View source for Carlos Menem

{{Short description|President of Argentina from 1989 to 1999}}
{{redirect|Menem|the surname|Menem (surname)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Carlos Menem
| image               = Carlos-menem-1989-crop.jpg
| caption             = Official portrait, 1989
| office              = President of Argentina
| order               = 50th
| vicepresident       = {{Plainlist|
* [[Eduardo Duhalde]] (1989–1991)
* '' None '' (1991–1995)
* [[Carlos Ruckauf]] (1995–1999)
}}
| term_start          = 8 July 1989
| term_end            = 10 December 1999
| predecessor         = [[Raúl Alfonsín]]
| successor           = [[Fernando de la Rúa]]
| office1             = [[Argentine Senate|National Senator]]
| term_start1         = 10 December 2005
| term_end1           = 14 February 2021
| constituency1       = [[La Rioja Province, Argentina|La Rioja]]
| predecessor1        = [[Eduardo Menem]]
| successor1          = 
| office2             = [[President of the Justicialist Party]]
| term_start2         = 28 November 2001
| term_end2           = 11 June 2003
| predecessor2        = [[Rubén Marín]]
| successor2          = [[Eduardo Fellner]]
| term_start3         = 10 August 1990
| term_end3           = 13 June 2001
| predecessor3        = [[Antonio Cafiero]]
| successor3          = Rubén Marín
| office4             = [[Governor of La Rioja]]
| term_start4         = 10 December 1983
| term_end4           = 8 July 1989
| vicegovernor4       = Alberto Gregorio Cavero
| predecessor4        = Guillermo Jorge Piastrellini (''[[De facto government doctrine|de facto]]'')
| successor4          = Alberto Gregorio Cavero
| term_start5         = 25 May 1973
| term_end5           = 24 March 1976
| vicegovernor5       = Libardo Sánchez
| predecessor5        = Julio Raúl Luchesi (''de facto'')
| successor5          = Osvaldo Héctor Pérez Battaglia (''de facto'')
| birth_name          = Carlos Saúl Menem
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1930|7|2|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Anillaco]], La Rioja, Argentina
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|2021|2|14|1930|7|2|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Buenos Aires]], Argentina
| resting_place       = San Justo Islamic Cemetery
| spouse              = {{Plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Zulema Yoma]]|1966|1991|end=div}}
* {{marriage|[[Cecilia Bolocco]]|2001|2011|end=div}}
}}
| relatives           = [[Eduardo Menem]] (brother)<br>[[Martín Menem]] (nephew) 
| party               = [[Justicialist Party|Justicialist]]
| otherparty          = {{Plainlist|
* Front for Loyalty (2003)
* Justicialist Popular Unity Front (1989–1995)
}}
| children            = 4, including [[Carlos Menem Jr.|Carlos Jr.]] and [[Zulema María Eva Menem|Zulemita]]
| signature           = Firma de Carlos S. Menem.svg
| module              = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=15 CARLOS MENEM.ogg|title=Carlos Menem's voice|type=speech|description=Recorded {{c.|1989–1999}}}}
}}

'''Carlos Saúl Menem''' ({{IPA|es|ˈkaɾlos ˈmenen|-|ES-ar-Carlos Menem.ogg}}; 2 July 1930 – 14 February 2021) was an Argentine politician who served as the [[president of Argentina]] for ten years, from 1989 to 1999. He identified as [[Peronism|Peronist]], serving as President of the [[Justicialist Party]] for 13 years (from 1990 to 2001 and again from 2001 to 2003), and his political approach became known as [[Menemism]].<ref name="auto3">{{cite news|url= https://www.wsj.com/amp/articles/carlos-menem-argentine-president-who-ushered-in-pizza-and-champagne-era-dies-at-90-11613318504 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|title=Carlos Menem, Argentine President Who Ushered in 'Pizza and Champagne' Era, Dies at 90 |date=14 February 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021|last1=Vyas |first1=Kejal }}</ref>

Born in [[Anillaco]], [[La Rioja Province, Argentina|La Rioja]], to a [[Syrian Argentines|Syrian]] family, Menem was raised as a [[Muslim]],<ref name="Menem">[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9002423/Carlos-Menem "Carlos Menem"] ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref> but later converted to [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] to pursue a political career.{{efn|Until 1994, the Argentine Constitution required that the President be a Catholic.}} Menem became a Peronist during a visit to Buenos Aires. He was elected governor of La Rioja in 1973, deposed and detained following the [[1976 Argentine coup d'état]], and re-elected in 1983. He defeated the Buenos Aires governor [[Antonio Cafiero]] in the primary elections for the [[1989 Argentine general election|1989 presidential elections]]. [[Hyperinflation]] and riots forced outgoing president [[Raúl Alfonsín]] to resign early, shortening the presidential transition.

Menem's presidency supported the [[Washington Consensus]] and tackled inflation with the [[Convertibility plan]] in 1991. The plan was complemented by a series of [[privatization]]s and was initially a success. Argentina re-established [[Argentina–United Kingdom relations|diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom]], suspended since the 1982 [[Falklands War]], and aligned itself with the United States. Under his administration, the country participated in the 1991 [[Gulf War]] and suffered two terrorist attacks: an [[1992 attack on Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires|attack on the Israeli embassy in 1992]] and the 1994 [[AMIA bombing]]. The Peronist victory in the 1993 midterm elections allowed him to persuade Alfonsín, by then leader of the opposition party [[Radical Civic Union]], to sign the [[Pact of Olivos]] for the [[1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution]]. This amendment allowed Menem to run for re-election in [[1995 Argentine general election|1995]], winning a second, four-year term. A new economic crisis began, and the opposing parties formed [[Alliance for Work, Justice, and Education|a political coalition]], winning the [[1997 Argentine legislative election|1997 midterm elections]] and the [[1999 Argentine general election|1999 presidential election]].<ref name="auto3" />

Menem was investigated on various criminal and corruption charges, including [[Argentine arms trafficking scandal|illegal arms trafficking]] (he was sentenced to seven years in prison), [[embezzlement]] of public funds (he was sentenced to {{frac|4|1|2}} years to prison), [[extortion]] and bribery (he was declared innocent of both charges). His position as senator earned him immunity from incarceration.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/13/world/americas/argentina-ex-president-prison/index.html|title=Argentina: Ex-president gets 7 years in prison for arms smuggling|work=CNN|date=13 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7564660.stm |title=Americas &#124; Menem probed over 1995 explosion |work=BBC News |date=16 August 2008 |access-date=28 October 2010}}</ref>

Menem ran for the presidency again in [[2003 Argentine general election|2003]], but faced with a likely defeat in a [[ballotage in Argentina|ballotage]] against [[Néstor Kirchner]], he chose to pull out, effectively handing the presidency to Kirchner. He was elected senator for La Rioja in 2005. By the time he died in 2021 at age 90, he was the oldest living former Argentine president.{{efn|The rest of former living Presidents of Argentina at the time of his death were [[Isabel Perón]], [[Adolfo Rodríguez Saá]], [[Eduardo Duhalde]], [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] and [[Mauricio Macri]], all younger than him. [[Alberto Fernández]], president of Argentina at the time of his death, was also younger than him.}} He is regarded as a polarizing figure in Argentina, mostly due to corruption and economic mismanagement throughout his presidency.

==Early life and education==

Carlos Saúl Menem ({{langx|ar|كارلوس سول منعم}}) was born on 2 July 1930 in [[Anillaco]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2025 |title=Menem, Carlos |url=https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n86125059.html |access-date=31 August 2025 |website=Library of Congress}}</ref> a small town in the mountainous north of [[La Rioja Province (Argentina)|La Rioja Province]], Argentina. His parents, Saúl Menem ({{langx|ar|شاول منعم}}) and Mohibe Akil ({{langx|ar|موهيبي عقيل}}), were [[Syria]]n nationals from [[Yabroud]] who had [[Syrian Argentines|emigrated to Argentina]]. He attended elementary and high school in La Rioja, and joined a basketball team during his university studies. He visited [[Buenos Aires]] in 1951 with the team, and met the president [[Juan Perón]] and his wife [[Eva Perón]]. This influenced Menem to become a [[Peronism|Peronist]]. He studied law at the [[National University of Córdoba]], graduating in 1955.<ref name="cidob">{{cite web |url= http://www.cidob.org/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/argentina/carlos_menem|title= Carlos Menem|language= es|author= Roberto Ortiz de Zárate|date= 9 March 2015|publisher= Barcelona Centre for International Affairs|access-date=16 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222211439/http://www.cidob.org/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/argentina/carlos_menem|archive-date=22 February 2016 }}</ref>

