.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mannerheim.fi/12_elake/e_elakev.htm|title=MANNERHEIM - Retirement|website=mannerheim.fi}}</ref>

Participants in a Finnish survey taken 53 years after his death voted Mannerheim the greatest Finn of all time.<ref name="Suuret suomalaiset">{{in lang|fi}} [http://www.yle.fi/suuretsuomalaiset/ Suuret suomalaiset] at [[YLE]].fi</ref> During his own lifetime he became, alongside [[Jean Sibelius]], the best-known Finnish personage at home and abroad.<ref name="NBF"/> According to historian [[Tuomas Tepora]]<sup>[[:fi:Tuomas_Tepora|[fi]]]</sup>, a [[cult of personality]] began to be built around Mannerheim after the civil war.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/a/74-20019220|title="Adolf Ehrnrooth välitti Mannerheimin tahtoa haudan takaa" – Mannerheim on ainutlaatuinen kulttihahmo, jonka myyttiä lähipiiri rakensi määrätietoisesti|first=Mikko|last=Pesonen|work=[[Yle]]|date=13 March 2023|access-date=15 March 2023|language=fi}}</ref>

Given the broad recognition in Finland and elsewhere of his unparalleled role in establishing and later preserving Finland's independence from the Soviet Union, Mannerheim has long been referred to as the father of modern Finland,<ref>{{cite book|editor= Edwards, Robert |page=21|title= White Death: Russia's War with Finland 1939–1940|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=r_gLywEACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=[[Phoenix Press]]|isbn=978-0-7538-2247-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Warner |author-first=Oliver |author-link=Oliver Warner |date=1967 |title=Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns |publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]] |page=154}}</ref><ref name="The New York Times Travel – David Binder">{{cite news | url= https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/16/travel/finland-s-heritage-on-parade.html | title = Finland's Heritage on parade | date= 16 October 1983 | access-date = 17 August 2013 | work = [[The New York Times]] | first= David | last= Binder |author-link=David Binder (journalist)}}</ref><ref name="The Western Mail, Vol. 60, No. 3,114 – Perth, Western Australia">{{cite web | url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article38568179 | title = Field Marshal Mannerheim, THE FATHER OF FINLAND | newspaper = Western Mail | date= 15 November 1945 | access-date= 17 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="BBC News Europe">{{cite news | url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17292092 | title= Finland Country Profile – Timeline | date= 25 September 2012 | access-date= 17 August 2013 | work= [[BBC News]]}}</ref> and the ''New York Times'' called the Finnish capital [[Helsinki]]'s [[Mannerheim Museum]], memorializing the leader's life and times, "the closest thing there is to a [Finnish] national shrine".<ref name="The New York Times Travel – David Binder"/>

{{TOC limit}}

==Early life and military career==
===Name===
''Carl'' was a common name in Mannerheim's family, and he was known by his middle name ''Gustaf''. Because he disliked his third name, ''Emil'', he wrote his signature as ''C.&nbsp;G. Mannerheim'', or simply ''Mannerheim''.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=104}} He often signed letters as ''Field Marshal G. Mannerheim'', ''Field Marshal Mannerheim'' or ''G. Mannerheim''.

During his career in the Russian military, he was known as ''Gustav Karlovich Mannergeim'' ({{langx|ru|Густав Карлович Маннергейм}}) or Karl Gustovich (Карл Густафович) in official documents, and while serving as Regent of Finland, he used the [[finnicization|finnicised]] form of his name, ''Kustaa Mannerheim'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mannerheim.fi/01_elama/e_nimi.htm|title=Name|website=Mannerheim.fi}}</ref> but later abandoned it. His first names are most commonly shortened as ''C.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;E.'', as reflected on his [[commons:File:Grave of Marshal of Finland, Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim.jpg|tombstone]].

In a military fashion, he often signed military documents by just his [[military rank]] and [[surname]].<ref>[http://www.mannerheim.fi/01_elama/s_nimi.htm Mannerheim - Elämänkaari - Nimi], Finnish Mannerheim website. Accessed on 28 January 2008.</ref>

===Ancestry===
{{Main|Mannerheim (family)}}
The [[Mannerheim (family)|Mannerheims]], originally from Germany as ''Marhein'', became [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] noblemen in 1693. In the latter part of the 18th century, they moved to Finland, which was then an [[Finland under Swedish rule|integral part of Sweden]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.kaleva.fi/plus/index.cfm?j=640489 |title=Mannerheimin suku onkin lähtöisin Saksasta|date=1 March 2007|newspaper= [[Kaleva (newspaper)|Kaleva]]|access-date=17 August 2007 |language=fi|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023654/http://www.kaleva.fi/plus/index.cfm?j=640489 |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/kotimaa.shtml/arkistot/kotimaa/2007/03/508593|title=Mannerheimin suku onkin lähtöisin Saksasta|publisher=[[MTV3]]|date=March 2007 |language=fi}}</ref> For a long time, it was thought that the Mannerheim family came from the Netherlands.<ref name="hs1951">[https://www.hs.fi/muistot/art-2000002626140.html Cal Gustaf Emil Mannerheim], obituary. ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' 28 January 1951. Accessed on 30 August 2025.</ref> King [[Charles XI of Sweden]] ennobled Augustin Marhein in 1693 at which time the family name Marhein was changed to Mannerheim.<ref name="hs1951"/>

After Sweden [[Finland under Swedish rule#Sweden loses Finland|lost Finland]] to the [[Russian Empire]] in 1809, Mannerheim's great-grandfather, [[Count]] [[Carl Erik Mannerheim]] (1759–1837), son of the [[Commandant]] [[Johan Augustin Mannerheim]],<ref>[http://www.tjelvar.se/biografica/akter-2/3428.htm Johan Augustin Mannerheim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629182936/http://www.tjelvar.se/biografica/akter-2/3428.htm |date=29 June 2020 }}. tjelvar.se (in Swedish)</ref><ref>[https://www.finna.fi/Record/musketti.M012:H86056:1 Muotokuva; Johan Augustin Mannerheim; (1706–1778)]. finna.fi (in Finnish)</ref> became the first [[Senate of Finland#Vice Chairman of the Economic Division (1822–1917)|head of the executive]] of the newly-autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], an office that preceded that of the contemporary [[Prime Minister of Finland|Prime Minister]]. His grandfather, [[Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (naturalist)|Carl Gustaf Mannerheim]] (1797–1854), was an [[entomologist]] and jurist.

Mannerheim's father, [[Carl Robert Mannerheim|Carl Robert, Count Mannerheim]] (1835–1914), was both a playwright and industrialist, with modest success in both endeavours.<ref name="hannula">Hannula, J.O.: ''Mannerheim - vapaussodan ylipäällikkö'', Sanatar 1937.</ref>{{rp|8}} He was an exception to the family's tradition as he never became a soldier or an official.<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|14}} Carl Robert Mannerheim was known for his radical political views, and when he inherited the title of ''[[Graf]]'' from his father, the officials disapproved of him, thinking of him as political satirist.<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|14}} As a man with a sharp wit, Carl Robert Mannerheim clearly expressed his view of the Russian authorities. He spent a lot of time abroad, but after turning 50 years old, he moved to [[Helsinki]], founded a shop selling office machinery of the "Systema" brand, and proved to be a busy and systematic businessman.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|8}}

In 1862 Carl Robert Mannerheim married [[Helene Mannerheim|Hedvig Charlotta Hélène von Julin]] (1842–1881), the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, [[John von Julin]] (1787–1853). The Julin family had also moved to Finland from Sweden. The Mannerheim couple had seven children, four sons and three daughters: [[Sophie Mannerheim]], [[Carl Mannerheim (banker)|Carl Mannerheim]], Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1867-1951), [[Johan Mannerheim]], [[Eva Sparre]], Anna Mannerheim (1872-1886) and August Mannerheim (1873-1910). Carl Robert Mannerheim had a further daughter by his second wife Sofia Nordenstam (1849-1915), Marguerite (Kissie) Gripenberg (1884-1958).<ref>[http://www.mannerheim.fi/02_suku/s_suktau.htm Sukutausta], Finnish Mannerheim website.</ref>

===Childhood===
[[File:Mannerheim siblings.jpg|left|thumb|The Mannerheim siblings, {{circa}} 1880; Gustaf is standing on the right]]
Gustaf Mannerheim was born in the [[Louhisaari Manor]] of the [[Askainen|Askainen parish]] (currently [[Masku]]) on 4 June 1867.<ref name="everyman">{{cite book|title= Everyman's Encyclopedia volume 8 |year= 1978 |publisher= [[J. M. Dent and Sons|J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd]] |isbn = 0-460-04020-0}}</ref><ref name="hs1951"/> After Mannerheim's heavily indebted father left the family in 1880 for his mistress, a daughter of Baron and General [[Johan Mauritz Nordenstam]],{{sfnp|Meri|1990|pages=107–108}} the young Mannerheim's mother and her seven children went to live with her aunt Louise; but Mannerheim's mother died the following year.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=108}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000010510364.html|title=Näin tuhoutui menestyjän perhe|first=Seppo|last=Varjus|work=[[Ilta-Sanomat]]|date=23 August 2024|access-date=9 July 2025|language=fi|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Mannerheim's maternal uncle, [[Albert von Julin]] (1846–1906), then became his legal guardian and financier of his later schooling.<ref>[https://www.is.fi/taloussanomat/oma-raha/art-2000001700041.html IS: Pikavippi olisi kelvannut Mannerheimillekin] (in Finnish)</ref> The third child of the family, Mannerheim inherited the title of [[Baron]].

Mannerheim is said to have enjoyed playing military games and "leading the troops".<ref name="rajala">Rajala, Pertti: ''Suomalaisia presidenttejä''. The Finnish Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 2004. {{ISBN|951-580-375-6}}.</ref>{{rp|92}} He was first taught by a female Swiss home teacher, and at the age of seven he started going to school in [[Helsinki]], where he lived with his father. From 1874 to 1879 he and his brother Carl attended the Böök private lyceum, where he was expelled for a year in autumn 1879 for throwing stones at the windows.<ref name="vihavainen">Vihavainen, Timo (ed.): ''Mannerheim: keisarillisen Venäjän armeijan upseeri, itsenäisen Suomen marskalkka'', Helsinki: Pietari-säätiö, 2005. {{ISBN|951-97072-2-0}}.</ref>{{rp|30}}

===Education===
[[File:Mannerheim In Nicholas Cavalry School.png|thumb|Mannerheim (right) with a fellow student, [[Antanas Ričardas Druvė]], in Nicholas Cavalry College, Saint Petersburg, late 1880s.|left]]
From 1881 to 1882 Mannerheim went to a school in [[Hamina]] preparing students for the [[Hamina Cadet School]], a state school educating aristocrats for the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. The Hamina Cadet School was the only school to give military education in Finland at the time.<ref name="screen">Screen, J.E.O.: ''Mannerheim''. otava, 2001. {{ISBN|951-31-3841-0}}.</ref>{{rp|18}} However, Mannerheim felt hatred towards the city of Hamina,<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|17}} which was also evident from his behaviour.

Mannerheim was accepted to the Hamina Cadet School in 1882 at the age of 14.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1965|pages=68–70}}<ref name="kasvuvuodet">[http://www.mannerheim.fi/03_kasvu/s_kasvu.htm Kasvuvuodet], Finnish Mannerheim website.</ref><ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|12}} This can be seen as the start of his military career.<ref name="hs1951"/>

However, Mannerheim was left behind in class for one year because he managed to score only seven points of twelve in an examination in June 1883. This extra year was of help, as in the next year Mannerheim was moved to the first general class with the second-best grades. He did best in [[French language|French]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] as well as [[history]], but did worse in [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]].<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|19}} Among other students of his age and younger cadets Mannerheim was in a clear leadership position.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|12}} The handsome young Baron towered over his classmates, standing {{convert|6|ft|4|in|m|abbr=on}}.

Mannerheim's financial situation was poor, and he often had to borrow money from his caretaker Albert von Julin. He also did not like his time at the Hamina Cadet School: he could not tolerate the atmosphere at the school or its tight regulations, and he was punished often.<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|20}}

Mannerheim had hoped that after the Hamina Cadet School, he would get to the [[Page Corps]] military academy in Saint Petersburg, which was one of the most prestigious military academies in the country. The academy only allowed students with a hereditary noble title. Another requirement was that the student's father, grandfather or great-grandfather had a military rank of at least lieutenant general or an equivalent civilian rank. Civilian ranks were contrasted to military officer ranks according to a system devised by [[Peter the Great]].<ref>Ignatyev, ''A Subaltern in Old Russia'', p. 49; Inkinen: "Vaihe Mannerheimin nuoruusvuosilta".</ref> Mannerheim got his father Carl Robert Mannerheim to leave an application to the Page Corps, but the academy's director major general Neovius did not recommend Mannerheim to the academy claiming his skills in French and Russian were not good enough.<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|22}} Because of Neovius's letter, Mannerheim's application to the academy was rejected, and he fell into a deep depression.
<blockquote>His future is indeed bleak. He does not seem to have any ambition, nor any understanding to improve himself and to attend the Cadet School so he could support himself.<br/>(Mannerheim's grandmother Eva about the young Cadet School student)<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9196553 Koulukiusaaja, tuhlari ja huligaani - Mannerheimin nuoruus oli levoton], Yle 2016.</ref></blockquote>

Mannerheim's depression also manifested as rebellion towards the Hamina Cadet School, and he was expelled on 22 July 1886.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1965|pages=93–94}}<ref name="kasvuvuodet"/> According to his memoirs, Mannerheim had left without permission and spent the night at the home of a registrar he knew, the 35-year-old deputy judge Hugo Elfgren. In the next morning, he was discovered there by a warrant officer at the Cadet School. According to education committee at the cadet board Mannerheim had "left later in the night with a person of ill repute to the countryside to this person's residence". The person this referred to was the chief of the telegraph station Agathon Lindholm, who was known to be possibly homosexual. The letter also mentioned Mannerheim's "immoral aberrations and degrading lecherousness".<ref>[https://www.iltalehti.fi/uutiset/a/2014041718222551 Seura: Näin huhut Mannerheimin homoudesta alkoivat], ''[[Iltalehti]]'' 17 April 2014. Accessed on 3 May 2014.</ref> The school could have put the strictest form of its expulsion policy into use, which would have prevented Mannerheim from studying at any Finnish school or university ever again, but the board held a vote and decided to use a more lenient policy on the condition that Mannerheim's family would leave a voluntary application for him to leave the school.<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|24}}

Mannerheim next attended the Helsinki Private Lyceum, where he passed the university entrance examinations in June 1887.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=123}} From 1887 to 1889, Mannerheim attended the Nicholas Cavalry College in [[Saint Petersburg]].{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=129}} Mannerheim was recommended to the Nicholas Cavalry College by the general [[Johan Fredrik Gustav Aminoff]], who was friends with the college's director Pavel Adamovich von Plehwe.<ref>Vlasov, Leonid: ''Mannerheim Pietarissa 1887-1904'', p. 17. Translated to Finnish by Kari Klemelä. Helsinki: Gummerus, 1994. {{ISBN|951-20-4429-3}}.</ref> The entry requirements to the college were practically having a noble title and having graduated from cadet school or matriculated.<ref name="kasvuvuodet"/> On the best applicants were selected to the college and the entry requirements were strict.<ref>[https://ria1914.info/index.php/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5 Николаевское кавалерийское училище — Офицеры русской императорской армии], ''ria1914.info''. Accessed on 6 April 2025.</ref>

Mannerheim graduated from the Nicholas Cavalry College on 10 August 1889. His graduation examination had gone well, and especially his grades in Russian had improved. In the spring of the same year, before being promoted to [[cornet (rank)|cornet]], Mannerheim had been promoted to a ''porte d'épée'' Junker. This rank corresponded to the rank of a soldier promoted from the rank and file to a junior officer, who could serve as the warrant officer of a [[troop]].

