View source for Carniola

{{Short description|Traditional region of Slovenia}}{{More footnotes|date=April 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name                    =Carniola
| native_name             =
| native_name_lang        = <!-- ISO 639-2 code e.g. "fr" for French. If more than one, use {{lang}} instead -->
| settlement_type         = [[Historical region]]
| image_skyline           = Ljubljana (36048969485).jpg
| image_alt               =
| image_caption           = The Carniolan Provincial Assembly Building in [[Ljubljana]], also the seat of the Regional Committee and the Governor of the [[Duchy of Carniola]], today the seat of the [[University of Ljubljana]]
| image_flag              = Flag of Krain.svg
| flag_alt                =
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| seal_alt                =
| image_shield            = Arms of the Duchy of Carniola.svg
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| image_map               = Das Herzogthum Krain 1791.jpg
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| map_caption             = 1791 map of Carniola
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| subdivision_name        = [[Slovenia]]
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[[File:Borders of the Historical Habsburgian Lands in the Republic of Slovenia.png|thumb|right|300px|Traditional regions of Slovenia. {{ordered list|[[Slovene Littoral|Littoral]]|Carniola: 2a [[Upper Carniola|Upper]], 2b [[Inner Carniola|Inner]], 2c [[Lower Carniola|Lower]]|[[Carinthia (Slovenia)|Carinthia]]|[[Styria (Slovenia)|Styria]]|[[Prekmurje]]}}]]
'''Carniola''' ({{langx|sl|Kranjska}} {{IPA|sl|ˈkɾàːnska|}};<ref>{{cite web |title=Slovenski pravopis 2001: Kranjska |url=http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/c/SP/neva.exe?name=sp&expression=Kranjska&hs=1}}</ref> {{langx|de|Krain}} {{IPA|de|kʁaɪn||De-Krain.ogg}}; {{langx|it|Carniola}}; {{langx|hu|Krajna}}) is a [[Historical regions of Central Europe|historical region]] that comprised parts of present-day [[Slovenia]]. Slovenes living within the former borders of the region still tend to identify with its traditional parts [[Upper Carniola]], [[Lower Carniola]] (with the sub-part of [[White Carniola]]), and to a lesser degree with [[Inner Carniola]]. In 1991, 47% of the population of Slovenia lived within the borders of the former [[Duchy of Carniola]].

==Overview==
The [[March of Carniola]] was a [[States of the Holy Roman Empire|state]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], established as an [[Imperial immediacy|immediate]] territory in the 11th century. From the second half of the 13th century it was ruled by the [[Habsburgs]] and its capital was [[Ljubljana]] (Laibach); previous overlords had their seats in [[Kranj]] (Krainburg) and [[Kamnik]] (Stein), which are therefore sometimes referred to as its earlier capitals. In the 14th century the [[Duchy of Carniola]] was declared, a status which was formally recognised in the 16th century. As a hereditary possession of the Habsburgs (one of the so-called {{lang|de|[[Erblande]]}}), Carniola was part of the [[Austrian Circle]] of the Empire from the early 16th century. Informally it was part of [[Inner Austria]]. It was subdivided into [[Upper Carniola|Upper]], [[Lower Carniola|Lower]], and [[Inner Carniola]].

In 1804 it became part of the newly established [[Austrian Empire]] and in 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. In 1809 [[Treaty of Schönbrunn|it was ceded]] to the [[First French Empire]], becoming part of the [[Illyrian Provinces]]; it was [[Congress of Vienna|returned to Austria in 1815]], forming part of the [[Kingdom of Illyria]]. In 1849 Illyria was dissolved and Carniola became a [[crown land]] in its own right; the three traditional subdivisions were also abolished. In 1867 it became part of [[Cisleithania]], the Austrian part of [[Austria-Hungary]]. It remained so until 1918, when it seceded as part of the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]], becoming part of the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (later Yugoslavia); it ceased to exist ''de jure'' with the passing of the [[Vidovdan Constitution]] in 1921.