After President Juan Perón's [[Revolución Libertadora|overthrow]] in 1955, Menem was briefly incarcerated. He later joined the successor to the Peronist Party, the [[Justicialist Party]] ''(Partido Justicialista)'' (PJ). He was elected president of its La Rioja Province chapter in 1973. In that capacity, he was included in the flight to Spain that brought Perón back to Argentina after his long [[exile]].<ref>{{cite news|url= http://edant.clarin.com/diario/1997/10/13/suplementos/i-00711h.htm|title= El chárter histórico|trans-title= The historical charter|language= es|date= 12 October 1997|newspaper= Clarín|access-date= 5 November 2015|archive-date= 4 March 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110334/http://edant.clarin.com/diario/1997/10/13/suplementos/i-00711h.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref> According to the Peronist politician [[Juan Manuel Abal Medina]], Menem played no special part in the event.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-28201-2003-11-16.html|title= La historia secreta del regreso|trans-title= The secret history of the return|language= es|author= Miguel Bonasso|date= 16 November 2003|publisher= Página 12|access-date=5 November 2015}}</ref>

== Governor of La Rioja ==

=== 1st term (1973–1976) and arrest===

Menem was elected governor of La Rioja in 1973 when the [[proscription]] of Peronism was lifted. He was [[Deposition (politics)|deposed]] during the [[1976 Argentine coup d'état]] that overthrew President [[Isabel Perón]]. He was accused of corruption and having links with the guerrillas of the [[Dirty War]]. He was detained on 25 March, kept for a week at a local barracks, and then moved to a temporary prison on the ship ''33 Orientales'' in Buenos Aires. He was detained alongside former ministers [[Antonio Cafiero]], [[:es:Jorge Alberto Taiana|Jorge Alberto Taina]], Miguel Unamuno, José Deheza, and Pedro Arrighi, the unionists Jorge Triaca, Diego Ibáñez, and [[Lorenzo Miguel]], the diplomat Jorge Vázquez, the journalist Osvaldo Papaleo, and the former president [[Raúl Lastiri]]. He shared a cell with Pedro Eladio Vázquez, Juan Perón's personal physician. During this time he helped the chaplain Lorenzo Lavalle, despite still being a [[Muslim]].<ref name="preso76"/> In July he was sent to [[Magdalena, Buenos Aires|Magdalena]], to a permanent prison. His wife Zulema visited him every week, but rejected his conversion to [[Roman Catholicism]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/chris-szurgot-on-religious-tolerance-in-argentina|title=Chris Szurgot on Religious Tolerance in Argentina|first=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World|last=Affairs|website=berkleycenter.georgetown.edu}}</ref> His mother died during the time he was a prisoner, and dictator [[Jorge Rafael Videla]] denied his request to attend her funeral. He was released on 29 July 1978, on the condition that he live in a city outside his home province without leaving it. He settled in [[Mar del Plata]].<ref name="preso76">{{cite news|url= http://edant.clarin.com/diario/2001/06/08/p-02101.htm|title= Menem 1976–1981: El mismo preso, otra historia|trans-title= Menem 1976–1981: the same prisoner, another story|language= es|date= 8 June 2001|newspaper= Clarín|access-date= 31 January 2016|archive-date= 21 December 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151221151604/http://edant.clarin.com/diario/2001/06/08/p-02101.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref>
Menem met Admiral [[Eduardo Massera]], who intended to run for president, and had public meetings with personalities such as [[Carlos Monzón]], [[Susana Giménez]], and [[Alberto Olmedo]]. As a result, he was forced to reside in another city, [[Tandil]]. He had to report daily to Chief of Police Hugo Zamora. This forced residence was lifted in February 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carlos Menem {{!}} Biography & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carlos-Menem|access-date=16 February 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> He returned to Buenos Aires, and then to La Rioja. He resumed his political activities, despite the prohibition, and was detained again. His new forced residence was in [[Las Lomitas]] in the province of [[Formosa Province|Formosa]]. He was one of the last politicians to be released from prison by the [[National Reorganization Process]].<ref name="preso76"/>

=== 2nd and 3rd terms (1983–1989) ===

Military rule ended in 1983, and the [[Radical Civic Union|Radical]] [[Raúl Alfonsín]] was elected president. Menem ran for governor again and was elected by a clear margin. The province benefited from tax regulations established by the military, which allowed increased industrial growth. His party gained control of the provincial legislature, and he was re-elected in 1987 with 63% of the vote. The Partido Justicialista at the time was divided into two factions, the conservatives that still supported the political doctrines of Juan and Isabel Perón, and those who proposed a renovation of the party. The internal disputes ceased in 1987. Menem, with his prominent victory in his district, was one of the leading figures of the party and disputed its leadership.<ref name="cidob"/>

==Presidential elections==
{{Main|1989 Argentine general election}}

[[File:Foto de campaña Menem 1989.png|thumb|Menem's 1989 campaign photo.]]

[[Antonio Cafiero]], who had been elected [[governor of Buenos Aires Province]], led the renewal of the Partido Justicialista, and was considered their most likely candidate for the presidency. Menem, on the other hand, was seen as a [[Populism|populist]] leader. Using a [[big tent]] approach, he got support from several unrelated political figures. As a result, he defeated Cafiero in the primary elections. He sought alliances with [[Bunge and Born]], union leaders, former members of [[Montoneros]], and the AAA, people from the church, "[[Carapintadas]]", etc. He promised a "revolution of production" and huge wage increases, but it was not clear exactly which policies he was proposing. The rival candidate, [[Eduardo Angeloz]], tried to point out the mistakes made by Menem and Alfonsín.<ref>Romero, p. 283</ref> [[Jacques de Mahieu]], a French ideologue of the Peronist movement (and former [[Vichy France|Vichy]] [[Collaborationism|collaborator]]), was photographed campaigning for Menem.<ref>[http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-14198-2002-12-15.html "La Odessa que creó Perón"], ''[[Pagina/12]]'', 15 December 2002 (interview with [[Uki Goni]]) {{in lang|es}}</ref> His campaign slogans were ''¡Siganme!'' (Follow me!) and ''¡No los voy a defraudar!'' (I won't let you down!)<ref>[https://www.mendozapost.com/politica/murio-menem-no-los-voy-a-defraudar/ "No los voy a defraudar", la frase más famosa de Menem], ''Mendoza Post'', 14 February 2021</ref>

The elections were held on 14 May 1989. Menem won by a wide margin, and became the president-elect of Argentina. He was scheduled to take office on 10 December, but inflation levels took a turn for the worse, growing into [[1989 hyperinflation in Argentina|hyperinflation]], causing [[1989 riots in Argentina|public riots]].<ref>Romero, pp. 284–285</ref> The outgoing president Alfonsín resigned and transferred power to Menem five months early, on 8 July. Menem's accession marked the first time since [[Hipólito Yrigoyen]] took office in 1916 that an incumbent president [[Peaceful transition of power|peacefully transferred power]] to an elected successor from the opposition.<ref name="Edwards162">Edwards, p. 162</ref>

==Presidency==
{{main|Presidency of Carlos Menem}}

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=22em|salign=left|quote="Carlos Menem's first presidency marked the end of a period fraught with uncertainties, during which successive de facto or constitutional national administrations had failed in trying to order the economy, curb monetary emission, and dismantle the powerful armed state apparatus in the 1940s during the presidency of [[Juan Perón]] and further enlarged by his successors. Menem drastically corrected, with accurate intuition and a firm pulse, the mistaken tendency to include among the functions of the State a number of business, industrial and commercial activities that had nothing to do with its essential mission. The results of its economic policy were reflected in an anticipated entry into the globalized world that was built after the fall of the Berlin Wall, in a rapid modernization of the country's productive infrastructure, and stability, which is the basis of long-term growth. Unfortunately, Menem's reformist drive collapsed when his second government began. His program of structural transformation of the country was interrupted and many strategic changes that were essential for the reforms of the previous period to produce the expected results were not executed."|source=Editorial of the newspaper ''[[La Nacion (newspaper)|La Nación]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diez años de Menem: luces y sombras |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/opinion/diez-anos-de-menem-luces-y-sombras-nid145008/ |website=La Nación |language=es |date=8 July 1999 }}</ref>}}

===Economic policy===
[[File:Fixed-phone-subscriptions-per-100-people-argentina-1975-1999.png|thumb|400px|Fixed phone subscriptions per 100 people between 1975 and 1999. The orange line indicates the privatization of ENTel.]]