In January 1891, Mannerheim joined the [[Chevalier Guard Regiment]] in Saint Petersburg.{{sfnp|Screen|1970|page=33}}

===Service in the Imperial Russian Army===
Mannerheim planned a career at the prestigious [[Russian Imperial Guard]], at the Chevalier Guard regiment of Her Majesty Empress Maria Feodorovna, but at first he was rejected. On 22 August 1889 he was hired as a cornet into the 15th dragoon regiment of Alexander's His Imperial Majesty Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich the elder situated in [[Kalisz]] in [[Poland]], which was not a guard regiment. Mannerheim was not happy with this situation,<ref name="screen"/>{{rp|32}} but dreamed of entry to the Chevalier Guard.<ref name="kransman">Kransman, Alex: [https://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/fi/ajankohtaista/blogi/mannerheimin-venaelaeiset-rykmentit/ Mannerheimin venäläiset rykmentit], Mannerheim Museum of Finland 31 August 2021. Accessed on 18 November 2022.</ref>

Finally an application by Mannerheim's godmother got the empress to accept him into the guard, but first he had to join the [[dragoon]]s. Mannerheim served in Kalisz at the border of Poland and [[Germany]] from 1889 to 1890, until he was transferred to the Chevalier Guard in Saint Petersburg in 1891.<ref name="koivunen"/>{{rp|84}} In Saint Petersburg he married [[Anastasia Mannerheim|Anastasia Arapova]], the wealthy heiress of a Russian major general on 2 May 1892.<ref name="perhe"/> The marriage solved Mannerheim's financial problems which he had suffered from for his whole life. Mannerheim was the leader of the first group of the first troop of the regiment of the Chevalier Guard and in 1895 he started taking care of the regiment [[train (military)|train]]. After a transfer to the highest court stables management the regiment's commander von Grünwald invited Mannerheim there to take care of the horses. Mannerheim was appointed to special duties at the court stables on 14 September 1897.

Mannerheim was not accepted to the academy for the general staff, and he remained as an expert of horses. In 1901 he was promoted to a captain in the cavalry.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|13}} He bought horses for the army and had a horse breeding farm in the countryside.<ref name="klinge"/> As a buyer of elite horses for the emperor he travelled all around Europe photographing horses.<ref>Jukka Kukkonen in the book ''C. G. Mannerheimin valokuvia Aasian-matkalta 1906-1908'', Otava 1990. {{ISBN|951-1-11357-7}}.</ref> In his duties in the court stables he visited Germany, [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Belgium]] and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="skvarov">Skvarov, Aleksei: ''Kenraaliluutnantti Mannerheim, syntynyt tsaarin palvelukseen''. Teos, 2010. {{ISBN|978-951-851-293-9}}.</ref>{{rp|137}}

Mannerheim's marriage to Anastasia Arapova practically ended in 1902 when the couple entered an unofficial separation in residence.<ref>Vanhala, Ville: [https://seura.fi/ilmiot/historia/mannerheim-oli-innokas-golfari-nain-marsalkalla-viuhui-myos-draiveri/ Mannerheim oli innokas golfari - Näin marsalkalla viuhui myös draiveri: "Hän oli ehdottomasti niitä ihmisiä, jotka tarvitsivat adrenaliiniryöppyjä"], ''[[Seura]]'' 23 September 2021. Accessed on 30 August 2022.</ref><ref>[http://www.mannerheim.fi/02_suku/s_perhe.htm Suku ja perhe], Finnish Mannerheim website. Accessed on 30 August 2022.</ref> From 1903 Mannerheim served as chief of the model troop and the director of horseriding teaching in the mounted regiments of the guard. He also made his name in competitive riding.<ref name="klinge"/> By his own request, in 1904 Mannerheim was transferred to the officer riding school in Saint Petersburg where he was commanded to already in the previous year. His service as the chief of the model troop of the riding school was very significant for a future commander of the cavalry.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|14}}

Mannerheim served in the Imperial Chevalier Guard until 1904. In 1896, he took part in the coronation of Emperor Nicholas II, standing for four hours in his full-dress Imperial Chevalier Guard uniform at the bottom of the steps leading up to the imperial throne.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=24}} Mannerheim always considered the coronation a high-point of his life, recalling with pride his role in what he called an "indescribably magnificent" coronation.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=24}} An expert rider and trained horseman, Mannerheim bought horses for the Russian army as one of his official duties. In 1903, he was put in charge of the model squadron in the Imperial Chevalier Guard and became a member of the equestrian training board of the cavalry regiments.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|page=40}}
[[File:Coronation 1896, walking under cover.jpg|thumb|After his coronation, [[Nicholas II of Russia]] leaves [[Dormition Cathedral, Moscow|Dormition Cathedral]]. The [[Chevalier Guard Regiment|Chevalier Guard]] Lieutenant marching in front to the Tsar's left (to the viewer's right) is Mannerheim.]]
Mannerheim volunteered for active service with the [[Imperial Russian Army]] in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904. He was transferred to the 52nd Nezhin Dragoon Regiment in [[Manchuria]], with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. During a reconnaissance patrol on the plains of Manchuria, he first saw action in a skirmish and had his horse shot out from under him.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=24}} He was promoted to Colonel for bravery in the [[Battle of Mukden]] in 1905{{sfnp|Screen|1970|pages=43–49}} and briefly commanded an irregular unit of ''[[Hong Huzi]]'', a local militia, on an exploratory mission into Inner Mongolia.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|pages=80–81}} During the war, Mannerheim also managed to lead a group of local bandits with whom he sought the rear of the enemy to defeat them.<ref name="27jan21">{{cite web|url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/a31dca17-fd7c-4bfc-aec0-ce097f7d13d8|title=Mannerheim halusi diktaattoriksi ja lähes sai haluamansa|work=[[Iltalehti]]|date=January 27, 2021|access-date=January 27, 2021|language=fi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115173432/https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/a31dca17-fd7c-4bfc-aec0-ce097f7d13d8 |archive-date=15 November 2023}}</ref>

===Journey to Asia===
After returning from the Russo-Japanese war Mannerheim spent a little time in Finland and Sweden. As a representative of his family he took part in the 1905 Diet of the Estates in Helsinki from February to June 1905. This was the last Diet of the Estates in Finland.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|16}}

Mannerheim, who had a long career in the Imperial Russian army, also rose to become a courtier of [[Emperor of all the Russias]] [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]].<ref name="27jan21" /> When Mannerheim returned to Saint Petersburg, he was asked to undertake a journey through [[Russian Turkestan|Turkestan]] to [[Beijing]] as a secret intelligence officer. The cover story of this journey was a scientific exploration together with professor [[Paul Pelliot]].<ref>[http://www.mannerheim.fi/05_s_ura/s_aasia.htm Tieteellinen tutkimusretki Aasiassa], Finnish Mannerheim website. Finnish Club in Helsinki. Accessed on 11 October 2015.</ref> This became a journey that produced valuable geographical and ethnological research results.<ref name="hs1951"/><ref name="friman">Friman, Paavo: ''Mannerheimin matkassa'', Ajatus Kirjat 1999, renewed publication 2004. {{ISBN|951-20-6675-0}}.</ref>{{rp|16}}

The Russian General Staff wanted accurate, on-the-ground intelligence about the reforms and activities by the [[Qing dynasty]], as well as the military feasibility of invading [[Western China]]: a possible move in their [[The Great Game|struggle with Britain for control of inner Asia]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://horsethatleaps.com/|title=Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia|website=horsethatleaps.com}}{{dead link|date=August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Start to Finnish|author=Caldwell, Christopher |author-link=Christopher Caldwell (journalist) |work=[[Washington Examiner]]|date=11 August 2017|access-date=4 February 2020|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/weekly-standard/start-to-finnish|quote=It was an 8,000-mile spying expedition. Russia was drawing up plans to invade China from the west—but failed to.}}</ref> Disguised as an ethnographic collector, he joined the French archeologist [[Paul Pelliot]]'s expedition at [[Samarkand]] in Russian Turkestan (now [[Uzbekistan]]). They started from the terminus of the [[Trans-Caspian Railway]] in [[Andijan]] in July 1906, but Mannerheim quarreled with Pelliot,<ref name="auto" /> so he made the greater part of the expedition on his own.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|pages=100–103}}

[[File:Horsethatleaps Map1 wikipedia.jpg|thumb|left|Gustaf Mannerheim's route across Asia from Saint Petersburg to Peking, 1906–1908.<ref>Tamm, Eric Enno (2010). [http://horsethatleaps.com/''The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China'']{{dead link|date=August 2025}}. Vancouver: [[Douglas & McIntyre]]. {{ISBN|978-1-55365-269-4}}.</ref>]]
[[File:La expedición de Mannerheim.jpg|thumb|The expedition of Mannerheim]]
[[File:Курманджан Датка верхом на лошади (Маннергейм).jpg|thumb|right|[[Kurmanjan Datka]] on horseback, photograph taken by Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]]
Mannerheim undertook his journey through Asia to China on horseback. The total length of the journey was 14 thousand kilometres and it took two years from 1906 to 1908.<ref name="pikkujättiläinen">''Uusi Pikkujättiläinen'' (3rd edition), WSOY 1986. {{ISBN|951-0-12416-8}}.</ref>{{rp|117}} Mannerheim took his cover role seriously and collected a lot of ethnographic material from hitherto almost unexplored areas. Before his journey he had contacted the [[Finno-Ugrian Society]] where he had received a lot of instructions for scientific research. [[Kai Donner]] described him as an enlightened explorer.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|18}} Mannerheim also became familiar with [[Marco Polo]]'s notes as well as exploration stories written by [[Nikolay Przhevalsky]], [[Sven Hedin]] and [[Marc Aurel Stein]].<ref name="bäckman">Bäckman, Juha; Koivumäki, Jarno; Marschan, Nikolai: ''Mannerheim adjutantttina: O. R. Bäckman muistelee.'' Helsinki: [[Finnish Literature Society]] 2011. {{ISBN|978-952-222-296-1}}.</ref>{{rp|22-24}} He collected almost 1200 objects to the collection of the [[National Museum of Finland]]<ref>Harry Halén in the book ''C. G. Mannerheimin valokuvia Aasian-matkalta 1906-1908''.</ref> and took about 1500 photographs. The photograph he took of [[Kurmanjan Datka]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]] is used in the 50 [[Kyrgyz som]] banknote. Kurmanjan Datka was the [[history of Kyrgyzstan|ruler of Kyrgyzstan]] at the time when the country was annexed to Russia. In part 27 of the journal of the Finno-Ugrian Society Mannerheim published a linguistically significant paper ''A visit to the Sarö and Shera Yögurs''.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|18}} The most famous militarily significant result was the mapping of a road about 2000 kilometres in length.<ref name="hannula"/>{{rp|14}}

With a small caravan, including a Cossack guide, Chinese interpreter, and Uyghur cook, Mannerheim first trekked to [[Khotan]] in search of British and Japanese spies. After returning to [[Kashgar]], he headed north into the [[Tian Shan]] range, surveying passes and gauging the stances of the tribes towards the Han Chinese. Mannerheim arrived in the provincial capital of [[Urumqi]], and then headed east into Gansu province. At the sacred Buddhist mountain of [[Mount Wutai]] in [[Shanxi province]], Mannerheim met the [[13th Dalai Lama]] of Tibet, who was living in exile on Mount Wutai after the British had occupied Tibet. Mannerheim was only the third European to be granted an audience with the 13th Dalai Lama. Mannerheim and the Dalai Lama discussed Russia and the expenses of Mannerheim's journey to Asia. The Dalai Lama gave Mannerheim a white decorated cloth to give as a gift to emperor Nicholas II. In return, Mannerheim gave the Dalai Lama his pistol and showed him how to use it.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=29}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mannerheim tapasi Dalai-laman|url=https://www.kaleva.fi/mannerheim-tapasi-dalai-laman/2292812|access-date=2021-09-07|newspaper=[[Kaleva (newspaper)|Kaleva]] 
 |language=fi}}</ref><ref>Similä, Ville: [https://www.hs.fi/ulkomaat/art-2000007705080.html Silkkitietä saapuu Mannerheim], ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' 27 December 2020. Accessed on 23 February 2024.</ref>

He followed the [[Great Wall of China]], and investigated a mysterious tribe known as [[Yugurs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://horsethatleaps.com/map/|title=Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia|website=horsethatleaps.com}}</ref> From Lanzhou, the provincial capital, Mannerheim headed south into Tibetan territory and visited the lamasery of [[Labrang]], where he was stoned by [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] monks.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=http://horsethatleaps.com|title=Horse That Leaps Through Clouds – Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia|website=horsethatleaps.com}}</ref> Mannerheim arrived in [[Beijing]] in July 1908, returning to Saint Petersburg via [[Japan]] and the [[Trans-Siberian Railway|Trans-Siberian Express]]. His report gave a detailed account of Chinese modernization, covering education, military reforms, colonization of ethnic borderlands, mining and industry, railway construction, the influence of Japan, and opium smoking.<ref name="auto1"/> He also discussed the possibility of a Russian invasion of Xinjiang, and Xinjiang's possible role as a bargaining chip in a putative future war with China.{{sfnp|Clements|2009|page=155}} His trip through Asia left him with a lifelong love of Asian art, which he thereafter collected.{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=29}}

From [[Beijing]], Mannerheim travelled to [[Japan]] and from there to [[Vladivostok]], from where he returned to Saint Petersburg along the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]]. After returning to Russia in 1909, Mannerheim presented results of the expedition to Emperor Nicholas II. Mannerheim had originally planned to spend twenty minutes with the emperor, but the meeting lasted about an hour longer than that.<ref name="bäckman"/>{{rp|22-24}} There are many artifacts still on display in the museum.<ref name="27jan21"/> After that, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 13th Vladimir [[Uhlan]] Regiment in the [[Congress Kingdom of Poland]]. The following year, he was promoted to major general and was posted as the commander of the Life Guard Uhlan Regiment of [[His Imperial Majesty]] in [[Warsaw]].