Nowadays, its territory (in the extent at its dissolution) is almost entirely located in Slovenia, except for a small part in [[Italy]], around [[Fusine in Valromana]].<ref name="Perko1998">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4WAMAQAAMAAJ |title=Slovenija: pokrajina in ljudje |trans-title=Slovenia: Its Landscape and Its People |language=sl |chapter=Zgodovinske dežele Slovenije |trans-chapter=Historical Lands of Slovenia |first1=Drago |last1=Perko |first2=Milan |last2=Orožen Adamič |year=1998 |publisher=Mladinska knjiga |page=16 |edition=3. izdaja |isbn=9788611150338}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|In the extent at its dissolution.}} Carniola in its final form, established in 1815,<ref name="Pipp"/> encompassed {{convert|9904|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Slovenija – pokrajine in ljudje |language=sl |trans-title=Slovenia – Landscapes and People |editor1-first=Drago |editor1-last=Perko |editor2-first=Milan |editor2-last=Orožen Adamič |isbn=9788611150338 |publisher=Mladinska knjiga |year=1998 |page=16}}</ref> In 1914, before the beginning of World War I, it had a population of slightly under 530,000, of whom 95% were Slovenes.<ref name="Pipp">{{Cite journal |url=http://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-0GBMI71V/7473cdee-a0c0-405b-aed2-39786b347805/PDF |title=Razvoj števila prebivalstva Ljubljane in bivše vojvodine Kranjske |language=sl |trans-title=The Development of the Number of Population of Ljubljana and the Former Duchy of Carniola |first=Lojze |last=Pipp |year=1935 |journal=Kronika Slovenskih Mest |publisher=City Municipality of Ljubljana |volume=2 |number=1}}</ref>

==Geography==
The region is crossed by the [[Julian Alps]] and the [[Karawanks]]. The highest mountain peaks are [[Nanos (plateau)|Nanos]], {{convert|4200|ft}}; [[Vremščica]], {{convert|3360|ft}}; [[Snežnik (mountain)|Snežnik]], {{convert|5900|ft}}; and [[Triglav]], {{convert|9300|ft}}. The main rivers are the [[Sava]], [[Tržič Bistrica]], [[Kokra]], [[Kamnik Bistrica]], [[Sora (river)|Sora]], [[Ljubljanica]], [[Mirna (Sava)|Mirna]], [[Krka (Sava)|Krka]], and [[Kupa|Kolpa]] rivers. Notable lakes include [[Black Lake (Triglav Lakes Valley)|Black Lake]] ({{langx|sl|Črno jezero}}), [[Lake Bohinj]], [[Lake Bled]], and [[Lake Cerknica]]. Nearby is the [[Ljubljana Marsh]], and a series of hot and mineral springs which can be found at [[Dolenjske Toplice]], [[Šmarješke Toplice]], and [[Medija Thermal Spa|Izlake]].<ref name=CE>{{Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Krain |volume=8 |first=Martin Davorin |last=Krmpotić |inline=1}}</ref>

Agriculture thrived more in Upper Carniola than in Lower Carniola. The [[Vipava Valley]] was especially famous for its wine and vegetables, and for its mild climate. The average temperature was {{convert|56|°F}} in spring, {{convert|77|°F}} in summer, {{convert|59|°F}} in autumn, and {{convert|26|°F}} in winter.<br>

In 1910 the main railroads were the Southern, Prince Rudolf, Bohinj, Kamnik, Lower Carniola, and Vrhnika railroads. The principal cities and towns in the region were [[Kamnik]], [[Kranj]], [[Tržič]], [[Vrhnika]], [[Vipava, Vipava|Vipava]], [[Idrija]], [[Turjak]], [[Ribnica, Ribnica|Ribnica]], [[Metlika]], [[Novo Mesto]], and [[Vače]].<ref name=CE/>

==History==
{{History of Slovenia}}

===Overview===
After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], [[Lombards]] settled in Carniola, followed by [[Slavs]] around the sixth century AD.<ref>Minahan, James. 2000. ''One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, p. 633.</ref><ref>Staab, Franz. 1976. Ostrogothic Geographers at the Court of Theodoric the Great: A Study of Some Sources of the Anonymous Cosmographer of Ravenna. ''Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies'' 7: 27–64, p. 54.</ref><ref>Plut-Pregelj, Leopoldina & Carole Rogel. 2010. ''The A to Z of Slovenia''. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, p. 48.</ref> As a part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the area was successively ruled by [[Bavaria]]n, [[Franks|Frankish]] and local nobility, and eventually by the [[Habsburg|Austrian Habsburgs]] almost continuously from 1335 to 1918, though beset by many raids from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and rebellions by local residents against Habsburg rule from the 15th to the 17th centuries. From about 900 AD until the 20th century, Carniola's ruling classes and urban areas spoke [[German language|German]], while the peasantry spoke [[Slovene language|Slovene]].