Hyperinflation forced Menem to abandon party [[orthodoxy]] in favour of a [[fiscal conservatism|fiscally conservative]], [[market economy|market-oriented economic]] policy.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carlos-Menem|title=Carlos Menem &#124; Biography & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=28 June 2023 }}</ref>
At the time, most economists thought that the ideal solution was the [[Washington Consensus]]; i.e. reduce expenditures below the amount of money earned by the state, and open international commerce to [[free trade]]. Alfonsín had proposed similar reforms in the past, alongside some limited [[privatization]] of [[state-owned enterprise]]s; those projects were resisted by the Partido Justicialistal opposition party, whose internal factions were actually benefiting from the prevailing [[Protectionism|protectionist policies]].<ref>Romero, pp. 257–258</ref> The magnitude of the crisis, however, convinced most politicians to change their minds. Menem, fearing that the crisis might force him to resign as well, embraced the Washington Consensus and rejected the traditional policies of [[Peronism]].<ref>Romero, p. 287</ref>

The president invited several [[fiscal conservatism|conservative]] figures into his cabinet, such as [[Álvaro Alsogaray]], as well as a businessman from [[Bunge and Born]]; Miguel Roig, the company's then-vice president, became Menem's first appointed [[Ministry of Economy and Public Finances (Argentina)|minister of economy]] on 30 May, although he would be replaced just five days after taking office due to his sudden death by [[myocardial infarction]]; in his place was appointed [[Néstor Mario Rapanelli]], who had succeeded Roig as vice president at Bunge and Born.<ref>Romero, pp. 287–288</ref>

Congress passed the [[Financial crisis|economic emergency]] and [[state reform law]]s. The first allowed president Menem to reduce or remove [[subsidies]] at his discretion, and the latter to privatize state enterprises – the first being telephones and airlines. These privatizations were beneficial to foreign creditors, who replaced their bonds with company shares.<ref name="romero289">Romero, p. 289</ref> Despite increased [[tax revenue]] and the money gained from privatizations, the economy was still unstable. The Bunge and Born businessmen left the government in late 1989, amid a second round of [[hyperinflation]].<ref name="romero290"/>

The first measure of the new minister of economy, [[Antonio Erman González]], was a mandatory conversion of [[time deposit]]s into [[government bond]]s: the [[BONEX plan]]. It exacerbated the recession but was successful in reducing the inflation rate, which was its intended purpose.<ref name="Edwards, p. 103">Edwards, p. 103</ref><ref name="romero290">Romero, p. 290</ref> His fourth minister of economy, [[Domingo Cavallo]], was appointed in 1991 and deepened the [[liberalization]] of the economy. The [[Convertibility plan]] was sanctioned by Congress, setting a one-to-one [[fixed exchange rate]] between the [[United States dollar]] and the new [[Argentine peso|peso]], which replaced the [[Argentine austral|austral]]. The law also limited public expenditures, but this was frequently ignored.<ref>Edwards, pp. 104–105</ref> Under Cavallo, there was increased [[free trade]], alongside a general reduction of [[tariff]]s on imports and state regulations to tackle inflation, and high taxes on sales and earnings to reduce the deficit caused by it.<ref name="romero289" /> Initially, the plan was a success: the [[capital flight]] ended, interest rates were lowered, inflation fell to single digits, and economic activity increased; in that year alone, the [[gross domestic product]] grew at a rate of 10.5%.<ref name="Romero291"/>

The money from privatizations allowed Argentina to repurchase many of the [[Brady Bonds]] issued during the crisis.<ref name="Romero291">Romero, p. 291</ref> The privatizations of [[electricity]], [[water]], and [[Natural gas|gas]] services were more successful than previous ones. [[YPF]], the national oil refinery, was partially privatized as well, with the state keeping a good portion of its shares. The project to privatize the [[pension fund]]s was resisted in Congress and was approved as a mixed system that allowed both public and private options for workers. The national state also signed a fiscal pact with the provinces, so that they reduced their local deficits as well; [[Buenos Aires Province]] was aided with a fund that gave the governor a million pesos daily.<ref>Romero, pp. 292–293</ref>

[[File:Argentina-exports-of-cars-current-usd.png|thumb|upright=1.59|left|Car and related exports (1983–2003) in millions of USD. During the 1990s, Argentina experienced growth in vehicle export revenue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/stacked/sitc/export/arg/all/show/1987.2003/ |title=Argentina exports stacked |publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity }}</ref>]]

Although the Convertibility plan had positive consequences in the short term, it caused problems that surfaced later. Large numbers of employees of privatized state enterprises were fired, and unemployment grew to over 10%. Big compensation payments prevented an immediate public reaction. Free trade and the expensive costs in dollars forced private companies to reduce the number of workers as well, or risk bankruptcy. Unions were unable to resist the changes. People with low incomes, such as retirees and state workers, suffered under tax increases while their wages remained frozen. Some provinces, such as [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]], [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]], and [[San Juan Province, Argentina|San Juan]], endured violent riots as well. To compensate for these issues, the government started a number of social welfare programs and restored protectionist policies over some sectors of the economy. It was difficult for Argentine companies to export, and easy imports damaged most national producers. The national budget soon slid into a deficit.<ref>Romero, pp. 293–294</ref>

Cavallo soon began the second wave of privatizations, this time targeting the national postal service, the [[Correo Argentino]], and the country's nuclear power plants. He also limited the amount of money released to the provinces. He still had the full support of Menem, despite growing opposition within the Justicialist Party.<ref>Romero, pp. 305-306</ref>

The Mexican [[Tequila Crisis]] of 1994 impacted the national economy, causing the deficit, recession, and a growth in unemployment. The government further reduced public expenditures, the wages of state workers, and raised taxes. The deficit and recession were reduced, but unemployment stayed high.<ref>Romero, p. 306</ref> External debt increased. The crisis also proved that the economic system was vulnerable to capital flight.<ref>McGuire, p. 222</ref>

The growing discontent over unemployment and the scandals caused by the privatization of the postal service led to Cavallo's removal as a minister, and his replacement by [[Roque Fernández]].<ref name="Romero, pp. 308-309">Romero, pp. 308–309</ref> Fernández maintained Cavallo's fiscal [[austerity]]; he increased the price of fuels, sold the remaining state shares of YPF to [[Repsol]], fired state employees, and raised the [[value-added tax]] to 21%. New labor law was met with resistance, both by Peronists, opposition parties, and unions, and could not be approved by Congress.<ref>Romero, p. 309</ref>

The [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] and the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]] also affected the country with consequences that lasted longer than the Tequila Crisis and started a [[1998–2002 Argentine great depression|depression]].<ref name="Romero, pp. 308-309"/>

===Domestic policy===

[[File:Menem.reforma.ogv|thumb|President Menem in a 1992 address outlining his plans for the reform of the nation's [[Education in Argentina|educational system]], as well as for the [[privatization]] of the [[YPF]] oil concern, and of the [[pension system]]]]

Menem began his presidency assuming a non-confrontational approach, appointing people from the conservative opposition and business people to his cabinet.<ref name="Edwards, p. 103"/> To prevent successful legal cases against pro-market economic reforms, the [[Supreme Court of Argentina|Supreme Court]]'s numbers were increased from five to nine judges; the new judges ruled in support of Menem and usually had the majority.<ref name="romero289" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Holgado |first1=Benjamin Garcia |last2=Urribarri |first2=Raúl Sánchez |date=2023 |title=Court-packing and democratic decay: A necessary relationship? |journal=Global Constitutionalism |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=350–377 |language=en |doi=10.1017/S2045381723000011 |s2cid=257245490 |issn=2045-3817|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other institutions that restrained or limited executive power were controlled as well. When Congress resisted some of his proposals, he used the [[Necessity and Urgency Decree]] as an alternative to sending bills to it. He even considered it feasible to dissolve Congress and rule by decree, but this step was never implemented.<ref>Romero, p. 295</ref> In addition, he developed a ''bon vivant'' lifestyle, taking advantage of his authority. For instance, he made a journey from Buenos Aires to [[Pinamar]] driving a [[Ferrari 348#348 TB, TS|Ferrari 348 TB]] (often misreported as a [[Ferrari Testarossa]]) in less than two hours, violating speed limits.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cecchini |first1=Daniel |title="La Ferrari es mía": los siete dueños que tuvo después de Menem y el trabajador de La Matanza que la ganó en un sorteo |trans-title=“The Ferrari is mine”: the seven owners it had after Menem and the worker from La Matanza who won it in a raffle |url=https://www.infobae.com/sociedad/2021/12/11/la-ferrari-es-mia-los-siete-duenos-que-tuvo-despues-de-menem-y-el-trabajador-de-la-matanza-que-la-gano-en-un-sorteo/ |website=Infobae |date=11 December 2021 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=La historia de la Ferrari de Menem, un símbolo de los 90 |trans-title=The history of Menem's Ferrari, a symbol of the '90s |url=https://www.ambito.com/politica/carlos-menem/la-historia-la-ferrari-menem-un-simbolo-los-90-n5156695 |website=[[Ámbito Financiero]] |date=14 February 2021 |language=es}}</ref> He divorced his wife [[Zulema Yoma]] and expanded the [[Quinta de Olivos]] presidential residence with a golf course, a small zoo, servants, a barber, and even a buffoon.<ref>Romero, p. 296</ref>

[[File:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali and Carlos Menem.jpg|thumb|Carlos Menem and [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]] (1997)]]