Mannerheim recorded his journey to Asia in two books: ''A visit to the Sarö and Shera Yögurs'' and ''A journey through Asia''. The latter book was originally published in Russian but has since been translated to numerous other languages and has attracted a great deal of professional attention.<ref name="hs1951"/>

Next Mannerheim became part of the Imperial entourage and was appointed to command a cavalry brigade.<ref name="Putensen">{{cite magazine |title=Der größte Finne aller Zeiten? |language=de |first=Dörte |last=Putensen |magazine=[[Damals]] |year=2017 |issue=5 |pages=72–76}}</ref>

===World War I and the end of the Russian Empire===
At the beginning of [[World War I]], Mannerheim served as commander of the Separate Guards Cavalry Brigade (the 23rd Army Corps), and fought on the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[Romania during World War I|Romanian fronts]]. In December 1914, after distinguishing himself in combat against the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Austro-Hungarian forces]], Mannerheim was awarded the [[Order of St. George]], 4th class. In March 1915, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 12th Cavalry Division.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Haarmann |author-first=Harald |author-link=Harald Haarmann |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEA4DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title=Modern Finland |page=122|publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-2565-2 }}</ref>

Mannerheim received leave to visit Finland and Saint Petersburg in early 1917 and witnessed the outbreak of the [[February Revolution]]. After returning to the front, he was promoted to [[lieutenant general]] in April 1917 (the promotion was backdated to February 1915), and took command of the 6th Cavalry Corps in the summer of 1917. However, Mannerheim fell out of favour with the [[Russian Provisional Government|new government]], who regarded him as not supporting the revolution, and was relieved of his duties. He retired and returned to Finland.<ref name="Putensen" /> Mannerheim kept a large portrait of Emperor Nicholas II in the living room of his house in Helsinki right up to his death, and when asked after the overthrow of the [[House of Romanov]] why he kept the portrait up, he always answered: "He was my emperor".{{sfnp|Trotter|2013|page=29}}

==Marriage and daughters==
[[File:Anastasie-Mannerheim-1896.jpg|thumb|upright|Anastasia Arapova, Mannerheim's wife, in 1896]]
In 1892 at the age of 25<ref name="perhe">[http://www.mannerheim.fi/02_suku/s_perhe.htm Mannerheimin perhe], Finnish Mannerheim website.</ref> Mannerheim married [[Anastasia Nikolajevna Arapova|Anastasia Arapova]] (1872–1936), the wealthy heiress of a Russian [[major general]] of Russian-Serbian heritage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blackhussars.ucoz.ru/publ/1-1-0-54|title=Краткие сведения об офицерах-Александрийцах: Великая война, Гражданская война, эмиграция. Часть 2-я (фамилии К – Р). – Статьи – Каталог статей – 5-й Гусарский Александрийский полк|language=ru|website=blackhussars.ucoz.ru}}</ref>{{sfnp|Meri|1990|pages=145–147}} Anastasia was five years younger than Mannerheim. They were married in an Orthodox way at the Church of the Saints Zachary and Elizabeth and later again in a Lutheran way at the house of the privy councillor [[Ivan Zvegintsev]].<ref name="koivunen"/>{{rp|84}}<ref name="simola">Simola, Seppo: [https://www.hos.fi/mannerheim-ja-ortodoksisuus/ Mannerheim ja ortodoksilaisuus] 19 December 2018. Accessed on 1 January 2022.</ref>

The marriage opened Mannerheim's way to the social life in Saint Petersburg and solved his financial problems which he had suffered from for his whole life.<ref name="forsström">Forsström, Riikka: [https://www.apu.fi/artikkelit/marskin-molemmat-tyttaret-valitsivat-rinnalleen-naispuoliset-elamankumppanit Marskin molemmat tyttäret valitsivat rinnalleen naispuoliset elämänkumppanit], ''[[Apu (magazine)|Apu]]'' 6 June 2017. Accessed on 30 August 2025.</ref> The marriage resulted in two daughters: [[Anastasie Mannerheim|Anastasie "Stasie"]] (1893-1978) and [[Sophie Mannerheim (the younger)|Sophie "Sophy"]] (1895-1963).<ref name="klinge">[[Matti Klinge|Klinge, Matti]]: [https://kansallisbiografia.fi/kansallisbiografia/henkilo/625/ Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867-1951)], ''Suomen kansallisbiografia'' volume 6. Helsinki: [[Finnish Literature Society]] 2005. {{ISBN|951-746-447-9}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Pallaste |first1=Tuija |title=Mannerheimin tyttärien vaietut elämät: hauras Stasie eli nunnana ja levoton Sophy pakeni Pariisiin – lopulta kumpikin eli suhteessa naisen kanssa |url=https://www.hs.fi/kuukausiliite/art-2000005433998.html |access-date=12 May 2020 |language=fi |work=[[Helsingin Sanomat]] |date=4 November 2017}}</ref> Another child, a son, was stillborn in summer 1894.<ref>Ylisimiö, Marjaterttu: [http://seura.fi/sota/mannerheimin-suhteet-naisten-marski/ Mannerheimin suhteet: Naisten Marski], ''[[Seura]]'' 17 December 2012.</ref> The death of his son was a complete shock for Mannerheim.<ref name="forsström"/>

In practice, Mannerheim's marriage ended in 1902 in an unofficial separation of residence.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|pages=148–149}} The marriage had been risky to begin with, as Mannerheim is said to have married the wealthy Anastasia under pressure from his family, and that he was really more interested in her little sister.<ref name="koivunen"/>{{rp|84}} After spending a year and a half as a military nurse in the service of the Red Cross in the Asian Far East Anastasia Mannerheim left her husband and moved to Paris, France with her daughters<ref name="koivunen"/>{{rp|84}}<ref name="forsström"/> and in 1903 via [[China]] to the [[United States]] together with her children. Ten years later, both daughters came to Finland to live at their relatives, because their father was in Warsaw in Poland and could not take his daughters to live with him.<ref name="perhe"/> Even though they were already practically separated, Mannerheim and Anastasia were not divorced as Anastasia feared a divorce would make her unwelcome to the social circles in Saint Petersburg.<ref name="forsström"/>

Mannerheim only officially divorced his wife in 1919.<ref name="forsström"/> The couple reconciled via letters in the 1920s.<ref name="simola"/> They met each other in 1936 in Paris where they reconciled face to face. Anastasia died soon afterwards.<ref name="perhe"/><ref name="simola"/> In his memoirs, Mannerheim devotes only one single sentence to his marriage and wife. After their parents' divorce, Anastasie and Sophie lived unmarried in the United Kingdom and in France.

Sophie lived with [[Alexandra Demidoff-Depret-Bixio|Alexandra "Alix" Demidoff-Depret-Bixio]] who had emigrated to France from Russia to whom she gave her inheritance until her death, while Anastasie briefly cohabated with her "petite amielle" the English [[Olive Rooney]]. She died alone in a nursing home.<ref name="forsström"/>

Anastasia Arapova died on New Year's Eve 1936. This came as a shock to her daughters.<ref name="forsström"/>

==Political career==
===The White General and the Regent of Finland===
[[File:Mannerheim, Lilius, Kekoni, Gallen-Kallela, Rosenbröijer.jpg|thumb|Mannerheim as Regent (seated), with his adjutants (left) Lt. Col. [[Lilius]], Capt. Kekoni, Lt. [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela|Gallen-Kallela]], Ensign [[List of Finnish noble families|Rosenbröijer]].]]
{{See also|Finnish Civil War}}

In [[December 1917]], [[Finnish Declaration of Independence|Finland declared independence]] from Russia, now ruled by the [[Bolsheviks]] who had overthrown the Provisional Government in the [[October Revolution]]. The Bolsheviks accepted the secession for a variety of reasons, mostly because they could not control Finland; also, they hoped they could inspire a communist revolution there modeled after the Russian one. The Finnish parliament appointed [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud|P. E. Svinhufvud]] to lead the newly independent grand duchy's [[interregnum]] government. In January 1918, a military committee was charged with bolstering the Finnish army, then not much more than some locally organised [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]]. Mannerheim was appointed to the committee, but soon resigned to protest its indecision. On 13 January, he was given command of the army.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=9}} He had only 24,000 newly enlisted, mostly untrained men. The Finnish [[Red Guard (Finland)|Red Guard]], led by communist leader [[Kullervo Manner]] and backed by Soviet Russia, had 30,000 men; and there were 70,000 Red Russian troops in Finland. Mannerheim's army was financed by a fifteen million mark line of credit provided by the bankers. His raw recruits had few arms. Nonetheless, he marched them to [[Vaasa]], which was garrisoned by 42,500 Red Russians.{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|page=138}} He surrounded the Russian garrison with a mass of men; the defenders could not see that only the front rank was armed, so they surrendered, providing badly needed arms. Further weapons were purchased from Germany. Eighty-four Swedish officers and 200 Swedish NCOs served in the [[Finnish Civil War]] (or "War of Liberty", as it was known among the "Whites"). Other officers were Finns who had been trained by the Germans as a [[27th Jäger Battalion (Finland)|Jäger Battalion]]. In March 1918 they were aided by German troops landing in Finland and occupying [[Helsinki]].

[[File:Establishment of the Finnish Defence Forces with day order no 1.jpg|left|thumb|Mannerheim's Day Order No. 1 which established the first headquarters of the modern military of Finland on 2 February 1918]]
After the Whites' victory in the bitterly fought [[Finnish Civil War|civil war]], during which both sides employed ruthless terror tactics, Mannerheim resigned as commander-in-chief. He left Finland in June 1918 to visit relatives in Sweden.{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|page=184}} In Stockholm, Mannerheim conferred with Allied diplomats, emphasizing his opposition to the Finnish government's policy; Finnish leaders were confident the Germans would win the war, and had chosen Kaiser [[Wilhelm II]]'s brother-in-law, [[Frederick Charles of Hesse]], to be the King of Finland. In the meantime Svinhufvud served as the first [[Regent]] of the nascent kingdom. Mannerheim's rapport with the Allies was recognized in October 1918 when the Finnish government sent him to Britain and France to attempt to gain Britain's and the United States's recognition of Finland's independence. In December, he was summoned back to Finland; Frederick Charles had renounced the throne, and in his stead, Mannerheim had been elected Regent. As Regent, Mannerheim often signed official documents using ''Kustaa'', the Finnish form of his Christian name, to emphasize his Finnishness to those who were suspicious of his background in the Russian armed forces and his difficulties with the Finnish language.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}}

[[File:The victory parade of the White Army 1918.jpg|thumb|General Mannerheim leading the [[White Victory Parade]] in Helsinki, 16 May 1918]]
Mannerheim secured recognition of Finnish independence from Britain and the United States. In July 1919, after he had confirmed a new, [[Republicanism|republican]] constitution, Mannerheim stood as a candidate in [[1919 Finnish presidential election|the first presidential election]], with parliament as the electors. He was supported by the [[National Coalition Party]] and the [[Swedish People's Party (Finland)|Swedish People's Party]]. He finished second to [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]], and withdrew from public life.<ref name="Putensen"/>

====Language skills====
Mannerheim's mother tongue was [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. He spoke fluent [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], and [[Russian language|Russian]], the last of which he learned serving in the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. He also spoke some English, [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and [[Chinese language|Chinese]].{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}} He did not start learning [[Finnish language|Finnish]] properly until after Finland's independence in 1918, but never became fluent.<ref name="koivunen">{{cite magazine |author=Koivunen, Elina |title=Carl Gustaf Mannerheim – Suomen historian myyttisin mies |magazine=[[Kotiliesi]] |pages=82–85 |number=12  |date=15 June 2010 |issn=0023-4281 |language=fi}}</ref>

===Interwar period===
[[File:Pyoveli Mannerheim.jpg|thumb|"Mannerheim the Executioner" (''Pyöveli-Mannerheim''); the [[caricature]] of Mannerheim from 1940 as part of [[communist]] and [[socialist]] [[propaganda]] is strong evidence of how 
Mannerheim heavily divided opinions, especially in the aftermath of the Civil War.<ref>[https://www.ts.fi/uutiset/1074214054 Mannerheim ei ollut koko valkoisen Suomen sankari] – ''[[Turun Sanomat]]'' (in Finnish)</ref>]]
[[File:Kallio-Mannerheim-Svinhufvud Shooting WC 1937.jpg|thumb|[[Svinhufvud]], [[Kyösti Kallio]] and Mannerheim in 1937]]
In the interwar years, Mannerheim held no public office, mainly because he was viewed by many politicians of the centre and left as a controversial figure for his ruthless battle with the [[Bolsheviks]], his supposed desire for Finnish intervention on the side of the [[White Army|Whites]] during the [[Russian Civil War]], and the Finnish socialists' antipathy toward him. They saw him as the [[bourgeois]] "White General". Mannerheim doubted that modern party-based politics would produce principled and high-quality leaders in Finland or elsewhere. In his gloomy opinion, the fatherland's interests were too often sacrificed by the democratic politicians for partisan benefit.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Virkkunen |first1=Sakari |title=Mannerheimin kääntöpuoli |language=fi |date=1992 |publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava]]|location=Helsingissä}}</ref>{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1983}}

After leaving his post as regent of Finland, Mannerheim spent his time on farming and was active in many communal duties. He kept busy heading the [[Finnish Red Cross]] (Chairman 1919–1951), was a member of the board of the International Red Cross, and founded the [[Mannerheim League for Child Welfare]] (''Mannerheimin Lastensuojeluliitto''). The foundation of the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare was possible with a sum of money collected through a petition in 1919. The sum amounted to 7.6 million [[Finnish markka|markka]] (about 3 million [[euro]] in 2017).<ref name="lilja">Lilja, Esa: [http://www.hs.fi/sunnuntai/art-2000005265287.html Presidentinvaalit hävinnyt Mannerheim pakeni kahvilayrittäjäksi Hankoon], ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' 23 June 2017. Accessed on 24 June 2017.</ref> Mannerheim stayed as the honorary chairman of the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare up to his death. He was also the director of the central cabinet of the Finnish Red Cross from 1922 up to his death. He was the founder of the [[Töölö Hospital|Red Cross Hospital]] and served as the director of its construction board.<ref name="friman"/>{{rp|57}}

Mannerheim respected the scouts movement and was awarded the first honorary membership of the Finnish Scouts Association in 1919. He was the honorary director of the association from 1941.<ref name="friman"/>{{rp|54}} He also founded the Mannerheim Buckle award on 15 February 1920.<ref>[http://fi.scoutwiki.org/Mannerheim-solki Mannerheim-solki], Scout-wiki.</ref> The inspiration for this award came from meeting the scouts on many of his official trips while he was serving as the regent of Finland. The award was designed by the Finnish artist [[Akseli Gallén-Kallela]].