The capital of Carniola, originally located at [[Kranj]] ({{langx|de|Krainburg}}), was briefly moved to [[Kamnik]] ({{langx|de|Stein}}) and finally to the current capital of Slovenia, [[Ljubljana]] ({{langx|de|Laibach}}).

=== Chronology ===
* Fourth century: Germanic settlements of [[Herules]] (or ''Heruli''). 
* Fifth century: Germanic settlements of [[Langobards]] (or ''Lombards''). 
* Sixth century: Slavic settlements.
* Eighth century: Carniola a part of the Empire of [[Charlemagne]].
* 10th century: Carniola a separate country.
* 1278: Death of [[Ottokar II of Bohemia]]. Carniola absorbed in the Habsburg dominions.
* 14th century: The province under [[Albert III, Duke of Austria|Albert III]].
* 15th–16th centuries: Ravages of the Ottomans.
* 1527–1564: Progress of the [[Reformation]] in Carniola.
* 1564: Death of [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]]. Carniola under the [[Charles II, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Charles]]. Religious persecutions begin.
* 1763: Political administration of "[[Inner Austria]]" centralized at [[Graz]].
* 1790: Accession of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]. Partial revival of autonomy.
* 1797: First French invasion.
* 1805: Second French invasion.
* 1809: [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]]. Carniola under French rule.
* 1814: [[Congress of Vienna]]. Carniola restored to Austria.<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = H.M. Stationery Office
| last = Prothero
| first = GW
| author2 = Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section
| title = Carniola, Carinthia and Styria
| location = London
| series = Peace handbooks
| access-date = 5 June 2014
| date = 1920
| pages = 11
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9178/view/1/24/
}}</ref>

===Antiquity and Middle Ages===
{{See also|Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps}}
[[File:Karniola around 800.png|thumb|right|300px|Old Slavic Carniola around 800 AD]]

Before the coming of the Romans ({{Circa|200 BC}}), the [[Taurisci]] dwelt in the north of Carniola, the [[Pannonians]] in the southeast, the [[Iapodes]] or [[Carni]], a Celtic tribe, in the southwest.<ref name=CE/>

Carniola formed part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Pannonia]]; the northern part was joined to [[Noricum]], the south-western and south-eastern parts and the city of [[Aemona]] to Venice and [[Istria]]. In the time of Augustus all the region from [[Aemona]] to the [[Kolpa]] River (Culpa) belonged to the province of [[Pannonia Savia|Savia]].<ref name=CE/>

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), Carniola was incorporated into [[Odoacer]]'s Kingdom of Italy, and then in 493, under Theodoric, it formed part of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]]. Between the upper [[Sava]] and the [[Soča]] rivers lived the Carni, and towards the end of the sixth century [[Slavs]] settled the region called by Latin writers ''Carnia'', or ''Carniola'' meaning 'little Carnia'; i.e., part of greater Carnia.<ref name=CE/> The Latin name was later borrowed into Slavic, becoming ''Kranjska'',<ref name="Snoj">{{cite book |last1=Snoj |first1=Marko |title=Etimološki slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen |trans-title=Etymological dictionary of Slovenian geographical names |date=2009 |publisher=Modrijan |location=Ljubljana |pages=210–211}}</ref> and into German as ''Chrainmark, Krain''.

The new inhabitants, to whom modern historiography frequently refers to as [[Alpine Slavs]], were subjected to the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]], but around 623 they joined the Slavic tribal union of [[Samo]]. After Samo's death in AD 658, they fell again under the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avar]] rule, but most probably enjoyed partial autonomy.

===March of Carniola===
{{main article|March of Carniola|Windic march}}
[[File:HRR 10Jh.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The ''Mark Krain'' (March of Carniola) was in the southeast of the 10th-century Holy Roman Empire. Its namesake and capital was [[Krainburg]] (now Kranj).]]
Carniola was governed by the Franks about the year 788, and was Christianized by missionaries from the [[Patriarchate of Aquileia (Episcopal)|Patriarchate of Aquileia]] and others. When [[Charlemagne]] established the [[margraviate of Friuli]], he added to it a part of Carniola. After the division of [[Friuli]], it became an independent [[margraviate of Carniola|margraviate]], having its own Slavic margrave residing at [[Kranj]], subject to the governor of Bavaria at first, and after 976 to the [[Duchy of Carinthia|Dukes of Carinthia]]. Henry IV gave it to the [[Patriarch of Aquileia]] (1071) and it formed part of the [[Patriarchal State of Friuli]].<ref name=CE/>

Several sources from the [[High Middle Ages]] suggest that there was a common [[Carantania]]n (that is, Carinthian) identity that slowly vanished after the 14th century and was replaced by a regional Carniolan identity.