The [[swiftgate]] scandal broke out in  December 1990, as American investors were damaged by a case of corruption, and asked for assistance from the United States' Ambassador [[Terence Todman]]. Most of the ministers resigned as a result of it.<ref name="romero290" /> Cavallo was reassigned as minister of economy, and his successful economic plan turned him into a prominent figure in Menem's cabinet. Cavallo brought a number of independent economists to the cabinet, and Menem supported him by replacing Peronist politicians.<ref>Romero, p. 292</ref> Both teams complemented each other. Both Menem and Cavallo tried to be recognized as the designer of the convertibility plan.<ref>Romero, pp. 297–298</ref>

[[Antonio Cafiero]], a rival of Menem in the Partido Justicialistal, was unable to amend the constitution of the province of Buenos Aires to run for re-election. Duhalde stepped down from the vice presidency and became the new governor in the [[1991 Argentine legislative election|1991 elections]], turning the province into a powerful bastion. Menem also selected famous people with no political background to run for office in those elections, including the singer [[Palito Ortega]] and racing driver [[Carlos Reutemann]]. The elections were a big success for the Partido Justicialistal.<ref>Romero, p. 300</ref> After these elections, all of the Partido Justicialistal,  was aligned with Menem's leadership, with the exception of a small number of legislators known as the "Group of Eight". The opposition from the UCR was minimal, as the party was still discredited by the 1989 crisis. With such political influence, Menem began his proposal to amend the constitution to allow a re-election.<ref>Romero, p. 301</ref> The party did not have the required supermajority in the Congress to call for it. The Partido Justicialistal was divided, as other politicians intended to replace Menem in 1995 or negotiate their support. The UCR was divided as well, as Alfonsín opposed the proposal, but governors Angeloz and Massaccesi were open for negotiations. The victory in the [[1993 Argentine legislative election|1993 elections]] strengthened his proposal, which was approved by the Senate. Menem called for a non-binding referendum on the proposal, to increase pressure on the Radical deputies. He also sent a bill to Congress to modify the majority requirements. Alfonsín met with Menem and agreed to support the proposal in exchange for amendments that would place limits on presidential power. This negotiation is known as the [[Pact of Olivos]]. The capital city of Buenos Aires would be allowed to elect its own [[List of mayors and chiefs of the government of Buenos Aires|chief of government]]. Presidential elections would use a system of [[Ballotage in Argentina|ballotage]], and the president could only be re-elected once. The [[electoral college]] was abolished, replaced by [[direct elections]]. The provinces would be allowed to elect a third senator; two for the majority party and one for the first minority. The [[Council of Magistracy of the Nation]] would have the power to propose new judges, and the Necessity and Urgency Decrees would have a reduced scope.<ref>Romero, p. 304</ref>

Despite the internal opposition of [[Fernando de la Rúa]], Alfonsín got his party to approve the pact. He reasoned that Menem would be supported by the eventual referendum, that many legislators would turn to his side, and he would eventually be able to amend the constitution reinforcing presidential power rather than limiting it. Still, as both sides feared a betrayal, all the contents of the pact were included as a single proposal, not allowing the Constituent Assembly to discuss each one separately. The [[Broad Front (Argentina)|Broad Front]], a new political party composed of former Peronists, led by [[Carlos Álvarez (Argentine politician)|Carlos Álvarez]], grew in the elections for the Constituent Assembly.<ref>Romero, p. 305</ref> Both the Partido Justicialista  and the UCR respected the pact, which was completely approved. Duhalde made a similar amendment to the constitution of Buenos Aires province, in order to be re-elected in 1995. Menem won the elections with more than 50% of the vote, followed by [[José Octavio Bordón]] and Carlos Álvarez. The UCR finished third in the elections for the first time.<ref>Romero, pp. 306–307</ref>

[[File:Carlos Menem y Víctor Alderete.jpg | thumb | right | Menem, in the [[1999 Argentine general election|1999 campaign]]]]

Growing unemployment increased popular resistance against Menem after his re-election. There were several riots and demonstrations in the provinces, unions opposed the economic policies, and the opposing parties organized the first ''[[cacerolazo]]s''. [[Estanislao Esteban Karlic]] replaced [[Antonio Quarracino]] as the head of the [[Argentine Episcopal Conference]], which led to a growing opposition to Menem from the Church. The teachers' unions established a "white tent" at the Congressional plaza as a form of protest. The first ''[[piquetero]]s'' operated in [[Cutral Có]], and this protest method was soon imitated in the rest of the country. Menem's authority in the Partido Justicialista  was also held in doubt, as he was unable to run for another re-election and the party sought a candidate for the 1999 elections. This led to a fierce rivalry with Duhalde, the most likely candidate. Menem attempted to undermine his chances, and proposed a new amendment to the constitution allowing him to run for an unlimited number of re-elections. He also started a judicial case, claiming that his inability to run for a third term was a [[proscription]]. Several scandals erupted, such as the [[scandal over Argentine arms sales to Ecuador and Croatia]], the [[Río Tercero explosion]] that may have destroyed evidence, the murder of the journalist [[José Luis Cabezas]], and the suicide of [[Alfredo Yabrán]], who may have ordered it. The Partido Justicialista  lost the 1997 midterm elections against the UCR and the FREPASO united in a political coalition, the [[Alliance for Work, Justice and Education]] (Alianza). The Supreme Court confirmed that Menem was unable to run for a third re-election. Duhalde became the candidate for the presidential elections, and lost to the candidate for the Alianza ticket, Fernando de la Rúa.<ref>Romero, pp. 310–315</ref>

===Foreign policy===
[[File:Photograph of President William J. Clinton Meeting with President Carlos Menem of Argentina in the Oval Office, 06-29-1993 (6175659541).jpg|thumb|upright|Menem with [[Bill Clinton]] in June 1993]]
During Menem's presidency, Argentina aligned with the [[United States]], and had special relations with the country.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.argentina-rree.com/15/15-006.htm|title= La dimensión bilateral de las relaciones entre Argentina y Estados Unidos durante la década de 1990: El ingreso al paradigma de "Relaciones especiales"|trans-title= The bilateral plane of the relations between Argentina and the United States during the 1990s: the entry to the paradigm of the "special relations"|language= es|first=Francisco|last=Corigliano|publisher= CARI|access-date= 22 December 2015|archive-date= 22 September 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200922211441/http://www.argentina-rree.com/15/15-006.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref> Menem had good relations with U.S. president [[George H. W. Bush]], and his successor [[Bill Clinton]] from 1993 on.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Buttazzoni |first1=Gabriel |title=Cómo fue la relación de los presidentes de Argentina y de EE.UU | trans-title=How was the relationship between the presidents of Argentina and the United States|url=https://www.baenegocios.com/columnistas/Como-fue-la-relacion-de-los-presidentes-de-Argentina-y-de-EE.UU--20210120-0137.html |access-date=14 February 2021 |date=20 January 2021 |language=Spanish | via=www.baenegocios.com}}</ref>

The country left the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and the [[Condor (Argentine missile)|Cóndor missile]] program was discontinued. Argentina supported all the international positions of the U.S., and sent forces to the [[Gulf War]], and the peace keeping efforts during the [[Bosnian War|War in Bosnia]] and after the [[Kosovo War]].<ref name="Romero303">Romero, p. 303</ref>

The country was accepted as a [[major non-NATO ally]], but not as a [[Member states of NATO|full member]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.argentina-rree.com/15/15-012.htm#004|title= Las medidas adoptadas por el gobierno norteamericano en el apartado estratégico de la agenda bilateral|trans-title= The measures taken by the American government in the strategic aspect of the billateral agenda|language= es|first1=Carlos|last1=Escudé|first2=Andrés|last2=Cisneros|publisher= CARI|access-date= 22 December 2015|archive-date= 4 March 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081705/http://www.argentina-rree.com/15/15-012.htm#004|url-status= dead}}</ref>

Menem's government re-established relations with the [[United Kingdom]], suspended since the [[Falklands War]], after [[Margaret Thatcher]] left office in 1990. The discussions on the [[Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute]] were temporarily given a lower priority, and the focus shifted to discussions of fishing rights.<ref name="Romero303" />

In 1991, Menem became the first head of state of Argentina to make a [[diplomatic visit]] to [[Israel]]. He proposed mediating between Israel and [[Syria]] in their negotiations over the [[Golan Heights]]. The diplomatic relations between Argentina and Israel were later damaged by the lack of results in the investigations over the [[terrorist attacks]] against the Israeli embassy and the AMIA center in Buenos Aires.<ref>Reich, p. 52</ref>

In 1998, Menem visited Russia, and met with Russian president [[Boris Yeltsin]], where Menem expressed his anticommunist sentiments and congratulated Yeltsin for "defeating communism" in Russia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Menem y Yeltsin, entre el comunismo y la privatización |url=https://www.clarin.com/politica/menem-yeltsin-comunismo-privatizacion_0_HJ3WNCJk83x.html |access-date=31 March 2022 |work=[[Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|Clarín]] |date=26 June 1998|language=es}}</ref>