Mannerheim was also the chairman of the supervisory board of a commercial bank, the Liittopankki-Unionsbanken, and after its merger with the Bank of Helsinki, the chairman of the supervisory board of that bank until 1934, and was a member of the board of [[Nokia|Nokia Corporation]].<ref name=Museum >{{Cite web|url=http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/mm.php?page=marsalkka&lang=eng|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113092355/http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/mm.php?page=marsalkka&lang=eng|title=Mannerheim-Museo.fi|archivedate=13 January 2011}}</ref> He offered to serve the [[French Foreign Legion]] in the [[Rif War]] (1925–1926), but was turned down.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.fi/08_sivil/e_legion.htm | title=MANNERHEIM - Civilian - Foreign Legion }}</ref>

In the early 1920s Mannerheim had no interest to become involved in politics.<ref name="jägerskiöld">Jägerskiöld, Stig: ''Mannerheim 1867-1951''. Otava, 1983. {{ISBN|951-1-07369-9}}.</ref>{{rp|128}} A stark conflict between Mannerheim and president Ståhlberg kept Mannerheim away from government and defence duties.<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|129}} This caused some criticism. For example [[Rabbe Axel Wrede]] thought that the weakness of the democratic government was that Mannerheim's unquestionable abilities and hard-workingness were not being utilised for the good of Finland.<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|129}} A lack of demanding duties was troubling Mannerheim, and for a while he considered applying to the service of some other European power - such as France - as he was not given any duties in Finland.<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|129}}

In June 1921 president Ståhlberg dismissed the commander-in-chief of the Finnish White Guard [[Didrik von Essen]] because of the so-called [[White Guard Affair]].<ref name="voipio">Voipio, Anni: ''Suomen Marsalkka'', 2nd inspected edition. Porvoo: WSOY, 1943.</ref>{{rp|188}} The White Guard suggested Mannerheim as the new commander-in-chief. However, president Ståhlberg declined to confirm Mannerheim as the new commander-in-chief as he feared this would give Mannerheim too much power.<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|130}} Demonstrations and citizens' meetings were held in support of Mannerheim in [[Loviisa]] and [[Porvoo]].<ref name="niku">Niku, Risto: ''Ministeri Ritavuoren murha'', Edita 2004. {{ISBN|951-37-4146-X}}.</ref>{{rp|64-65}} President Ståhlberg ended up appointing the young Jäger lieutenant colonel [[Lauri Malmberg]] as the new commander-in-chief.

Mannerheim declined to appear as a candidate in the [[1925 Finnish presidential election]].<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|129}} As the "White General" Mannerheim enjoyed a great deal of prestige, which allowed him to be involved in matters related to the defence and the White Guard.<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|129}}

In the 1920s and 1930s, Mannerheim returned to [[Asia]], where he travelled and hunted extensively.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|pages=90–97}} On his first trip in 1927, to avoid going through the [[Soviet Union]], he travelled through the [[British Empire]], going by [[ocean liner|ship]] from [[London]] to Bombay. From there he travelled to [[Lucknow]], [[Delhi]], and [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] in the [[British Raj|British India]]. From there he travelled overland to [[British rule in Burma|Burma]], where he spent a month at [[Rangoon]] and [[Mandalay]]. He then went on to [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]] and returned to Finland by car and aeroplane.<ref name="Museum" />
[[File:Mannerheim Tiger Hunt 1937.jpg|thumb|Mannerheim with [[Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana]] on tiger hunt in [[Nepal]] in 1937]]
In his second voyage, in 1936, he went by ship from [[Aden Protectorate|Aden]] (a British territory in [[Southern Arabia]]) to [[Bombay]]. During his travels and hunting expeditions, he visited [[Madras]], [[Delhi]] and [[Nepal]], where he was invited by the Rana Prime Minister [[Juddha Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana|Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana]] to join a [[tiger]] hunt.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000007672704.html|title=Tutkija: Mannerheim oli kolonialisti, kun ampui tiikereitä norsun päältä – tällaisia olivat Intian-matkat, joihin marsalkka osallistui "valkoisen metsästäjän roolissaan"|first=Tuomas|last=Manninen|work=[[Ilta-Sanomat]]|date=December 10, 2020|access-date=June 4, 2021|language=fi}}</ref> In the same year, Mannerheim made a private visit to the [[United Kingdom]], where he was accompanied for the first time by [[security guard]]s, who Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] himself had given Mannerheim to use during the trip. However, Mannerheim is known to have been bothered by the presence of security guards, because mainly as a [[Fatalism|fatalist]], he firmly believed in fate, if it had to happen in the form of an untimely death, and in addition, he also strongly trusted his own authority.<ref name="nu"/>

In 1936, Mannerheim represented the Finnish government at the funeral of King [[George V]] of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mannerheim-museo - Kronologia |url=https://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/fi/gustaf-mannerheim-2/kronologia/ |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=www.mannerheim-museo.fi}}</ref> On his way to the United Kingdom Mannerheim met the new king [[Edward VIII]] and talked with him about the commercial relations between Finland and the United Kingdom as well as the rising threat posed by Germany. King [[George VI]] awarded Mannerheim the Grand Cross of the [[Order of the British Empire]] in 1938.<ref>Sihvonen, Lauri: [https://seura.fi/ilmiot/historia/verkottumisen-ihme/ Verkottumisen ihme], ''[[Seura]]'' 17 December 2012. Accessed on 8 April 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.tracesofwar.com/persons/34700/Mannerheim-Freiherr-Carl-Gustav-Emil.htm Mannerheim, Freiherr, Carl Gustav Emil], ''TracesOfWar.com''. Accessed on 8 April 2024.</ref>

In 1929, Mannerheim rejected a plea by [[Far right|right-wing radicals]] to become a military dictator. While he did express some support for the right-wing [[Lapua Movement]], he distanced himself from the group after they became violent.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=104}} After President [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]] was elected in 1931, he appointed Mannerheim as chairman of Finland's Defence Council and gave him a written promise that in the event of war he would become the Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. (Svinhufvud's successor [[Kyösti Kallio]] renewed this promise in 1937).

In 1933, Mannerheim received the title of [[Field Marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] (''sotamarsalkka'', ''fältmarskalk''). The title came with a substantial stamp duty of four thousand [[Finnish markka|markka]], equivalent of one month's pay of an army major, and by mistake, the bill was sent to Mannerheim himself. As Mannerheim was taking the money from his wallet he commented wryly: "It's a good thing they didn't make a bigger chief out of me."<ref>[http://www.tornstrom-hiidenheimo.com/TH_sukuseura_esitelma_2014.pdf Meeting notes of the Tornström-Hiidenheimo family] 26 July 2014. Accessed on 1 September 2025.</ref><ref>[https://www.vapaussotaeppy.fi/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/puhe-4.6.2021.pdf Director, major Tapani Tikkala's speech at the Mannerheim statue in Seinäjoki] 4 June 2021. Accessed on 1 September 2025.</ref> "Field marshal" was not an official military rank but instead a title presented to general of the cavalry Mannerheim. Even after being appointed field marshal he continued to appear as a general of the cavalry in the list of military officers in the Republic of Finland. Mannerheim was appointed [[Marshal of Finland]] on his 75th birthday on 4 June 1942. This marked his progress in titles. Many other countries, such as the [[German Reich]], had a practice where the next senior rank from ''Kriegsmarschall'' was ''[[Reichsmarschall]]''. In the German Reich ''Reichsmarschall'' was an official military rank.

By this time, Mannerheim had come to be seen by the public, including some former socialists, less as a "White General" and more as a nonpartisan figure, enhanced by his public statements urging reconciliation between the opposing sides in the Civil War and the need to focus on national unity and defence: "we need not ask where a man stood fifteen years ago".{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=112}} Mannerheim supported Finland's military industry and sought in vain to obtain a military defence union with [[Sweden]]. However, rearming the Finnish army did not occur as swiftly or as well as he hoped, and he was not enthusiastic about a war. He had many disagreements with various Cabinets, and signed many letters of resignation.<ref name=Virkkunen >Virkkunen, Sakari (1994) "Presidents of Finland II" ''(Suomen presidentit II)'', published in Finland</ref>{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}}

====1920 assassination attempt====
After their defeat in the Civil War, some [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red Guards]] attempted to [[assassination|assassinate]] Mannerheim. One of the would-be assassins, [[Eino Rahja]],<ref>[https://walkhelsinki.fi/mannerheimin-murhayrityksen-jalkinaytos-kaytiin-vallilassa/ Mannerheimin murhayrityksen jälkinäytös käytiin Vallilassa] (in Finnish)</ref> was in charge of the Saint Petersburg International School of Red Officers.

Rahja began planning an assassination by assembling a group of eight Finnish Red Guards in Saint Petersburg for this purpose. The group included Aleksander Weckman, August Enroth, Aleksanteri Suokas, Karl (Kaarle) Salo, Väinö Luoto, Hjalmar Forsman, Emil Kuutti and Antti Pokkinen. The group was led by Weckman and he, Suokas and Salo were chosen as the actual assassins. They travelled to Helsinki under falsified passports in March 1920.

The attempt happened in April 1920 during a [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]]'s parade on [[Hämeenkatu]] in [[Tampere]], in which General Mannerheim was to participate.<ref name="nu">{{cite web|url=https://www.nurmijarvenuutiset.fi/paikalliset/5394149|title=Omatkin halusivat tappaa Mannerheimin – Uutta tietoa: tällaisia murhayrityksiä aikalaiset juonivat marsalkan päänmenoksi|first=Jari|last=Pietiläinen|work=[[:fi:Nurmijärven Uutiset|Nurmijärven Uutiset]]|date=7 October 2022|access-date=8 October 2022|language=fi}}</ref>

The group gathered on 3 April at the Park Café in Hämeenkatu; and at this stage, group member Karl Salo was designated as a shooter and given a [[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt pistol]]. However, the assassination attempt failed due to Salo's hesitation.<ref name="nu"/> Salo's security detail in the crowd, consisting of Aleksander Weckman and Aleksanteri Suokas, who had been equipped with [[Carl Walther GmbH|Walther]] and Colt pistols, lost sight of Salo and never had time to shoot Mannerheim either.<ref name="porvali">[http://www.mikkoporvali.fi/index.php?page=1038&lang=1 Mikko Porvali : Murhayritys joka jäi tekemättä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030132313/http://www.mikkoporvali.fi/index.php?page=1038&lang=1 |date=30 October 2023 }} (in Finnish)</ref>

On 6 April, Weckman, the operation leader, threatened to kill Salo if he had not assassinated either Mannerheim or [[Bruno Jalander]], the Minister of War and Uusimaa County Governor, within a week.<ref>[https://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi/sanomalehti/binding/1157235?page=5 Murhahankkeet kenraali Mannerheimia ja sotaministeri Jalanderia vastaan], ''[[Aamulehti]]'' July 24, 1920, no. 167, p. 5. (in Finnish)</ref> This attempt was also unsuccessful, as Mannerheim and Jalander did not come to the Helsinki Conservation Party celebration after the authorities received a tip. Salo returned his pistol and escaped afterwards. Weckman and Suokas tried to escape to the [[Soviet Union]] with their two assistants but were arrested on the Helsinki-[[Vyborg]] train the night of 21 April. Salo was arrested in [[Espoo]] on 23 April.<ref name="porvali"/>

The Helsinkian smith Teodor Sädevirta who had been assisting Weckman testified at the trial against the would-be assassins. As a revenge for this, the members who were still free organised a hand grenade attack against him on 26 August. The attack killed Sädevirta's bride. Of the remaining members of the group, Pokkinen, Forsman and Luoto escaped to Russia, but Enroth, who had organised the revenge attack, was arrested. Kuutti had already been arrested in Helsinki on 11 July. Both were sentenced to life in prison. Weckman and Enroth were deported to the [[Soviet Union]] in a secret prisoner exchange in June 1926. A group of policemen were rewarded with money for stopping the assassination attempt.<ref name="porvali"/>

Because of his testimony, Teodor Sädevirta was released and later worked as a smith in [[Kalvola]]. He died in 1958. It has been speculated that he could have been a police informant who had infiltrated the group.<ref name="porvali"/>

[[Jari Tervo]]'s historical novel ''Troikka'' (2008) is about a fictive version of the background of Mannerheim's assassination attempt.<ref>[https://www.mtvuutiset.fi/artikkeli/tervo-tarttuu-mannerheimin-vaiettuun-murhayritykseen/2027664 Tervo tarttuu Mannerheimin vaiettuun murhayritykseen], MTV 29 August 2008. Accessed on 2 January 2019.</ref>

===Commander-in-Chief===
{{See also|Winter War|Continuation War|Lapland War}}
[[File:Talvisoda marski-2.jpg|thumb|[[Field Marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] [[Baron]] Mannerheim in 1940]]

As chairman of the Finnish Defence Council, Mannerheim opposed war with the Soviet Union from the beginning. When the Soviets requested that Finland cede territory, he recommended that the Finnish government give into these demands, arguing that the Finnish Army was not strong enough to repel a Soviet attack.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Webster '95 |first=Steven |date=1995-04-01 |title=Bright Hopes and Bloody Realities: The Diplomatic Preclude to the Winter War |url=https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/history_honproj/25/ |journal=Honors Projects, History}}</ref> When negotiations with the Soviet Union failed in 1939, and aware of the imminent war and deploring the lack of equipment and preparation of the army, Mannerheim resigned from the military council on 17 October 1939, declaring that he would agree to return to business only as Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. He officially became the supreme commander of the armies, at the age of 72, after the Soviet attack on 30 November 1939. In a letter to his daughter Sophie, he stated, "I had not wanted to undertake the responsibility of commander-in-chief, as my age and my health entitled me, but I had to yield to appeals from the President of the Republic and the government, and now for the fourth time I am at war."{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}}

Mannerheim addressed the first of his often controversial orders of the day to the Defence Forces on the day the war began:
{{blockquote|The President of the Republic has appointed me on 30 November 1939 as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the country. Brave soldiers of Finland! I enter on this task at a time when our hereditary enemy is once again attacking our country. Confidence in one's commander is the first condition for success. You know me and I know you and know that everyone in the ranks is ready to do his duty even to death. This war is nothing other than the continuation and final act of our War of Independence. We are fighting for our homes, our faith, and our country.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1986}}}} The defensive field fortifications they manned became known as the [[Mannerheim Line]].

[[Field Marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] Mannerheim quickly organised his headquarters in [[Mikkeli]]. His chief of staff was Lieutenant General [[Aksel Airo]], while his close friend, General [[Rudolf Walden]], was sent as a representative of the headquarters to the cabinet from 3 December 1939 until 27 March 1940, after which he became defence minister.<ref name="Virkkunen"/>{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}}

Mannerheim spent most of the [[Winter War]] and [[Continuation War]] in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he remained commander-in-chief.{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}} Although Mannerheim's main task was to lead the war, he also knew how to strengthen and maintain the will of the soldiers to fight. He was famed for this quote:{{blockquote|Forts, cannons and foreign aid will not help unless every man himself knows that he is the guard of his country.<ref>{{cite book| title=Uusi Pikkujättiläinen| page= 1022 | publisher= [[Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö]] | year=1986| isbn = 951-0-12416-8 | language= fi}}</ref>}}

Mannerheim kept relations with [[Adolf Hitler]]'s government as formal as possible. Mannerheim did not really appreciate Hitler,<ref name="helvete">[https://www.paivanlehti.fi/mannerheim-kuuli-hitlerin-saapuvan-syntymapaivajuhliin-vad-i-helvete-gor-han-har/ Mannerheim kuuli Hitlerin saapuvan syntymäpäiväjuhliin: – "Vad i helvete gör han här?"] (in Finnish)</ref> even though he initially expressed an interest in his rise to power; his attitude towards Hitler turned negative at the point when Mannerheim's visit to Germany made him realize what kind of "ideal state" Hitler was building; he compared Hitler's rise in Germany to the 1917 rise of the Bolshevists in Russia.<ref name="hitler opinion">[https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000005187079.html Uutuuskirja: Mannerheim innostui aluksi Hitleristä] (in Finnish)</ref> Before the Continuation War, the Germans offered Mannerheim command over 80,000 German troops in Finland. Mannerheim declined so as to not tie himself and Finland to [[Nazi]] war aims;{{sfnp|Jakobson|1999}} Mannerheim was ready for cooperation and fraternity with Hitler's Germany, but for practical rather than ideological reasons because of the Soviet threat.<ref name="hitler opinion"/> In July 1941 the Finnish [[Army of Karelia]] was strengthened by the German [[163rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|163rd Infantry Division]]. They retook the Finnish territories annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War,{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|page=456}} and went further, occupying [[Finnish conquest of East Karelia (1941)|East Karelia]]. Finnish troops took part in the [[Siege of Leningrad]], which lasted 872 days.

Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]] pressured Churchill to declare war against Finland, a decision that was particularly difficult for Churchill due to his acquaintance with Mannerheim. Churchill delayed the declaration and sent a personal note to Mannerheim, in which he recalled their past encounters and warned Mannerheim about the impending declaration. Mannerheim thanked Churchill for his thoughtfulness and responded that his mission was to ensure Finland's security.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jantunen |first=Jyrki |date=2017-11-05 |title=Churchill kehui Mannerheimia: "Todellinen mies – vahva kuin kallionjärkäle" |url=https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/kotimaa/churchill-mannerheim-todellinen-mies-vahva-kuin-kallionjarkale/ |access-date=2024-12-04 |website=Suomenkuvalehti.fi |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 20 June 1942, Mannerheim was inspecting Finnish front line troops in [[Povenets|Poventsa]] when he and his staff were engaged by a Soviet [[anti-tank gun]] with direct fire. One shell exploded near Mannerheim who, on varying accounts, took cover either in a trench or behind tree trunks until Finnish [[counter-battery fire]] neutralized the attacker. Captain Ahti Petramaa, section commander during the inspection, lost fingers from flying shrapnel and was escorted to an aid station where he was promoted to major by Mannerheim.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sotaveteraanit.fi/jatkosodan-kesana-1942-mannerheimin-hengenlahto-oli-vain-metrien-paassa/ |title=JATKOSODAN KESÄNÄ 1942 MANNERHEIMIN HENGENLÄHTÖ OLI VAIN METRIEN PÄÄSSÄ |date=17 June 2019 |access-date=5 August 2024 |language=fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nautelankoski.net/sota/jatkosota/asemasota/1942_1944/18_6_-1_7_1942.html |title=Mannerheim vierailee Poventsassa |access-date=17 August 2024 |language=fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sotahistoriallisetkohteet.fi/app/sights/view/-/id/710 |title=Marskiniemi Poventsa |access-date=5 August 2024 |language=fi}}</ref>

===Visit by Adolf Hitler===
[[File:Hitler Mannerheim 2.jpg|thumb|[[Adolf Hitler]] (left) and Mannerheim (right) on the Marshal's 75th birthday on 4 June 1942.]]
[[File:Hitler Mannerheim Ryti.jpg|thumb|right|Discussion with Hitler, [[Field Marshal (Finland)|Marshal]] Mannerheim and President [[Risto Ryti|Ryti]]. Hitler visited Mannerheim on his 75th birthday.]]

Mannerheim's 75th birthday, 4 June 1942, was a national celebration. The government granted him the unique title of [[Marshal of Finland]] (''Suomen Marsalkka'' in Finnish, ''Marskalk av Finland'' in Swedish). So far he is the only person to receive the title. 4 June was designated as the flag day of the Finnish Defence Forces and the street Heikinkatu in Helsinki was renamed as [[Mannerheimintie]].<ref name="friman"/>{{rp|92}} Mannerheim's birthday was celebrated on with many events both in the army and at the home front. The festivities emphasised the importance of the commander-in-chief as a nationally collective great man in difficult times. The Marshal himself would have wanted to celebrate his birthday as discreetly and modestly as possible.<ref name="siilasvuo">[[Ensio Siilasvuo|Siilasvuo, Ensio]] (ed.): ''Jatkosota-kronikka'', pp. 98-99. Jyväskylä: Gummerus, 1997. {{ISBN|951-20-3661-4}}.</ref> Of the congratulations he received, Mannerheim most liked the greeting from the trade union association describing the reuniting of the people.<ref name="varjus">Varjus, Seppo: [https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000008859798.html Hitler kertoi Mannerheimille tiedot, jotka olivat järkyttäneet Suomea ja Saksaa - "Hirveä peto"], ''[[Ilta-Sanomat]]'' 4 June 2022.</ref>

A surprise birthday visit by Hitler occurred on the day as he wished to visit the "brave Finns (''die tapferen Finnen'')" and their leader Mannerheim.<ref name="Virkkunen" />{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}} The news that Hitler would be arriving to visit Finland only arrived on the day previous to the visit, and ensuring the security of the high-ranking visitor required quick special arrangements.<ref name="siilasvuo"/> When president [[Risto Ryti]] telephoned Mannerheim and told him Hitler would be arriving, Mannerheim's first reply was "''Vad i helvete gör han här?''" (Swedish for: "What the bloody hell is he doing here?").<ref name="helvete"/>

Mannerheim did not want to meet him at his headquarters or in Helsinki, as then it would seem like an official state visit. The meeting took place in a salon railway coach at the railway yard of the Kaukopää factory near [[Imatra]], in south-eastern Finland, and was arranged in secrecy.<ref name="Virkkunen"/> From [[Immola Airfield]], Hitler, accompanied by President Ryti, was driven to where [[Baron]] Mannerheim was waiting at a railway siding. Hitler gave Mannerheim a portrait of him painted by [[Karl Truppe]] as a gift.<ref>Huhtanen, Jarmo: Hitlerin antama lahja piilotettiin. ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' 11 May 2019, pp. A20-A21.</ref> As well as Hitler and President Ryti, the entourage included Prime Minister of Finland [[Jukka Rangell]], Ambassador of Germany to Finland [[Wipert von Blücher]] and Hitler's chief of staff field marshal [[Wilhelm Keitel]]. A speech from Hitler was followed by a birthday meal and negotiations between him and Mannerheim. Overall, Hitler spent about five hours in Finland;<ref name="siilasvuo"/> he reportedly asked the Finns to step up military operations against the Soviets, but apparently made no specific demands.<ref name="Virkkunen"/>

During the visit, an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company [[Yle]]isradio, Thor Damen, succeeded in recording the first eleven minutes of [[Hitler and Mannerheim recording|Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation]]. This had to be done secretly, as Hitler never allowed off-guard recordings. Damen was assigned to record the official birthday speeches and Mannerheim's response and therefore placed microphones in some of the railway cars. However, Mannerheim and his guests chose to go to a car that did not have a microphone in it. Damen acted quickly, pushing a microphone through one of the car windows onto a net shelf just above where Hitler and Mannerheim were sitting. After eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation, Hitler's [[SS-Begleitkommando des Führers|SS bodyguards]] spotted the cords coming out of the window and realized that the Finnish engineer was recording the conversation. They gestured to him to stop recording immediately, and he complied. The SS bodyguards demanded that the tape be destroyed, but Yleisradio was allowed to keep the reel after promising to keep it in a sealed container. It was given to [[Kustaa Vilkuna]], head of the state censors' office, and in 1957 returned to Yleisradio. It was released to the public a few years later. It is the only known recording of Hitler speaking outside of a formal occasion.<ref>[http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1076153999513 Helsingin Sanomat International Web-Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819064409/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1076153999513 |date=19 August 2014 }} – "Conversation secretly recorded in Finland helped a German actor prepare for Hitler role" Helsingin Sanomat / First published in print 15 September 2004 in Finnish.</ref><ref>Recording available Yle's [http://www.yle.fi/elavaarkisto/?s=s&g=1&ag=3&t=22&a=376 web-archive]</ref>

[[File:Marshal of Finland Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim having a cigar in a train during his visit in Germany, 1942. (49960472022).jpg|thumb|right|Marshal of Finland Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim visit in Germany, 1942]]

There is an unsubstantiated story that while conversing with Hitler, Mannerheim lit a cigar. Mannerheim expected that Hitler would ask Finland for more help against the [[Soviet Union]], which Mannerheim was unwilling to give. When Mannerheim lit up, all in attendance gasped, for [[Anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany|Hitler's aversion to smoking]] was well known. Nevertheless, Hitler continued the conversation calmly, with no comment. By this test, Mannerheim could judge if Hitler was speaking from a position of strength or weakness. He refused Hitler, knowing that Hitler was in a weak position, and could not dictate to him.<ref name=Virkkunen />{{sfnp|Turtola|1994}}

Shortly thereafter, Mannerheim returned the visit, travelling to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia.{{sfnp|Mannerheim|1953|pages=454–455}}

===End of war and presidency===
[[File:Mannerheimin valinta 1944.jpg|thumb|Mannerheim was elected president by an emergency law passed by parliament in early August 1944]]
[[File:Mannerheim ja Paasikivi.jpg|thumb|Mannerheim with his presidential successor [[J. K. Paasikivi]] (''right'') and his wife Alli Paasikivi in March 1946.]]

In June 1944, Baron Gustaf Mannerheim, to ensure German support while a major Soviet offensive was threatening Finland, thought that it was necessary to agree to the pact the German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] demanded. But even then Mannerheim distanced himself from the pact, and it fell to President [[Risto Ryti]] to sign it, so it came to be known as the [[Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement]]. This allowed Mannerheim to revoke the agreement upon the resignation of President Ryti at the start of August 1944. Mannerheim succeeded Ryti as president.<ref name="Virkkunen"/><ref name=Zetterberg>Zetterberg, Seppo et al., eds. (2003) "A Small Giant of Finnish History" ''(Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen)''</ref>

When Germany was deemed sufficiently weakened, and the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]'s summer offensive was fought to a standstill (see [[Battle of Tali-Ihantala]]) thanks to the June agreement with the Germans, Finland's leaders saw a chance to reach a peace with the Soviet Union.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=205}} At first, attempts were made to persuade Mannerheim to become prime minister, but he rejected them because of his age and lack of experience running a civil government. The next suggestion was to elect him [[head of state]]. Risto Ryti would resign as president, and parliament would appoint Mannerheim as regent. The use of the title ''regent'' would have reflected the exceptional circumstances of Mannerheim's election. Mannerheim and Ryti both agreed, and Ryti submitted a notice of resignation on 1 August. The [[Parliament of Finland]] passed a special act conferring the presidency on Mannerheim on 4 August 1944. He took the oath of office the same day.<ref name="Virkkunen"/><ref name="Zetterberg"/>

[[File:Mannerheim Leaving Presidents Residence.png|thumb|right|[[Marshal of Finland|Marshal]] [[Baron]] Mannerheim leaves the [[Presidential Palace, Helsinki|Presidential Palace]] in [[Helsinki]] on 4 March 1946 after his short presidency]]
A month after Mannerheim took office, the [[Continuation War]] was concluded on harsh terms, but ultimately far less harsh than those imposed on the other states bordering the [[Soviet Union]]. Finland retained its sovereignty, its parliamentary democracy, and its market economy. Territorial losses were considerable; a portion of [[Karelia]] and all [[Petsamo Province|Petsamo]] were lost. Numerous [[Karelia]]n refugees needed to be relocated. The war reparations were very heavy. Finland also had to fight the [[Lapland War]] against withdrawing German troops in the north, and at the same time demobilize its own army, making it harder to expel the Germans;<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C68xN5lTN6EC&pg=PA87 | editor1=Kinnunen, Tiina |editor2=Kivimäki, Ville | title=Finland in World War II: History, Memory, Interpretations |year=2011 | page=87 | publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] | isbn=978-9004208940 }}</ref> Mannerheim appointed Lieutenant General [[Hjalmar Siilasvuo]] as the high commander of the army to take this action.<ref>[https://ilkkaenkenberg.com/2015/08/03/lapin-sodan-alku/ Ilkka Enkenberg: Lapin sodan alku] (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2006/09/08/lapin-sodan-tuhot YLE Elävä arkisto: Lapin sodan tuhot] (in Finnish)</ref> It is widely agreed that only Mannerheim could have guided Finland through these difficult times, when the Finnish people had to come to terms with the severe conditions of the armistice, their implementation by a Soviet-dominated [[Allied Control Commission]], and the task of post-war reconstruction.<ref name="Zetterberg"/>

Before deciding to accept the Soviet demands, Mannerheim wrote a missive directly to Hitler:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nenye|first1=Vesa|last2=Munter|first2=Peter|last3=Wirtanen|first3=Toni|last4=Birks|first4=Chris|title=Finland at War: the Continuation and Lapland Wars 1941–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zb6gCwAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1472815262}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Our German brothers-in-arms will forever remain in our hearts. The Germans in Finland were certainly not the representatives of foreign despotism but helpers and brothers-in-arms. But even in such cases foreigners are in difficult positions requiring such tact. I can assure you that during the past years nothing whatsoever happened that could have induced us to consider the German troops intruders or oppressors. I believe that the attitude of the German Army in northern Finland towards the local population and authorities will enter our history as a unique example of a correct and cordial relationship ... I deem it my duty to lead my people out of the war. I cannot and I will not turn the arms which you have so liberally supplied us against Germans. I harbour the hope that you, even if you disapprove of my attitude, will wish and endeavour like myself and all other Finns to terminate our former relations without increasing the gravity of the situation.}}

Mannerheim's term as president was difficult for him. Although he was elected for a full six-year term, he was 77 years old in 1944 and had accepted the office reluctantly after being urged to do so. The situation was exacerbated by frequent periods of ill-health, the demands of the Allied Control Commission, and the [[War-responsibility trials in Finland|war responsibility trials]]. He was afraid throughout most of his presidency that the commission would request his prosecution for [[crimes against peace]]. This never happened. One of the reasons for this was Stalin's respect for and admiration of the Marshal. Stalin told a Finnish delegation in Moscow in 1947 that the Finns owed much to their old Marshal. Due to Mannerheim, Finland was not occupied.{{sfnp|Meri|1990|page=397}} Despite Mannerheim's criticisms of some of the demands of the Control Commission, he worked hard to carry out Finland's armistice obligations. He also emphasised the necessity of further work on reconstruction in Finland after the war.<ref name="Virkkunen"/><ref name="Zetterberg"/>

Mannerheim was troubled by recurring health problems during 1945, and was absent on medical leave from his duties as president from November until February 1946. He spent six weeks in Portugal to restore his health.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/raihnainen-mannerheim-teki-salaperaisen-matkan-portugaliin-rantaloman-aikana-kaikkosi-riski-sotasyyllisyystuomiosta/|title=Raihnainen Mannerheim teki salaperäisen matkan Portugaliin, rantaloman aikana kaikkosi riski sotasyyllisyystuomiosta|first=Tomi|last=Hinkkanen|date=June 4, 2021|work=[[Suomen Kuvalehti]]|access-date=June 4, 2021|language=fi}}</ref> After the announcement of the verdicts in the war crimes trials in February, Mannerheim decided to resign. He believed that he had accomplished the duties he had been elected to carry out: The war was ended, the armistice obligations carried out, and war responsibility trials finished.

Mannerheim resigned as president on 4 March 1946, giving as his reason his declining health and his view that the tasks he had been selected to carry out had been accomplished.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1946/03/05/archives/mannerheim-quits-office-in-finland-resigns-in-finland.html|title=Mannerheim Quits Office In Finland; Resigns In Finland|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=5 March 1946|access-date=4 March 2024}}</ref> He was succeeded as president by the conservative Prime Minister [[J. K. Paasikivi]].<ref name="Zetterberg"/>

==Final days and death==
[[File:Mannerheim-dArco-Valley-1950.jpg|thumb|left|Mannerheim (''right'') with his friend, countess Gertrud Arco auf Valley née Wallenberg (1895–1983) at [[Nice|Nice, France]] in April 1950.]]
Even during his presidency [[Marshal of Finland|Marshal]] [[Baron]] Mannerheim had been a sick man.<ref name="rajala"/>{{rp|103}} After he had become sure he would not be found guilty of war crimes at the [[war-responsibility trials in Finland]], the sickly Mannerheim resigned from his duties as President of Finland at the age of 78 in March 1946. He spent most of his retirement years abroad. In 1946, Mannerheim bought Kirkniemi Manor in [[Lohja]], intending to spend his retirement there. He was the fourth marshal to have lived in the manor.<ref>Salonen, Torsti: [https://web.archive.org/web/20131003042620/http://www.sci.fi/~torstis/lohja/kirjoit/tilat/kirknie.htm Kirkniemi, Lohjan kartanot].</ref> In June 1946, he underwent an operation for a perforated [[peptic ulcer]], and in October of that year he was diagnosed with a [[duodenal ulcer]].<ref name="päämies">[https://www.apu.fi/artikkelit/suomen-presidentit-sarja-mannerheim-oli-vaaran-ajan-paamies Suomen presidentit: Mannerheim oli väärän ajan päämies], ''[[Apu (magazine)|Apu]]'' 6 December 1917. Accessed on 22 April 2019.</ref> The ulcer developed suddenly in June 1946 when he was visiting [[Jakobstad]]. The difficult operation was performed by the doctor [[Runar C. Öhman]].<ref>[[Veijo Meri|Meri, Veijo]]: ''Suomen marsalkka C. G. Mannerheim'', p. 408. Porvoo; Helsinki; Juva: WSOY, 1940. {{ISBN|951-01660-1-4}}.</ref> In early 1947, it was recommended that he should travel to the Valmont Sanatorium in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], to recuperate and write his memoirs. Valmont was to be Mannerheim's main residence for the remainder of his life, although he regularly returned to Finland, and also visited Sweden, France and Italy.{{sfnp|Screen|2000|page=245}}

Because Mannerheim was old and sickly, he personally wrote only certain passages of his memoirs. He dictated some other parts. The remaining parts were written from his recollections by Mannerheim's various assistants, such as Colonel Aladár Paasonen; General Erik Heinrichs; Generals Grandell, Olenius and Martola; and Colonel Viljanen, a war historian. As long as Mannerheim was able to read, he proofread the typewritten drafts of his memoirs. He was almost totally silent about his private life, and focused instead on Finland's history, especially between 1917 and 1944. When Mannerheim suffered a fatal [[bowel obstruction]] in January 1951,{{sfnp|Screen|2000|pages=252}} his memoirs were not yet in their finished form. They were published after his death.{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1983}}

In 1948 Mannerheim underwent another major surgery, this time in [[Stockholm]]. For a few years, the surgery yielded good results.<ref name="jägerskiöld"/>{{rp|300}} In January 1951 Mannerheim had a serious peptic ulcer case and on 23 January he was taken to the Cantonal Hospital in [[Lausanne]] ({{Langx|fr|L'Hôpital cantonal à Lausanne}}; modern [[Lausanne University Hospital]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chuv.ch/fr/chuv-home/en-bref/historique/|title=Historique|website=[[Lausanne University Hospital]]|access-date=24 February 2018 |language=fr}}</ref>), Switzerland.
[[File:Mannerheims funeral parade Helsinki.png|thumb|right|Mannerheim's funeral parade in [[Helsinki Senate Square]] on 4 February 1951.]]
[[File:Montreaux2010.jpg|thumb|right|A monument to Mannerheim on the shore of Lake Geneve in Territet, Montreux.]]
Mannerheim died on 27 January 1951 (28 January Finnish time), in the Cantonal Hospital. At the Marshal's bedside in his last moments were his Swedish personal physician Nanna Svartz, his adjutant Colonel Olof Lindeman, and the Envoy of Finland to Bern, [[Reinhold Svento]].<ref>Päivi Tapola: "Mannerheim 150 vuotta", p. B5. ''[[Aamulehti]]'', 4 June 2017. (in Finnish)</ref> When the news of Mannerheim's death reached Finland, President [[J. K. Paasikivi]] told the Finnish people on the radio about his death, saying that "one of the greatest men and most brilliant figures in Finnish history had left us".{{sfnp|Jägerskiöld|1983}}

Mannerheim's coffin arrived at [[Helsinki-Malmi Airport]] on 2 February, after which the public had the opportunity to visit [[Helsinki Cathedral]] to pay their respects for two days. He was buried on 4 February 1951 in the [[Hietaniemi Cemetery]] in [[Helsinki]] in a [[state funeral]] with full military honours. Prime Minister [[Urho Kekkonen]] and Foreign Minister [[Åke Gartz]] attended the funeral as representatives of the government, and the State's greetings to the late Marshal were presented by the Speaker of Parliament [[K. A. Fagerholm]].<ref name="koivunen"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Brantberg|first=Robert|title=Sotasankarit|page=220|publisher=Revontuli|location=Jyväskylä|year=2000|isbn=952-5170-11-X|language=fi}}</ref> The funeral procession was {{convert|3.7|km}} long and was followed by 100,000–150,000 people.<ref>{{cite book | last= Friman|first=Paavo| title=Sodan marsalkka – rauhan presidentti | page=108 | publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava]]| location=Helsinki| year=1995| isbn = 951-1-13756-5 | language = fi}}</ref> As well as a show of respect to a national great man, the funeral ceremony had a dash of a patriotic protest.<ref>Tarkka, Jukka; Tiitta, Allan: ''Itsenäinen Suomi: seitsemän vuosikymmentä kansakunnan elämästä'', p. 197. Helsinki: Otava, 1987. {{ISBN|951-1-09314-2}}.</ref>

The ''General Gustaf Mannerheim national fund'' had been founded as a citizens' gift for Mannerheim on 25 July 1919. In the [[will and testament]] Mannerheim had signed on 16 August 1945 he wrote that his fortune should be donated to this fund (currently known as the Mannerheim Foundation) and that the money should be primarily used to give [[grant (money)|grant]]s for Finnish officers for studying at foreign military academies. The fund is also responsible for maintaining the [[Mannerheim Museum]] founded in 1951.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110924181151/http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/mm.php?page=mannerheimsaatio Mannerheim Foundation], Mannerheim Museum. Accessed on 4 December 2011.</ref>

Mannerheim's horse, [[Käthy]], was shot on a military order on 25 February 1953. There is a monument to the horse in [[Ypäjä]].<ref>Ranta, Elina: [https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000005603661.html Mannerheimin hevosen mysteeri herättää yhä kysymyksiä], ''[[Ilta-Sanomat]]'' 18 March 2018.</ref><ref>[https://yle.fi/aihe/a/20-70910 Tarinoita Mannerheimista], YLE 19 November 2014. Accessed on 26 January 2025.</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Mannerheim Memorial in Montreux dedication.jpg|thumb|upright|Mannerheim Memorial in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], next to [[Lake Geneva]]]]

Today, Mannerheim retains respect as Finland's greatest [[wikt:statesman|statesman]]. This may be partly due to his refusal to enter partisan politics (although his sympathies were more right-wing than left-wing), his claim always to serve the fatherland without selfish motives, his personal courage in visiting the front lines, his ability to work diligently into his late seventies, and his foreign political farsightedness in preparing for the Soviet invasion of Finland years before it occurred.<ref name="Virkkunen"/> Although Finland fought alongside Nazi Germany during the Continuation War and thus in co-operation with the [[Axis powers]], a number of leaders of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] still respected Mannerheim. These included, among others, the then [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]]; at a 2017 conference in [[London]], war historian [[Terry Charman]] said it was difficult for Churchill to declare war on Finland at Stalin's demand due to his previous uncomplicated co-operation with Mannerheim, which led Churchill and Mannerheim to exchange polite and apologetic correspondence about the prevailing circumstance, with deep respect for each other.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/churchill-mannerheim-todellinen-mies-vahva-kuin-kallionjarkale/|title=Churchill kehui Mannerheimia: "Todellinen mies – vahva kuin kallionjärkäle"|first=Marjo|last=Cunningham|work=[[Suomen Kuvalehti]]|date=November 5, 2017|access-date=December 19, 2020|language=fi}}</ref>
[[File:Mannerheim hunting house.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Marshal's Cabin]], Mannerheim's hunting lodge]]
Mannerheim's birthday, 4 June, is celebrated as Flag Day by the [[Finnish Defence Forces]]. This decision was made by the Finnish government on the occasion of his 75th birthday in 1942, when he was also granted the title of [[Field marshal (Finland)|Marshal of Finland]]. Flag Day is celebrated with a national parade, and rewards and promotions for members of the defence forces. The life and times of Mannerheim are memorialised in the [[Mannerheim Museum]].<ref name=Museum/> The most prominent boulevard in the Finnish capital was renamed [[Mannerheimintie]] (Mannerheim Road) already in the Marshal's honour during his lifetime; along the road, at the [[Kamppi|Kamppi district]], stands [[Hotel Marski]], which is named after him. Mannerheim's former [[hunting cabin|hunting lodge]] and resting place known as the "[[Marshal's Cabin]]" (''Marskin Maja''), which now serves as both a museum and a restaurant, is located at the shores of Lake Punelia in [[Loppi]], Finland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.visitloppi.com/en/index.php?sivu=yritykset/marskin_maja|title=Häme Lake Uplands - visitloppi.com|website=www.visitloppi.com}}</ref>

Various landmarks across Finland honour Mannerheim, including most famously the [[Equestrian statue of Marshal Mannerheim|Equestrian statue]] located on Helsinki's Mannerheimintie in front of the later-built [[Kiasma]] museum of modern art. Mannerheim Parks in both [[Turku]] and [[Seinäjoki]] include statues of him. [[Tampere]]'s Mannerheim statue depicting the victorious Civil War general of the Whites was eventually placed in the forest some kilometres outside the city (in part due to lingering controversy over Mannerheim's Civil War role). Other statues, for examples, were erected in [[Mikkeli]] and [[Lahti]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.kansallisbiografia.fi/english/?id=625 | title=Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951) President of Finland, Marshal of Finland | author=Matti Klinge |author-link=Matti Klinge |translator=Roderick Fletcher | publisher=Biografiakeskus | access-date= 12 September 2013}}</ref> On 5 December 2004, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finnish person of all time in the [[Suuret suomalaiset]] (Great Finns) contest.<ref name="Suuret suomalaiset"/>

From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or stamp series were issued in honour of Mannerheim; and in 1960 the United States honoured Mannerheim as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class domestic and international stamps (at the time four cents and eight cents respectively) as part of its Champions of Liberty series that included other notable figures such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Simon Bolivar]].<ref name="Mannerheim.fi Stamps Special Topics">{{cite web|url=http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/e_postim.htm|title=MANNERHEIM – Special Topics – Stamps|website=www.mannerheim.fi}}</ref><ref name="Arago People, Postage and the Post – Rod Juell">{{cite web |date=12 December 2008 |title=8-cent Mannerheim |url=https://postalmuseum.si.edu/object/npm_1980.2493.5352 |access-date=26 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="Gandhi Philately Study Circle">{{cite web | url=http://gandhiphilately.blogspot.com/2011/03/50th-anniversary-of-usa-mahatma-gandhi.html | title=50th Anniversary USA Champions of Liberty Mahatma Gandhi Stamp | date=9 March 2011 | access-date=18 August 2013}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:Mannerheim-50p-1941.jpg|1941 Finnish postal stamp portraying the then-[[Field marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] Mannerheim (he was appointed Marshal of Finland in 1942).
File:Baron Karl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, 4c & 8c,1960 issues.jpg|Marshal Mannerheim on two United States [[commemorative stamps]], 1960 issue, part of the [[Champion of Liberty commemorative stamps|Champion of Liberty issues]].
</gallery>

Mannerheim appears as a main character in [[Ilmari Turja]]'s 1966 play and its the 1970 film adaptation ''[[The Headquarters (film)|The Headquarters]]'', directed by [[Matti Kassila]]. In both the play and the film, Mannerheim was played by [[Joel Rinne]].<ref>[https://www.finna.fi/Record/kavi.elonet_elokuva_117799 Päämaja – Finna.fi] (in Finnish)</ref> Mannerheim was also played by [[Asko Sarkola]] in the 2001 [[television film]] ''Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940'', directed by Veli-Matti Saikkonen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0304883/|title=Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940 (TV Movie 2001) ⭐ 7.6 &#124; Drama, History|via=m.imdb.com}}</ref>

==Military ranks==
===Ranks===
====In the Russian Army====
* 1 July 1888: [[Non-commissioned officer]]
* 10 August 1889: [[Cornet (rank)|Cornet]]
* 27 July 1891: Cornet of the Guard
* 30 August 1893: Lieutenant of the Guard
* 22 July 1899: Captain of the Guard, Junior grade
* 6 December 1902: Captain of the Guard
* 7 October 1904: [[Lieutenant Colonel]]
* 29 November 1905: [[Colonel]]
* 13 February 1911: [[Major General]]
* 25 April 1917: [[Lieutenant General]]

====In the Finnish Army====
* 7 March 1918: [[General of the branch#Finland|General of Cavalry]]

The titles [[Field Marshal (Finland)|Field Marshal]] (19 March 1933) and [[Marshal of Finland]] (4 June 1942) were not official military ranks although they are often thought of as such. Mannerheim's official military rank in the Finnish Army was General.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20221001152401/http://www.mannerheiminperinnesaatio.fi/mannerheim/mannerheimin_sotilasarvot Mannerheimin sotilasarvot - Suomen Marsalkka Mannerheimin perinnesäätiö]. Accessed on 1 October 2022.</ref>

===Supreme Command===
* 1918: [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]]: from January to May 1918
* 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the [[Finnish Defence Forces]]: from December 1918 to July 1919
* 1931: Chairman of the Defence Council: from 1931 to 1939
* 1939: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces: from 1939 to 1946