====Chile====
[[File:Encuentro de los presidentes de Chile y Argentina.jpg|thumb|Menem and [[Patricio Aylwin]] in April 1993]]
Menem also settled all remaining [[Argentina–Chile relations|border issues]] with [[Chile]]. The [[Desert Lake, Argentina|Lago del Desierto]] dispute had an international arbitration, favourable to Argentina. The only exception was the dispute over the [[Southern Patagonian Ice Field]], which is still open.<ref name="Romero303" />

Previously and contrary to other Peronist authorities, Menem voted for the [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina]].<ref name=prochileno>{{Cite news|title=La estrecha relación de Menem con Chile:Sus opositores decían que era "prochileno"|url=https://www.emol.com/noticias/Nacional/2021/02/14/1012198/Estrecha-relacion-Menem-con-Chile.html|date=14 February 2021|access-date=15 February 2021|work=Emol|publisher=[[El Mercurio]]|language=Spanish}}</ref> Chilean president [[Patricio Aylwin]] was at first sceptical towards his Argentine counterpart whom he according to [[Emol]] considered "scruffy" ({{langx|es|destartalado}}).<ref name=prochileno/> Over time however Aylwin changed his opinion, saying at one point "this [[ottoman Empire|Turk]] wins everybody over" (''este turco se los conquista a todos''). Aylwin's successor, [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]], had particularly warm relations with Menem.<ref name=prochileno/> Former Chilean foreign minister [[José Miguel Insulza]] recalls of meetings with Menem and Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle in [[Anillaco]] in the 1990s where they enjoyed talking about politics and football.<ref name=prochileno/> All of this made the critics of Menem label him "pro-Chilean".<ref name=prochileno/> President of Chile [[Sebastián Piñera]] posthumously called him "a good friend of Chile".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Presidente Piñera da sus condolencias por la muerte de Carlos Menem: "Fue un buen amigo de Chile"|url=https://www.latercera.com/mundo/noticia/presidente-pinera-da-sus-condolencias-por-la-muerte-de-carlos-menem-fue-un-buen-amigo-de-chile/T42KYIU5TFAYTOBQN2MKVBI3IE/|work=[[La Tercera]]|date=14 February 2021|access-date=15 February 2021|last=Garrido|first=Mónica}}</ref> Similarly, José Miguel Insulza called Menem "one of the best friends of Chile".<ref name=prochileno/>

===Armed forces===

[[File:Menem and Cohen.jpg | thumb | right | Menem meeting with U.S Secretary of Defense [[William Cohen]] at the [[Casa Rosada]] on 15 November 1999]]

Argentina was still divided by the aftermath of the [[Dirty War]] (the dirty war ended in 1983, Menem's presidency began in 1989). Menem proposed an agenda of national reconciliation. First, he arranged the [[Repatriation of Juan Manuel de Rosas's body|repatriation]] of the body of [[Juan Manuel de Rosas]], a controversial 19th century governor, and proposed to reconcile his legacy with those of [[Bartolomé Mitre]] and [[Domingo Faustino Sarmiento]], who also fought in the [[Argentine Civil Wars]]. Menem intended to use the reconciliation of these historical Argentine figures as a metaphor for the reconciliation of the Dirty War. However, although the repatriation and acceptance of Rosas was a success, the acceptance of the military regime was not.<ref>Johnson, p. 107</ref>

The military leaders of the [[National Reorganization Process]], convicted in the 1985 [[Trial of the Juntas]], received [[People pardoned by Carlos Menem|presidential pardons]], despite popular opposition to them. This was an old request of the ''[[Carapintadas]]'' in previous years. However, Menem did not apply their proposed changes to the military. The colonel, [[Mohamed Alí Seineldín]], who was also pardoned, started a new mutiny, killing two military men. Unlike the mutinies that took place during the presidency of Alfonsín, the military fully obeyed Menem's orders for a forceful repression. Seineldín was utterly defeated, and sentenced to life imprisonment. This was the last military mutiny in Argentina.<ref>Romero, pp. 301–302</ref>

The president effected drastic cuts to the military budget, and privatized military factories. Menem appointed Lt. Gen. [[Martín Balza]], who had performed well during the repression of Seineldín's mutiny, as the Army's General Chief of Staff (head of the military hierarchy). The death of a [[conscription|conscript]] soldier in 1994, victim of abuses by his superiors, led to the abolition of conscription in the country. The following year, Balza voiced the first institutional self-criticism of the armed forces during the Dirty War, saying that obedience did not justify the actions committed in those years.<ref>Romero, p. 302</ref>

===Terrorist attacks===

[[File:2015 Marcha conmemorando el Atentado a la AMIA 02.JPG|thumb|Demonstration during an anniversary of the [[AMIA bombing]]]]

The Israeli embassy suffered a [[1992 attack on Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires|terrorist car bomb attack]] on 17 March 1992. It was perceived as a consequence of Argentina's involvement in the [[Gulf War]]. Although [[Hezbollah]] claimed responsibility for it,<ref>{{cite web |last1=117TH CONGRESS 2D SESSION |title=H. RES. 988 |url=https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/hres988/BILLS-117hres988ih.pdf |publisher=[[Congress of the United States]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> the Supreme Court investigated several other hypotheses. The Court wrote a report in 1996 suggesting that it could have been the explosion of an arms cache stored in the basement. Another hypothesis was that the attack could have been performed by Jewish extremists, in order to cast blame on Muslims and thwart the peace negotiations. The Court finally held Hezbollah responsible for the attack in May 1999.<ref>Ruggiero, pp. 87–88</ref>

The [[Argentine Israelite Mutual Association]] suffered a [[AMIA bombing|terrorist attack]] with another [[car bomb]] on 18 July 1994, killing eighty-five people. It was the most destructive terrorist attack in the history of Latin America. The attack was universally condemned and 155,000 people demonstrated at the Congressional plaza, but Menem did not attend.<ref name="Rug90">Ruggiero, p. 90</ref> The legal case stayed unresolved during the remainder of Menem's presidency.<ref>Levine, pp. 1–3</ref> Menem had suggested, in the first press conference, that former ''Carapintada'' leaders may be responsible for the attack, but this idea was rejected by the minister of defense several hours later.<ref>Ruggiero, p. 89</ref> The [[CIA]] office in Buenos Aires initially considered it a joint Iranian-Syrian attack, but some days later considered it just an Iranian attack. Menem and [[Mossad]] also preferred this line of investigation.<ref>Ruggiero, p. 88</ref> As a result of the attack, the Jewish community in Argentina had increased influence over Argentine politics.<ref name="Rug90"/> Years later, the prosecutor [[Alberto Nisman]] charged Menem with covering up a local connection to the attack, as the local terrorists may have been distant Syrian relatives of the Menem family. However, Menem was never tried for this suspected cover-up,<ref>{{cite news |last=Fernholz |first=Tim |url=http://qz.com/338910/the-us-had-ties-to-an-argentine-terror-investigation-that-ended-with-a-prosecutors-mysterious-death/ |title=The US had ties to an Argentine terror investigation that ended with a prosecutor's mysterious death |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |publisher=[[Atlantic Media]] |date=5 February 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206003937/http://qz.com/338910/the-us-had-ties-to-an-argentine-terror-investigation-that-ended-with-a-prosecutors-mysterious-death/ |archive-date=6 February 2015 |access-date=8 February 2015 }}</ref> and on 18 January 2015, Nisman was found dead of a gunshot to his head at his home in Buenos Aires.<ref name=Infojus>{{cite web|title=Muerte de Nisman: la media hora que es un agujero negro en la causa|trans-title=Nisman's death: the half-hour which is a black hole in the case|url=http://www.infojusnoticias.gov.ar/nacionales/muerte-de-nisman-la-media-hora-que-es-un-agujero-negro-en-la-causa-7423.html|website=Infojus Noticias|publisher=Ifnojus Noticias|access-date=8 July 2015|language=es|date=11 February 2015|quote=El médico de Swiss Medical ... no tenía dudas de que se trataba de una muerte violenta...}}</ref><ref name=LaNacionDate>{{cite web|title=Los enigmas del caso Nisman|trans-title=The mysteries of the Nisman case|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1774706-los-enigmas-del-caso-nisman|website=La Nacion|access-date=8 July 2015|language=es|date=9 March 2015|quote=23 hs – Llega la ambulancia de Swiss Medical y constantan la muerte.|archive-date=8 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708104235/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/1774706-los-enigmas-del-caso-nisman|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 15 March 1995, Menem's son [[Carlos Menem Jr.]] died while piloting a [[Bell 206|Bell 206B-3]] helicopter, along with his friend and fellow racing driver [[Silvio Oltra]] who was riding as a passenger. The helicopter reportedly struck [[overhead power lines]] near [[Ramallo, Buenos Aires|Ramallo]] in the north of the province of [[Buenos Aires (province)|Buenos Aires]] and crashed, killing both men.<ref>{{cite web |title=Menem Jr.: la Corte no reabre la causa |url=https://www.clarin.com/politica/menem-jr-corte-reabre-causa_0_By-eiL_gAKx.html |website=www.clarin.com |language=es |date=11 April 2001}}</ref><ref name="famous90s">{{Cite web|url=http://www.planecrashinfo.com/famous1990s.htm|title=Famous people who died in aviation accidents|website=www.planecrashinfo.com}}</ref> Later on, remains of Menem Jr. were exhumed amid murder claims by his mother Zulema Yoma. Menem had accused the Lebanese [[Shia]] [[Islamist]] group, [[Hezbollah]], of killing his son.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-40362754 |title=Remains of Menem Jr exhumed amid murder claims in Argentina |website=BBC |date=22 June 2017 }}</ref>

==Post-presidency==

[[File:De la Rúa con Menem.jpg|thumb|right|Menem with the new president, [[Fernando de la Rúa]], on 10 December 1999]]

Menem ran in 2003 and won the greatest number of votes, 24%, in the first round of the 27 April 2003 [[2003 Argentine general election|presidential election]]; but votes were split among numerous parties. Under the 1994 amendment, a presidential candidate can win outright by winning 45% of the vote, or 40% if the margin of victory is 10 or more percentage points. This set the stage for Argentina's first-ever ballotage between Menem and second-place finisher, and fellow Peronist, [[Néstor Kirchner]], who had received 22%. It was scheduled for 18 May. However, by that time, Menem had become very unpopular. Polls predicted that he faced almost certain defeat by Kirchner in the runoff. Most polls showed Kirchner taking at least 60 percent of the vote, and at least one poll showed Menem losing by as many as 50 points.<ref name="Menembowsout">{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/may/15/argentina.ukigoni|title= Menem bows out of race for top job|author= Uki Goñi|date= 15 May 2003|newspaper= [[The Guardian]]|access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-19517-2003-04-30.html|title=Menem pierde el invicto y la fama|work=Página/12}}</ref> To avoid a humiliating defeat, Menem withdrew his candidacy on 14 May, effectively handing the presidency to Kirchner.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2003/05/15/dont-cry-for-menem|title= Don't cry for Menem|date= 15 March 2003|newspaper= [[The Economist]]|access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Menem presenta libro en el Senado 01.jpg|thumb|left|Carlos Menem in the [[Argentine Senate]] in a debate on a bill in 2018.]]
[[Ángel Maza]], the elected governor of La Rioja, was allied with Menem, and had campaigned for him. However, weak provincial finances forced Maza to switch his support to Kirchner, which weakened Menem's influence even further.<ref>Giraudy, p. 107</ref> In June 2004 Menem announced that he had founded a new faction within the Partido Justicialista, called "People's Peronism". He announced his intention to run in the [[2007 Argentine general election|2007 election]]. In 2005, the press reported that he was trying to form an alliance with his former minister of economy Cavallo to fight in the parliamentary elections. Menem said that there had been only preliminary conversations and an alliance did not result. In [[Elections in Argentina, 2005|the 23 October 2005 elections]], Menem won the minority seat in the Senate representing his province of birth. The two seats allocated to the majority were won by President Kirchner's faction, locally led by Ángel Maza.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/133206/argentina/menem-sufriodura-derrota-rioja.html|title= Menem sufrió una dura derrota en La Rioja|trans-title= Menem suffered a hard setback in La Rioja|language= es|date= 25 October 2005|publisher= La Gaceta|access-date=12 June 2016}}</ref>

Menem ran for [[Governor of La Rioja]] in August 2007, but was defeated. He finished in third place with about 22% of the vote.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/20/america/LA-POL-Argentina-Menem.php "Former Argentine President Menem loses gubernatorial race"], Associated Press (''International Herald Tribune''), 20 August 2007</ref> This was viewed as a catastrophic defeat, signaling the end of his political dominance in [[La Rioja Province, Argentina|La Rioja]]. It was the first time in 30 years that Menem had lost an election. Following this defeat in his home province, he withdrew his candidacy for president. At the end of 2009 he announced that he intended to run for the presidency again in the 2011 elections.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1215847 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121229220653/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1215847 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 December 2012 |title=Menem se anota en la pelea presidencial |trans-title=Menem signs for the presidential fight |language=es |date=27 December 2009 |newspaper=La Nación |access-date=28 October 2010 }}</ref> but ran for a new term as a senator instead.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.perfil.com/politica/Cristina-gano-en-La-Rioja-de-la-mano-de-Menem-20111024-0002.html|title= Cristina ganó en La Rioja de la mano de Menem|trans-title= Cristina won in La Rioja alongside Menem|language= es|date= 24 October 2011|publisher= Perfil|access-date= 4 February 2016}}{{Dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2019, he eventually sat in the Frente de Todos' Senate bench until his death in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ybarra|first=Gustavo|date=4 December 2019|title=Con Carlos Menem y Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, Cristina Kirchner arma un bloque de 42 senadores|language=es-AR|work=La Nación|url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/cristina-kirchner-le-pidio-sus-senadores-no-nid2312658/|access-date=7 October 2021|issn=0325-0946}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ibáñez|first=Pablo|date=5 December 2019|title=Cómo fue la negociación para que Carlos Menem se sume al bloque de Cristina Kirchner|url=https://www.clarin.com/politica/negociacion-carlos-menem-sume-bloque-cristina-kirchner_0_WcaHVg3Q.html|access-date=7 October 2021|website=Clarín|language=es}}</ref>

===Corruption charges===

On 7 June 2001, Menem was arrested over a [[Argentine arms trafficking scandal|weapons export scandal]]. The scheme was based on exports to [[Ecuador]] and [[Croatia]] in 1991 and 1996. He was held under house arrest until November. He appeared before a judge in late August 2002 and denied all charges. Menem and his Chilean second wife [[Cecilia Bolocco]], who had had a child since their marriage in 2001, fled to [[Chile]]. Argentine judicial authorities repeatedly requested Menem's [[extradition]] to face embezzlement charges. This request was rejected by the [[Supreme Court of Chile|Chilean Supreme Court]] as under Chilean law, people cannot be extradited for questioning. On 22 December 2004, after the arrest warrants were cancelled, Menem returned with his family to Argentina. He still faced charges of embezzlement and failing to declare illegal funds in a [[Swiss bank]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4118375.stm|title= Menem arrives on Argentine soil|date= 23 December 2004|publisher= BBC|access-date=12 June 2016}}</ref> He was declared innocent of those charges in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621998-menem-absuelto-en-el-juicio-por-su-cuenta-en-suiza|title= Menem, absuelto en el juicio por su cuenta en Suiza|trans-title= Menem, absolved in the case over his account in Switzerland|language= es|author= Hernán Capiello|date= 21 September 2013|newspaper= La Nación|access-date= 12 June 2016|archive-date= 20 December 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161220074853/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1621998-menem-absuelto-en-el-juicio-por-su-cuenta-en-suiza|url-status= dead}}</ref>

In August 2008, the BBC reported that Menem was under investigation for his role in the 1995 [[Río Tercero explosion]], which is alleged to have been part of the weapons scandal involving Croatia and Ecuador.<ref name="auto1"/> Following an Appeals Court ruling that found Menem guilty of aggravated smuggling, he was sentenced to seven years in prison on 13 June 2013, for his role in illegally smuggling weapons to Ecuador and Croatia; his position as senator earned him immunity from incarceration, and his advanced age (82) afforded him the possibility of house arrest. His minister of defence during the weapons sales, [[Oscar Camilión]], was concurrently sentenced to {{frac|5|1|2}} years.<ref name="auto"/> Menem was scheduled to attend a trial on the matter in which he was charged with "indirect responsibility", on 24 February 2021; but died ten days before that.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/carlos-menem-como-fueron-ultimos-dos-meses-nid2602217|title= Carlos Menem. Cómo fueron los últimos dos meses|trans-title= Carlos Menem. The last two months|language= Spanish|author= Gabriela Origlia|date= 14 February 2021|publisher= La Nación|access-date=14 February 2021}}</ref>

In December 2008, the German [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] [[Siemens]] agreed to pay an $800&nbsp;million fine to the United States government, and approximately €700&nbsp;million to the German government, to settle allegations of bribery.<ref>{{cite web|last=Crawford |first=David |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122936135680907233?mod=googlenews_wsj |title=''Wall Street Journal'' |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=16 December 2008 |access-date=28 October 2010}}</ref> The settlement revealed that Menem had received about US$2&nbsp;million in bribes from Siemens in exchange for awarding the national ID card and passport production contract to Siemens; Menem denied the charges but nonetheless agreed to pay a fine.<ref>{{cite web|author=(AFP) – 17 December 2008 
|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gWIEG7CxYIwbVRUUwY8GF8xKbLbw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928131615/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gWIEG7CxYIwbVRUUwY8GF8xKbLbw |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2010 |title=Google News |date=17 December 2008 |access-date=28 October 2010}}</ref>