==Awards==
{{Infobox coat of arms
|name             = Coat of Arms of Gustaf Mannerheim
|image            =CGE Mannerheim coat of arms.svg
|alt              = 
|image_width      = 
|middle           = 
|middle_width     =90
|middle_caption   = 
|lesser           =
|lesser_alt       = 
|lesser_width     =45
|lesser_caption   = Coat of arms
|image2           = 
|image2_alt       = 
|image2_width     = 
|image2_caption   = 
|image3           = 
|image3_alt       = 
|image3_width     = 
|image3_caption   = 
|armiger          = Gustaf Mannerheim
|year_adopted     =
|crest            = 
|torse            = 
|shield           = 
|supporters       = 
|compartment      = 
|motto            = {{lang|la|"Candida pro causa ense candido"}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/gustaf-mannerheim-3/ |title=Gustaf Mannerheim The Marshal of Finland|publisher=mannerheim-museo.fi|access-date=2 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119135230/https://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/gustaf-mannerheim-3/ |archive-date=19 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>("With an honourable sword for an honourable cause")
|orders           = 
|other_elements   = 
|earlier_versions = 
|use              = 
|notes            = 
}}
In the course of his lifetime, Mannerheim received 82 military and civilian decorations.<ref>[http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunnmerk.htm Mannerheim Internetprojekti, kunniamerkit valokuvineen] (Finnish)</ref>

'''National'''
{{columns-list|
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Republic of Finland]]:
** Grand Cross with Swords and Diamonds of the [[Order of the Cross of Liberty]] (1940; Grand Cross with Swords: 1918)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Vapaudenristin Suurristi miekkojen ja jalokivien kera | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Cross of Liberty with swords and jewels | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/02.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010418081436/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/02.htm | archive-date=2001-04-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| title=Vapaudenristin Suurristi miekkojen kera | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Cross of Liberty with Swords | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/01.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010417063624/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/01.htm | archive-date=2001-04-17}}</ref>
** Knight of the [[Mannerheim Cross]], 1st and 2nd class, of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (1941)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Vapaudenristin 2. luokan Mannerheim-risti (No:18) | language=fi | trans-title=Mannerheim Cross of the Cross of Liberty, 2nd Class (No:18) | url=http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/04.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010418102814/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/04.htm | archive-date=2001-04-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| title=Vapaudenristin 1. luokan Mannerheim-risti (No:1) | language=fi | trans-title=Mannerheim Cross of the Cross of Liberty, 1st Class (No:1) | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/03.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010731092521/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/03.htm | archive-date=2001-07-31}}</ref>
** Grand Cross with Collar, Swords and Diamonds of the [[Order of the White Rose]] (1944; Grand Cross with Collar: 1919)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Suomen Valkoisen Ruusun Suurristi Ketjuineen Jalokivien ja miekkojen kera | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the White Rose of Finland with Chains, Jewels and Swords | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/12.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010731091755/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/12.htm | archive-date=2001-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| title=Suomen Valkoisen Ruusun Suurristi Ketjuineen | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the White Rose of Finland with Chain | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/13.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010418081101/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/13.htm | archive-date=2001-04-18}}</ref>
** Grand Cross with Swords of the [[Order of the Lion of Finland]] (1944)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Suomen Leijonan Suurristi Miekkojen Kera | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Finnish Lion, Order of Swords | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/14.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010418102432/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/14.htm | archive-date=2001-04-18}}</ref>

* {{flagicon|Russian Empire}} [[Russian Empire]]: 
** [[Order of St. Anna]], 1st class (1914; 2nd class: 1904; 3rd class: 1900)<ref name="auto2">{{cite web | url=https://mannerheim.weebly.com/mannerheims-decorations.html | title=Mannerheim's decorations }}</ref>
** [[Order of St. Stanislaus]], 1st class (1914; 2nd class: 1904)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Pyhän Stanislawin Ritarikunta, II luokka miekkojen kera | language=fi | trans-title=Order of St. Stanislaus, 2nd Class with Swords | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/52.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419182702/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/52.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
** [[Order of St. Vladimir]], 2nd class (1916; 3rd class: 1914; 4th class: 1909)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Pyhän Wladimirin Ritarikunta 2. luokka miekkojen kera | language=fi | trans-title=Order of St. Vladimir 2nd Class with Swords | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/50.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419181924/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/50.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
** [[Golden Weapon for Bravery|Gold Sword for Bravery]] (1906)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Mannerheim-museo - Koti | url=https://mannerheim-museo.fi | access-date=2025-06-28 | website=mannerheim-museo.fi}}</ref>
** [[Order of St. George]], Knight 4th class (1914)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Pyhän Yrjön Ritarikunta IV luokka | language=fi | trans-title=Order of St. George, 4th class | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/51.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419182431/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/51.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>

* {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Kingdom of Sweden]]: 
** Commander Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Sword]] (1918)<ref name="phaleristica">{{cite web|title=Mannerheim – riddare med stora korset av Svärdsorden |date=17 March 2021 |url=https://phaleristica.com/2021/03/17/mannerheim-riddare-med-stora-korset-av-svardsorden/}}<!-- auto-translated from Swedish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
** Knight of the [[Order of the Seraphim]] (1919)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Kuninkaallinen Serafimer Ritarikunta, Ritari ja Komentaja | language=fi | trans-title=Royal Seraphim Order, Knight and Commander | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/80.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419181805/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/80.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
** Knight Grand Cross 1st Class of the [[Order of the Sword]] (1942)<ref name="phaleristica"/>
}}

'''Foreign'''
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* {{flagicon|Austria|empire}} [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]: Knight of the [[Order of Franz Joseph]] (1895)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Franz Josefin Ritarikunnan Upseeriristi | language=fi | trans-title=Officer's Cross of the Order of Franz Josef | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/53.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419182901/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/53.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref><ref name="auto2"/>
* {{flag icon|Independent State of Croatia}} [[Independent State of Croatia]]: Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir]] with Swords (1942)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/86.htm | title=Kuningas Zvonomirin Kruunuritarikunnan Suurristi miekkojen kera | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir with Swords}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Kingdom of Denmark]]: Knight of the [[Order of the Elephant]] (1919)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Elefanttiritarikunnan Ritari | language=fi | trans-title=Knight of the Order of the Elephant | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/70.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419181642/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/70.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Estonia#Independence|Republic of Estonia]]:
** [[Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle]], 1st Class with Swords (1930)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Eestin Suojeluskuntain Kotkaristin I luokka miekkojen kera | language=fi | trans-title=Estonian Guards Eagle Order 1st Class with swords | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/72.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419182450/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/72.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
**  Grand Cross of [[Order of the Estonian Red Cross]] (1933)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Eestin Punaisen Ristin Suurristi | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Estonian Red Cross | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/71.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419182455/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/71.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|France}} [[French Third Republic|French Republic]]: Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]] (1939; Officer: 1910; Knight: 1902)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/74.htm | title=Kunnialegioonan Suurristi | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor | website=www.mannerheim.fi}}</ref>
* Germany:
** {{flagicon|GER|empire}} [[German Empire]]: [[Iron Cross]] 1st and 2nd Class (1918)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Preussin Rautaristin I Luokka 1914 | language=fi | trans-title=Prussian Iron Cross 1st Class 1914 | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/63.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183309/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/63.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
** {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany]]:
*** [[Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross]] with Oak Leaves (1944; Knight's Cross: 1942; [[Clasp to the Iron Cross]]: 1942)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Rautaristin Ritariristi Tammenlehvien kera 1939 | language=fi | trans-title=Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves 1939 | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/64.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183307/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/64.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
*** Grand Cross of the [[Order of the German Eagle]] in Gold with Star (1942)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Saksan Kotkan Ansioritarikunnan Kultainen Suurristi | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the German Eagle in Gold | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/68.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419184743/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/68.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
*** Grand Cross of the [[German Red Cross Decoration]] with Oak Leaves (1937)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Saksan Punaisen Ristin Kunniamerkin Suurristi Tammenlehvien kera | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Order of Honor of the German Red Cross with Oak Leaves | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/69.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419181751/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/69.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|GRE|royal}} [[Kingdom of Greece]]: Officer of the [[Order of the Saviour]] (1902)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Vapahtajan Ritarikunnan Ritarinristi  | language=fi | trans-title=Knight's Cross of the Order of the Redeemer | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/55.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183646/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/55.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|HUN|1920}} [[Kingdom of Hungary]]: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary]]  with the [[Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary|Holy Crown of St. Stephen]] (1942)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Unkarin Ansioritarikunnan Suurristi Pyhän Tapanin Kruunulla miekkojen kera sota-ajan nauhassa | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Hungarian Order of Merit with the Crown of St. Stephen with Swords on a wartime ribbon | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/75.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183501/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/75.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|ITA|1861}} [[Kingdom of Italy]]: 
** Officer of the [[Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus]] (1902)<ref>{{Cite web| title=Pyhän Mauritiuksen ja Lasaruksen Ritarikunnan Upseeriristi | language=fi | trans-title=Officer's Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/54.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183846/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/54.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
** Grand Officer of the [[Military Order of Savoy]] (1942)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/76.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183415/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/76.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Japan|empire}} [[Empire of Japan]]: [[Order of the Rising Sun|Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers]] (1942)<ref>[http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunnmerk.htm No. 77, ''Nousevan Auringon Ritarikunnan I luokka Paulovniakukkasin, Japani''], mannerheim.fi.</ref>
* {{flagicon|Latvia}} [[Latvia#Declaration of independence and interwar period|Republic of Latvia]]: Honour Cross of the Latvian Red Cross (1938)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/78.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419184426/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/78.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Lithuania}} [[Lithuania#Restored statehood and occupations|Republic of Lithuania]]: [[Order of the Cross of Vytis]], 2nd class, 2nd degree (1933)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/08.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010417061623/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/08.htm | archive-date=2001-04-17}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Romania}} [[Kingdom of Romania]]: [[Order of Michael the Brave]], 1st class (1941)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/83.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419181829/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/83.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/84.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419182656/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/84.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/85.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010419183136/http://www.mannerheim.fi:80/13_erity/kunniamerkit/85.htm | archive-date=2001-04-19}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom]]: Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (GBE) (1938)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/kunniamerkit/73.htm | title=Ison-Britannian British Empire Ritarikunnan Suurristi | language=fi | trans-title=Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire of Great Britain | website=www.mannerheim.fi}}</ref>
}}

==Works==
* [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-A-224/V-1/page-hr/0007.html.en C.G. Mannerheim, ''Across Asia From West to East in 1906–1908'']. (1969) Anthropological Publications. Oosterhout N.B. – The Netherlands
* [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-A-224/V-1/ Across Asia : Vol. 1] – digital images

==Mannerheim as a person==
[[File:Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim.jpg|thumb|right|Mannerheim on his 75th birthday in 1942 in a rare colour photograph]]

===Personality===
As commander-in-chief of the army, Mannerheim was very self-conscious and power-hungry supreme authority who did not tolerate his decisions being questioned, even by his trusted generals; Mannerheim's dissatisfaction with his subordinates could very quickly lead to the loss of his positions. Mannerheim did not follow the line staff leadership, which is the traditional way of leading in the General Staff, but led through individuals; when it came to commanders, he did not necessarily care about seniority or qualifications, but chose those who were most suitable for him, and if they were not suitable, he very quickly dismissed them.<ref name="laaksonen">{{cite book|first=Lasse|last=Laaksonen|title=Temperamenttia! Sotilasylijohdon tunnehistoria|publisher=Docendo|year=2025|isbn=9789523829084|language=fi}}</ref> Well-known examples included General [[Paavo Talvela]], who was a close associate and trusted officer of Mannerheim even before the Winter War; he constantly tested the nerves of the headquarters and tried to choose his own subordinates according to his own wishes, ending up in the Continuation War from the position of army corps commander to Mannerheim's "special envoy" to the German army headquarters in Berlin.<ref name="laaksonen"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/11233dea-608b-4468-a4ae-615f9d176028|title=Uutuuskirja: Nämä sanat saivat Mannerheimin tulistumaan täysin – "Tuskin kukaan oli puhunut sotamarsalkalle niin karkeasti"|trans-title=A new book: These words made Mannerheim completely furious – "Hardly anyone had spoken so rudely to the Field Marshal"|first=Matti|last=Tanner|work=[[Iltalehti]]|date=18 September 2025|access-date=21 September 2025|language=fi}}</ref>

===Religion===
Mannerheim had been baptised into the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] faith. Before his marriage to Anastasia Arapova, her parents tried to pressure him to convert to [[Orthodoxy]], but in vain. Both of Mannerheim's daughters were Orthodox (one of them later converted to the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] faith).<ref name="könönen">Könönen, Janne: [http://www.seurakuntalainen.fi/uutiset/vaimon-suku-painosti-mannerheimia-kaantymaan-ortodoksiksi/ Vaimon suku painosti Mannerheimia kääntymään ortodoksiksi], ''Seurakuntalainen'' 28 January 2011. Accessed on 6 December 2015.</ref><ref name="simola"/>

During the Winter War and the Continuation War Mannerheim regularly attended Lutheran services at the [[Mikkeli Cathedral]] as well as Orthodox services at the [[Holy Trinity Church, Helsinki|Holy Trinity Church]] in Helsinki.<ref name="könönen"/> During his final years in Switzerland Mannerheim attended Orthodox services at the Church of the Great Martyr Varvara in [[Vevey]].<ref name="simola"/>

Mannerheim can be seen as religiously tolerant and broad-sighted. He also had seventeen godchildren from several different faiths.<ref name="simola"/>

===Culinarism===
[[File:Marskens sup.jpg|thumb|"[[Marskin ryyppy]]", the famous liqueur named after Mannerheim]]
Mannerheim was a great friend of good food, and he often wrote down recipes he liked. The food did not have to be fine or special cuisine, only good. He especially enjoyed stuffed [[pork]], [[astacus astacus#Consumption|crayfish]], [[crêpe]]s, ruffe soup, [[fårikål]] and [[vorschmack]].<ref>Baraka, Josefiina: [https://www.is.fi/ruokala/art-2000005401743.html Kun Marski tuli syömään ravintolaan, keittiössä kohahti], ''[[Ilta-Sanomat]]'' 9 October 2017.</ref><ref>Haavikko, Paavo: ''Päämaja - Suomen hovi''. Art House 1999, {{ISBN|951-884-265-5}}.</ref> Mannerheim's name is connected to the famous liqueur "[[Marskin ryyppy]]", and at his [[Mannerheim Museum|home in Kaivopuisto]] he also had a large collection of the French wine ''Château Tertre Dauguay de Vassal'', vintage 1929.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-5684677 Marskin suosikkiviini jäljitettiin ranskalaiselle pikkutilalle], YLE. Accessed on 1 November 2010.</ref>

===Style===
Mannerheim was very careful about his style, which had been influenced by both his Victorian family and the imperial army of Russia which had a strict sense of etiquette among the officers. Mannerheim's appearance and clothes were highly groomed: he made sure his moustache was correctly shaped and his boots were thoroughly shined. According to John E. Screen, Mannerheim understood the importance of maintaining a public image: during the Continuation War Mannerheim forbade publishing photographs of him where he appeared tired. Mannerheim also took care of his health and washed his teeth with a water shower every day.<ref>Kantola, Anu: ''Matala valta'', pp. 13-15. Vastapaino 2014, {{ISBN|978-951-768-424-8}}.</ref>

===Cars===
Mannerheim was famous for his cars, especially the ones donated to him by Germany during the Continuation War.<ref name="levä">Levä, Kimmo (ed.): ''Pyörillä kuormat kulkevat (Mobilia-vuosikirja 1996)'', p. 78. Kangasala: Vehoniemen Automuseosäätiö, 1996.</ref> Mannerheim was invited to be the honorary chairman at the Finnish Automobile Club at its first annual meeting in 1920.<ref>Laaksonen, Esko: ''Herraklubista koko kansan autoliitoksi: Autoliiton 75 vuotta'', p. 12. Helsinki: Autoliitto ry, 1994. {{ISBN|951-9-97106-0-4}}.</ref> During Mannerheim's term as the regent of Finland from 1918 to 1919 his personal official car was a 1915 [[Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost]], which has been preserved as a museum car to this day.<ref>Mäkipirtti, Markku: ''Brittiautot (Ajoneuvot Suomessa 3)'', p. 14. Tampere: Apali Oy, 2010. {{ISBN|978-952-5026-98-6}}.</ref>
[[File:Hitlerin Mannerheimille lahjoittamat autot.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes-Benz 770]] vehicles donated by [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] to Mannerheim]]
The most famous of Mannerheim's cars was an armoured [[Mercedes-Benz 770]] donated to him by the German Führer Adolf Hitler in December 1941 as recognition of Finland's military prowess at the eastern front. The car was given to Mannerheim by Hitler's personal chauffeur [[Erich Kempka]] in Mikkeli. After the end of the wars, the car was sold to Sweden where it later ended up in the United States.<ref>Suutarinen, Leila (ed.): ''Vehoniemeläinen 9/1991'', pp. 7-8. Kangasala: Vehoniemen automuseo, 1991.</ref>

During his term as President of Finland Mannerheim used two official cars, [[Cadillac]]s from 1930 and 1938. [[Kalle Westerlund]], the official chauffeur of the President of Finland from 1927 to 1963 recollects that Mannerheim's style was different from his predecessors. Mannerheim insisted that the chauffeur kept both hands on the steering wheel while driving. He also steadfastly insisted that the driver must not speak to the person sitting next to him while driving. Mannerheim also insisted on absolute punctuality down to the exact minute. According to Westerlund Mannerheim enjoyed fast driving, and if the journey had been relatively smooth, Mannerheim gave his thanks to the chauffeur.<ref name="levä"/>

Despite research from numerous archive sources it was uncertain for a long time whether Mannerheim himself had a [[driver's license]]. A license having belonged to Mannerheim was accidentally found at the [[National Archives of Finland]] among his other personal papers in December 2014. The Helsinki police department had given the license to Mannerheim in 1929 for a period of five years and it also allowed him to drive a [[passenger car]] and a [[motorcycle]] in private traffic. One of Mannerheim's private letters from 1928 shows that he already had a driver's license at that time.<ref>Honkamaa, Antti: [https://www.is.fi/autot/art-2000000845084.html Arvoitus ratkesi sattumalta - Marskilla olikin ajokortti!], ''[[Ilta-Sanomat]]'' 5 December 2014.</ref> According to the June 1925 issue of the ''Moottori'' magazine published by the Finnish Automobile Club Mannerheim had made a long car journey to Europe in May 1925.<ref>Suutarinen, Leila (ed.): ''Vehoniemeläinen 4/1986'', p. 38. Kangasala: Vehoniemen automuseo, 1986.</ref>

==Mannerheim in popular culture==
[[File:Mannerheim Museum.jpg|thumb|right|Mannerheim's home in [[Kaivopuisto]] in Helsinki. The house has served as the [[Mannerheim Museum]] since 1951.]]
The first fictive [[film]] about Mannerheim was ''[[The Headquarters (film)|The Headquarters]]'' (1970) by [[Matti Kassila]], based on [[Ilmari Turja]]'s play by the same name. In the film Mannerheim was played by [[Joel Rinne]] who had already performed in the same role at the National Theatre of Finland.

In the 2000s [[Renny Harlin]] was planning a biographical film about Mannerheim for a long time. The project was cancelled. Mannerheim would have been played by [[Mikko Nousiainen]].

In 2012 [[Yleisradio]] made a film about Mannerheim titled ''[[The Marshal of Finland]]''. The film was shot in [[Kenya]] and encountered mixed reception in Finland,<ref>Topelius, Taneli: [https://web.archive.org/web/20150919232258/http://www.iltasanomat.fi/viihde/art-1288505499448.html IS arvio: Suomen marsalkka on kuin lastensatu], ''[[Ilta-Sanomat]]'' 6 October 2012. Accessed on 26 March 2015.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150912014222/http://www.iltalehti.fi/leffat/2012092716127924_le.shtml Marski-leffalle sataa haukkuja], ''[[Iltalehti]]'' 27 September 2012. Accessed on 26 March 2015.</ref> but in Kenya it was awarded the Kalasha prize by the Kenya Film Commission.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140812030658/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/a1406338790830 Kohutun Suomen marsalkka -elokuvan Mannerheim sai "Kenian Oscarin"], ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' 26 July 2014. Accessed on 26 March 2015.</ref>

There are also many television series and films about Mannerheim's life. In the television series ''[[Mummoni ja Mannerheim]]'' (1971) based on [[Paavo Rintala]]'s novel trilogy the marshal was played by [[Helge Herala]]. In the drama series ''[[Sodan ja rauhan miehet]]'' (1978) about the years after World War II Mannerheim was played by [[Rolf Labbart]], in the television series ''[[Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940]]'' he was played by [[Asko Sarkola]] and in the historical drama series ''[[Presidentit]]'' (2005) by [[Antti Litja]]. In the films ''[[Beyond the Front Line]]'' (2004) and ''[[Tali-Ihantala 1944]]'' (2007) by [[Åke Lindman]] Mannerheim was played by Asko Sarkola. The five-part documentary ''Mannerheim - [[Jörn Donner]]in kertomana'' was shown on YLE TV1 in January 2011. In the documentary Donner sought to show a contrastual whole image of Mannerheim.

The puppet animation film ''[[The Butterfly from Ural]]'' directed by [[Katariina Lillqvist]] raised a controversy in 2008 because it portrayed Mannerheim as [[homosexuality|homosexual]] or [[bisexuality|bisexual]].

The character of Mannerheim appears at the end of the [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz]] drama film ''Kurmanjan Datka'' (2014) where he takes a photograph of the main character Kurmanjan Datka (1811-1907) in 1906. The photograph appears in the 50 [[Kyrgyz som]] banknote.<ref>Laurén, Anna-Lena: Mannerheim hjälte i kirgisisk storfilm. ''[[Hufvudstadsbladet]]'' 19 October 2014, pp. 30-31.</ref>

Mannerheim's relationship with Catharina "Kitty" Linder has also interested writes and the media. The monthly supplement of ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' published an article about Kitty Linder and Mannerheim in 2013.<ref>Pallaste, Tuija: [https://web.archive.org/web/20160801182908/http://files.snstatic.fi/HS/2013/7/mannerheim/ Rakkaudella, Gustaf], ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]''. Accessed on 1 November 2017.</ref> In 2017 the character "Kitty" has appeared as Mannerheim's bride in Juha Vakkuri's novel ''Mannerheim ja saksalainen suudelma''.<ref>Ruuska, Helena: [https://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/art-2000005424385.html Kirja-arvostelu: Juha Vakkurin romaani kaivelee Mannerheimin sotilasuran kipeitä kohtia], ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'' 27 October 2017.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|Finland}}
* [[Adolf Ehrnrooth]]
* [[Hitler and Mannerheim recording]]
* [[Johan Laidoner]]
* [[List of wars involving Finland]]
* [[Mannerheim Cross]]
* [[Mannerheim Line]]
* [[Mannerheim Museum]]
* [[Mannerheim Park]]
* [[Mannerheimintie]]
* [[Marshal's Cabin]]
* ''[[The Marshal of Finland]]'' (film)
* [[Marskin ryyppy]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book
  |year=2009
  |last=Clements  |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Clements
  |title=Mannerheim: President, Soldier, Spy
  |location=London  |publisher=[[Haus Publishing]]
  |isbn=978-1907822575
}}
* {{ill|Jörg Ganzenmüller|lt=Ganzenmüller, Jörg|de}}. {{Cite book |year=2005 |title=Das belagerte Leningrad 1941–1944  |trans-title=Leningrad Besieged: 1941-1944|publisher=[[Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh]] |language=de|publication-place=Paderborn |isbn= 3-506-72889-X}}
* {{Cite book
  |last=Jägerskiöld  |first=Stig |author-link=Stig Jägerskiöld
  |title=Nuori Mannerheim  |trans-title=Young Mannerheim|language=fi
  |year=1965
}}
* {{Cite book
  |first=Stig  |last=Jägerskiöld |author-link=Stig Jägerskiöld
  |title=Mannerheim 1867–1951
  |location=Helsinki
  |publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava Publications]]
  |year=1983
}}
* {{Cite book
  |year=1986
  |first=Stig
  |last=Jägerskiöld |author-link=Stig Jägerskiöld
  |title=Mannerheim: Marshal of Finland
  |location=Minneapolis
  |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]]
  |isbn=0-8166-1527-6
  |url-access=registration
  |url=https://archive.org/details/mannerheimmarsha00jage
  }}

* Koskikallio, Petteri. Asko Lehmuskallio, and Harry Halén. ''C. G. Mannerheim in Central Asia 1906–1908''. Helsinki: National Board of Antiquities, 1999. {{ISBN|951-616-048-4}}.
* {{Cite book
  |first=Max  |last=Jakobson |author-link=Max Jakobson
  |year=1999
  |trans-title=20th Century Accounts: Years of Violence
|title=Väkivallan vuodet, 20. vuosisadan tilinpäätös
|language=fi
|isbn=9789511133698
|publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava]]
}}
* {{Cite book
  |last=Warner  |first=Oliver
  |author-link=Oliver Warner
  |title=Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns
  |year=1967
  |publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]]  |location=London
  }}
* {{cite magazine 
|last=Warner  |first=Oliver
|author-link=Oliver Warner
|title=Mannerheim, Marshal of Finland, 1867–1951 |magazine=[[History Today]] |date=July 1964 |volume=14 |number=7 |pages=461–468}}
* {{Cite book
  |year=1953
  |last=Mannerheim  |first=Carl Gustaf Emil
  |author-link=Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
  |title=The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim
  |publisher=[[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]]  |location=London
  |oclc=12424452
}}, primary source
* {{Cite book
  |last=Meri  |first=Veijo |author-link=Veijo Meri
  |title=Suomen marsalkka C. G. Mannerheim |language=fi
  |year=1990
  }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pajunen |first1=Jussi |last2=Karjalainen |first2=Mikko |date=2019 |title=Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen SS in 1941–1943 and Related Finnish studies |journal=Finno-German Yearbook of Political Economy |volume=2 |url=https://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/176983/1.%20Pajunen-Karjalainen-FINAL.pdf |access-date=2021-10-12 |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019024106/https://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/176983/1.%20Pajunen-Karjalainen-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{ill|J. E. O. Screen|lt=Screen, J. E. O.|fi}}. {{Cite book
  |last = Screen
  |first = J. E. O.
  |year=1970
  |title=Mannerheim: The Years of Preparation
  |location=Vancouver  |publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]]
  |isbn=0-900966-22-X
}}
* {{ill|J. E. O. Screen|lt=Screen, J. E. O.|fi}}. {{Cite book
  |last = Screen
  |first = J. E. O.
  |year=2000
  |title=Mannerheim: The Finnish Years
  |location=London  |publisher=[[Hurst Publishers|Hurst]]
  |isbn=1-85065-573-1
}}
* {{cite book 
  |last1=Trotter 
  |first1=William 
  |author-link=William R. Trotter
  |title=A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940 
  |date=2013
  |publisher=[[Algonquin Books]] 
  |location=Chapel Hill 
  |isbn=9781565126923}}
* {{ill|Turtola, Martti|lt=Martti Turtola|fi}}. {{Cite book
  |last = Turtola
  |first = Martti
  |trans-title=Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland |title=Risto Ryti: Elämä isänmaan puolesta |language=fi
  |location=Helsinki  |publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava]]
  |year=1994
}}
* {{Cite book
  |last=Tyni  |first=Mikko
  |title=Marsalkan muskettisoturit – Mannerheimin henkivartiointi ja turvallisuus 1918–1946
  |location=[[Jyväskylä]]  |publisher={{ill|Docendo|fi}} |language=fi
  |year=2022
  |isbn=9789523823891
}}
* {{ill|Lars Westerlund|lt=Westerlund, Lars|fi}}.  {{cite book|title=The Finnish SS Volunteers and Atrocities 1941–1943|url=https://arkisto.fi/uploads/Julkaisut/sarjajulkaisut/SS-VOLUNTEERS_verkkoon.pdf|year=2019|publisher=[[The National Archives of Finland]] and [[Finnish Literature Society]]|isbn=978-951-858-111-9|access-date=2021-10-13|archive-date=2021-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823092207/https://arkisto.fi/uploads/Julkaisut/sarjajulkaisut/SS-VOLUNTEERS_verkkoon.pdf|url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{BLF}}
* [http://horsethatleaps.com/ Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia including interactive Google maps, slide shows, videos and more]
* [http://www.mannerheim.fi/ C. G. E. Mannerheim in the history of Finland]
* [http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi Mannerheim Museum]
* Audio recordings of Hitler and Mannerheim's [https://archive.org/details/OnlyKnownRecordingOfHitlerSpeakingInAnUnofficialTone-PublicVersion public] and [https://archive.org/details/OnlyKnownRecordingOfHitlerSpeakingInAnUnofficialTone private] talk ({{YouTube|o64QOynq0_Q|w/English text}}), 4 June 1942
* {{Cite web | url=http://ra.yle.fi/ramgen/radioarkisto/poliitikot/c_g_e_mannerheim.rm | title=Mannerheim's 1944 inauguration address}}{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120311020925/http://www.jewishquarterly.org/issuearchive/article8d14.html?articleid=194 On Mannerheim's role in defending Jews]
* [http://www.mll.fi/en/ Mannerheim League for Child Welfare English website]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/019377}}
* [https://suomenpresidentit.fi/mannerheim/?lang=en C. G. E. Mannerheim] in The Presidents of Finland

{{S-start}}
{{S-reg}}
{{Succession box
|title=[[List of Finnish rulers|Regent of Finland]]
|before=[[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]]
|years=1918–1919
|after=[[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] <br />''{{Small|as President of the Republic}}''
}}
{{S-off}}
{{Succession box
|title=[[President of Finland]]
|before=[[Risto Ryti]]
|years=1944–1946
|after=[[Juho Kusti Paasikivi]]
}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box 
  | title = [[Chief of Defence (Finland)|Supreme Commander of the forces of the Republic of Finland]]
  | years = 1918
  | before = New creation
  | after = [[Karl Fredrik Wilkama|Major General K. F. Wilkama]]
}}
{{succession box 
  | title = [[Chief of Defence (Finland)|Chief of Defence]]
  | years = 1939–1945
  | before = [[Hugo Österman|Lieutenant General Hugo Österman]]
  | after = [[Erik Heinrichs|General Erik Heinrichs]]
}}
{{S-end}}

{{FinnishPresidents|state=expanded}}
{{Finnish Chief of Defence}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil}}
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