On 1 December 2015, Menem was also found guilty of embezzlement, and sentenced to {{frac|4|1|2}} years to prison. Domingo Cavallo, his economy minister, and Raúl Granillo Ocampo, Menem's former minister of justice, also received prison sentences of more than three years for participating in the scheme, and were ordered to repay hundreds of thousands of pesos' worth of illegal bonuses.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/02/world/americas/carlos-menem-ex-president-of-argentina-is-sentenced-in-embezzlement.html?_r=1|title= Ex-President of Argentina Is Sentenced in Embezzlement Case|author= Jonathan Gilbert|date= 1 December 2015|newspaper= The New York Times|access-date=4 February 2016}}</ref>

== Illness and death ==
[[File:Velorio del expresidente de la República Argentina, Carlos Saul Menem, en el Salón Azul del Congreso de la Nación, en Buenos Aires, Argentina.jpg|thumb|Menem [[lying in state]]]]
On 13 June 2020, Menem was hospitalized due to a severe case of [[pneumonia]] and placed in intensive care;<ref>{{cite web |date=14 June 2020 |title=El ex presidente Menem continúa internado y su hija pide que "recen" por él |url=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202006/476397-eduardo-menem-carlos-menem-neumonia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629224741/https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202006/476397-eduardo-menem-carlos-menem-neumonia.html |archive-date=29 June 2020 |access-date=18 December 2020 |publisher=Télam |language=es}}</ref> he tested negative for [[COVID-19]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clarin.com/politica/internaron-carlos-menem_0_RdzL769RM.html|newspaper=Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|title=Internaron a Carlos Menem por una neumonía severa: dio negativo a la prueba de coronavirus|date=13 June 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|language=es}}</ref> and was discharged on 29 June 2020, three days before his 90th birthday.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 June 2020 |title=A tres días de cumplir 90 años, dieron de alta a Carlos Menem |url=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202006/483180-dieron-alta-menem-breve-podria-volver-actividad-parlamentaria.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813060415/https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202006/483180-dieron-alta-menem-breve-podria-volver-actividad-parlamentaria.html |archive-date=13 August 2020 |access-date=18 December 2020 |work=Télam |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/politica/2020/06/29/carlos-menem-recibio-el-alta-luego-de-dos-semanas-de-internacion/|publisher=Infobae |title=Carlos Menem recibió el alta luego de dos semanas de internación|date=29 June 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|language=es}}</ref> On 15 December 2020, he was hospitalized again at the Los Arcos Sanatorium due to a urinary infection.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/politica/2020/12/15/internaron-al-ex-presidente-carlos-menem/|title=Internaron al ex presidente Carlos Menem|publisher=Infobae |date=15 December 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pagina12.com.ar/312792-carlos-menem-sufrio-una-complicacion-coronaria|publisher=Página/12|title=Carlos Menem sufrió una complicación coronaria|date=18 December 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clarin.com/politica/mensaje-zulemita-menem-papa-luchandola-encomendamos-dios-_0_jsXZiWuAm.html|newspaper=Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|title=Carlos Menem en grave estado: "Papá está luchándola, nos encomendamos a Dios", dijo Zulemita|date=18 December 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|language=es}}</ref> On 24 December 2020, Menem was [[induced coma|induced into coma]] after a kidney failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2020-12-25/el-expresidente-argentino-carlos-menem-en-coma-inducido-tras-sufrir-una-complicacion-renal.html|newspaper=El País|title=El expresidente argentino Carlos Menem, en coma inducido tras sufrir una complicación renal|date=25 December 2020|access-date=28 December 2020|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.batimes.com.ar/news/argentina/carlos-menem-in-induced-coma-after-suffering-kidney-failure.phtml|newspaper=Buenos Aires Times|title=Carlos Menem in induced coma after suffering kidney failure|date=26 December 2020|access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref>

He died on 14 February 2021 at the Sanatorio Los Arcos in [[Buenos Aires]] from complications of urinary tract infection.<ref name=Death>{{cite news |last1=Bruschtein |first1=Luis |title=Murió Carlos Menem |url=https://www.pagina12.com.ar/323746-murio-carlos-menem |access-date=14 February 2021 |work=[[Página 12]] |date=14 February 2021 |language=Spanish}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Romo|first1=Rafael|last2=Girón|first2=Nacho |last3=Correa|first3=Hugo Manu|title=Carlos Menem, former President of Argentina, dies at 90|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/02/14/americas/carlos-menem-argentina-president-dies/index.html|access-date=14 February 2021|publisher=CNN|date=14 February 2021}}</ref> The national government issued three days of [[National day of mourning|national mourning]], and had a public funeral at the [[Palace of the Argentine National Congress]]. It was attended by several politicians, including the president [[Alberto Fernández]], and by hundreds of people.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/murio-carlos-menem-ultimo-adios-al-expresidente-nid2603047|title= Murió Carlos Menem: en una ceremonia íntima, despidieron los restos del expresidente en el cementerio de La Tablada|trans-title= Carlos Menem died: in a close ceremony, his remains were saluted at the cemetery of La Tablada|language= Spanish|author= Matías Moreno|date= 15 February 2021|publisher= La Nación|access-date=15 February 2021}}</ref> He was buried at the San Justo Islamic cemetery the following day, next to his son.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 February 2021 |title=Inhumaron los restos de Menem tras una ceremonia íntima en el Cementerio de La Tablada |url=https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202102/544632-comenzo-el-velatorio-de-menem-en-el-congreso-con-una-ceremonia-intima.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301171331/https://www.telam.com.ar/notas/202102/544632-comenzo-el-velatorio-de-menem-en-el-congreso-con-una-ceremonia-intima.html |archive-date=1 March 2021 |access-date=15 February 2021 |newspaper=Télam}}</ref> His daughter, Zulemita, confirmed that he had died as a Catholic, but he would be buried according to Muslim rites in the Islamic Cemetery to be with his family.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chambers |first1=Bala |title=Former Argentine president buried in Islamic cemetery |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/former-argentine-president-buried-in-islamic-cemetery/2146150 |access-date=8 September 2021 |publisher=Anadolu Agency |date=16 February 2021}}</ref>

Although former presidents are meant to have a bust at the Hall of Busts of the [[Casa Rosada]] eight years after they leave office, by the time of his death Menem never received that honor. Casa Rosada had a bust of Menem donated by artist Fernando Pugliese, but had not yet disclosed this to the public. President Alberto Fernández told Zulemita Menem that the intention was to reveal the bust in a ceremony once Menem recovered from his illness but Menem's death disrupted the plans.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/casa-rosada-secretos-caprichos-y-pagos-en-dolares-detras-de-los-bustos-presidenciales-nid29032022/|title=Casa Rosada. Secretos, caprichos y pagos en dólares detrás de los bustos presidenciales|trans-title=Casa Rosada: Secrets, whims and payments in dollars behind the presidential busts|language=Spanish|author=Camila Dolabjian|date= 29 March 2022|publisher=La Nación|accessdate=29 March 2022}}</ref>

==Style and legacy==
{{Conservatism in Argentina|People}}
In the early days, Menem sported an image similar to the old ''[[caudillos]]'', such as [[Facundo Quiroga]] and [[Chacho Peñaloza]]. He groomed his [[sideburns]] in a similar style. His presidential inauguration was attended by several [[gaucho]]s.<ref>Johnson, p. 118</ref>

Contrary to Peronist tradition, Menem did not prepare huge rallies in the [[Plaza de Mayo]] to address the people from the balcony of the [[Casa Rosada]]. Instead, he took full advantage of [[mass media]], such as television.<ref>Romero, p. 298</ref>

Menem's administration was exalted by libertarians [[Javier Milei]] and [[Diego Giacomini]] in the late 2010s,<ref>{{cite news |title=Javier Milei: "Menem fue el mejor presidente de toda la historia" |url=https://www.infobae.com/politica/2020/08/04/javier-milei-menem-fue-el-mejor-presidente-de-toda-la-historia/ |access-date=28 September 2020 |publisher=Infobae |date=4 August 2020}}</ref> after being strongly criticized during and by [[Kirchnerism]]. Some liberal economists such as [[José Luis Espert]] and [[Alberto Benegas Lynch]] have also taken a critical approach towards Menem's presidency.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rey |first1=Pedro B. |url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/opinion/alberto-benegas-lynch-menem-fue-un-modelo-de-antiliberalismo-nid607757/ |title=Alberto Benegas Lynch: "Menem fue un modelo de antiliberalismo" |journal=La Nación |date=6 June 2004 |access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref>

President Javier Milei inaugurated the bust of Carlos Menem at the [[Casa Rosada]] in May 2024, 35 years after his victory in the 1989 elections. The event was attended by the Menem family (except for his former wife Zulema Yoma), former officers of the Menem administration, and Milei's own cabinet. The bust is modeled after Menem's 1980s appearance, with high sideburns. Milei praised that, unlike most Argentine politicians Menem had worked in the private sector before getting started in politics, and that he pardoned the military and guerrillas alike even if facing rejection from his own family.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/milei-encabeza-el-acto-de-colocacion-del-busto-de-carlos-menem-en-casa-rosada-nid14052024/|title= Entre familiares y exfuncionarios, Milei inauguró el busto de Carlos Menem y lo calificó como "el mejor presidente de los últimos 40 años"|trans-title= Amid family and former officers, Milei inaugurated the bust of Carlos Menem and labeled him "the best president of the last 40 years"|language= Spanish|author= Jaime Rosemberg|date= 14 May 2024|publisher= La Nación|accessdate=14 May 2024}}</ref> The bust is made of [[carrara marble]] and, unlike most other busts in the hall, it shows Menem with a prominent smile.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/busto-de-carlos-menem-entre-que-presidentes-esta-ubicado-y-de-que-material-esta-hecho-nid14052024/|title= Busto de Carlos Menem: entre qué presidentes está ubicado y de qué material está hecho|trans-title= Bust of Carlos Menem: Between which presidents it is located, and what material is it made of|language= Spanish|author= |date= 14 May 2024|publisher= La Nación|accessdate=14 May 2024}}</ref> 

{{Blockquote|His lasting legacy was a record so notorious as to shut off rational discussion about economic policy in Latin America for a generation. He and his Argentina were indelibly branded as "[[neoliberal]]" slaves to the "[[Washington consensus]]". By extension, liberalism and a capitalist economy were damned.|''[[The Economist]]'', February 20, 2021<ref>{{Cite news|title=Carlos Menem, a conservative caudillo, tarnished liberalism|url=https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2021/02/17/carlos-menem-a-conservative-caudillo-tarnished-liberalism|date=2021-02-20|access-date=2021-03-04|newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref>}}

In July 2025, the former Argentine presient was featured in the drama miniseries Menem, premiering on July 9, 2025 and distributed internationally by Amazon Prime Video. Within hours of its premiere, Menem ranked in the Top 10 on Amazon Prime Video regionally, setting an important precedent for Latin productions.

==Honours==

===Foreign honours===
* {{flagu|Croatia}}:
**[[File:Ribbon of an order of king Tomislav.png|Ribbon of an order of king Tomislav|70px]] Grand Cross of the [[Grand Order of King Tomislav]]
* {{flagu|Egypt}}:
**[[File:EGY Order of the Nile - Grand Cordon BAR.svg|70px]] Collar of the [[Order of the Nile]]
* {{flagu|Jamaica}}:
**[[File:Order of Jamaica.gif|Order of Jamaica|70px]] First Class of the [[Order of Jamaica]]
* {{flagu|Lithuania}}:
**[[File:LTU Order of Vytautas the Great - Grand Cross BAR.svg|70px]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of Vytautas the Great]] 
* {{flagu|Italy}}:
**[[File:Cordone di gran Croce di Gran Cordone OMRI BAR.svg|70px]] Knight Grand Cross with Collar [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]] (1992)
* {{flagu|Malaysia}}:
**[[File:MY Darjah Utama Seri Mahkota Negara (Crown of the Realm) - DMN.svg|70px]] Honorary Recipient of the [[Order of the Crown of the Realm]] (1991)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.istiadat.gov.my/v8/images/stories/1991.pdf|title=Senarai Penuh Penerima Darjah Kebesaran, Bintang dan Pingat Persekutuan Tahun 1991.|access-date=6 June 2016|archive-date=23 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123142924/http://www.istiadat.gov.my/v8/images/stories/1991.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Panama}}:
**[[File:PAN Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero - Grand Cross BAR.png|PAN Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero - Grand Cross BAR|70px]] Collar of the [[Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero]] 
* {{flagu|Peru}}:
**[[File:PER Order of the Sun of Peru - Grand Cross BAR.png|PER Order of the Sun of Peru - Grand Cross BAR|70px]] Collar of the [[Order of the Sun of Peru]] 
* {{flagu|Poland}}:
**[[File:POL Order Zaslugi RP kl1 BAR.svg|POL Order Zaslugi RP kl1 BAR|70px]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland]] 
* {{flagu|Spain}}:
**[[File:Order of Isabella the Catholic - Sash of Collar.svg|70px]] Collar of the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]
* {{flagu|South Africa}}:
**[[File:Ord.GoodHope-ribbon.gif|70px]]  Grand Cross of the [[Order of Good Hope]]
* {{flagu|Hungary}}:
**[[File:HUN Order of Merit of the Hungarian Rep (civ) 1class Collar BAR.svg|70px]] Grand Cross with Chain of the [[Hungarian Order of Merit|Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary]] (1997)<ref>{{cite web |title=Image of PRESIDENTS MANEM AND GONCZ DURING DECORATING CEREMONY, 1997-04-07 (photo) |url=https://www.bridgemanimages.com/en/noartistknown/presidents-manem-and-goncz-during-decorating-ceremony-1997-04-07-photo/photograph/asset/8105135 |website=www.bridgemanimages.com |access-date=9 March 2024}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Tunisia}}:
**[[File:Order of the Republic (Tunisia) - ribbon bar.gif|70px]] [[Grand Cordon]] of the [[Order of the Republic (Tunisia)|Order of the Republic]] of [[Tunisia]] (1997)
*{{flagu|Uruguay}}:
**[[File:Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay - ribbon bar.gif|70x70px]] [[Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay]] (1994)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resolución N° 1137/994|url=https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/resoluciones/1137-1994|access-date=26 November 2020|website=www.impo.com.uy}}</ref>
* {{flagu|United Kingdom}}:
**[[File:UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg|70px]] Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]] (1998)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Staff |title=La medalla de honor británica considerada racista |url=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/actualidad/george-floyd-racismo-la-medalla-de-honor-britanica-considerada-racista-orden-de-san-miguel-y-san-jorge-noticia/ |access-date=14 February 2021 |work=[[El Comercio (Peru)|El Comercio Perú]] |date=25 June 2020 |language=Spanish |quote=Entre ellos, están el expresidente peruano Alberto Fujimori (1998); el expresidente de Argentina Carlos Menem (1998); el expresidente de México Ernesto Zedillo (1998)}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last= Edwards|first= Todd|date= 2008|title= Argentina: A global studies handbook|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=p-nf4KIyfHwC|location= United States|publisher= ABC-Clio|isbn= 978-1-85109-987-0|access-date= 16 June 2015}}
*{{cite book |last= Giraudy|first= Agustina|date= 2015|title= Democrats and Autocrats: Pathways of Subnational Undemocratic Regime continuity within democratic countries|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=luxxBgAAQBAJ|location= United Kingdom|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-870686-1}}
*{{cite book |last= Johnson|first= Lyman|title= Death, dismemberment, and memory: body politics in Latin America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYsMYcZlXf8C&q=%22Juan+Manuel+de+Rosas%22+1989 |year= 2004|publisher= University of New Mexico Press|location= United States|isbn= 0-8263-3200-5}}
* {{cite book |last= Levine|first= Anete|date= 2015|title= Landscapes of Memory and Impunity: The Aftermath of the AMIA Bombing in Jewish Argentina|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G1fFCQAAQBAJ|location= United States|publisher= Brill|isbn=978-90-04-29749-4}}
* {{cite book |last= McGuire|first= James|date= 1997|title= Peronism without Perón|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MfY60uIwKP8C|location= United States|publisher= Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-3655-8}}
* {{cite book |last= Reich|first= Bernard|date= 2008|title= Historical Dictionary of Israel|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf-xAAAAQBAJ|location= United States|publisher= Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6403-0}}
* {{cite book |last= Romero|first= Luis Alberto|year= 2013|orig-year= 1994|title= A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IhQuAgAAQBAJ&q=history+Argentina+alfonsin&pg=PR9|location= United States|publisher= The Pennsylvania University Press|isbn=978-0-271-06228-0}}
* {{cite book|last= Ruggiero|first= Kristin|date= 2005|title= The Jewish Diaspora in Latin America and the Caribbean: Fragments of Memory|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=S3MmUTk2TEcC|location= United Kingdom|publisher= Sussex Academic Press|isbn= 978-1-84519-414-7|df= mdy-all}}{{dead link|date=June 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
{{refend}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Carlos Menem}}

*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3809265.stm Launch of new faction (from the BBC)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3789059.stm Chile declines extradition request (from the BBC)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4118375.stm Menem arrives on Argentine soil (from the BBC)]
*[http://www.cidob.org/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/argentina/carlos_menem Biography by CIDOB] (in Spanish)
* {{C-SPAN}}

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