In the Middle Ages the Church held much property in Carniola, and thus in 974 in Upper and Lower Carniola the [[Bishop of Freising]] became in 974 a feudal lord of the town of [[Škofja Loka]], the [[Bishop of Brixen]] held [[Bled]] and possessions in the [[Bohinj]] Valley, and the [[Bishop of Lavant]] received [[Mokronog]].<ref name=CE/>

Among secular potentates, the Dukes of [[Merano|Meran]], [[County of Gorizia|Gorizia]], [[Babenberg]], and [[Celje|Zilli]] held possessions given to them in fief by the patriarchs of Aquileia. The dukes governed the province for nearly half a century.<ref name=CE/>

Finally Carniola was given in fief with the consent of the patriarch to [[Frederick II of Austria]], who obtained the title of duke in 1245. Frederick was succeeded by Ulrich III, Duke of Carinthia, who married Agnes of [[Counts of Andechs|Andechs]], a relative of the patriarch, and he endowed the churches and monasteries, established the government mint at the town of [[Kostanjevica na Krki|Kostanjevica]], and finally (in 1268) willed to [[Ottokar II of Bohemia|Ottokar II]], [[King of Bohemia]], all his possessions and the government of Carinthia and Carniola.<ref name=CE/>

===Duchy of Carniola===
{{main article|Duchy of Carniola}}
[[File:Coat of arms of the Duchy of Carniola.svg|thumb|200px|Coat of Arms of Duchy of Carniola.]]
Ottokar was defeated by [[Rudolph I of Germany]], and at the meeting at [[Augsburg]] in 1282, he gave in fief to his sons Albrecht and Rudolf the province of Carniola, but it was leased to [[Meinhard, Duke of Carinthia|Meinhard, count of Gorizia-Tirol]]. Duke [[Henry I of Bohemia|Henry of Carinthia]] claimed Carniola; and the Dukes of Austria asserted their claim as successors to the Bohemian kingdom. When Henry died in 1335, [[King John of Bohemia]] renounced his claims, and Albrecht, Duke of Austria, received Carniola; it was proclaimed a duchy by [[Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria|Rudolf IV]], in 1364. Emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] united Upper, Lower, and Central Carniola as Metlika and Pivka into one duchy. The union of the dismembered parts was completed by 1607.<ref name=CE/>

===French Intermezzo===
[[File:Univerza Ljubljana.jpg|thumb|250px|The Carniolan Parliament building. In 1919 it became the main building of the [[University of Ljubljana]].]]
[[File:Austria-Hungary map.svg|thumb|250px|Carniola within Austria-Hungary (number 4).]]
French revolutionary troops occupied Carniola in 1797, and from 1805 to 1806. Under the Treaty of Vienna, Carniola became part of the [[Illyrian provinces]] of [[France]] (1809–1814), with [[Ljubljana]] as its capital, and Carniola formed a part of the new territory from 1809 to 1813.<ref name=CE/>
The defeat of Napoleon restored Carniola to [[Austrian Emperor Francis I]], with larger boundaries, but at the extinction of the Illyrian Kingdom Carniola was confined to the limits outlined at the [[Congress of Vienna]], 1815.<ref name=CE/> From 1816 to 1849 Carniola was part of the Austrian [[Kingdom of Illyria (1816–1849)|Kingdom of Illyria]] with capital in Ljubljana.

===Ecclesiastical history===
In early Christian times the duchy was under the jurisdiction of the [[metropolitans of Aquileia]] (who became Patriarchs), Syrmium, and Salona. In consequence of the immigration of the pagan Slovenes, this arrangement was not a lasting one. After they had embraced Christianity in the seventh and eighth centuries Charlemagne conferred the major part of Carniola on the Patriarchate of Aquileia, and the remainder on the [[Diocese of Trieste]]. In 1100 that patriarchate was divided into five archdeaconries, of which Krain was one.<ref name=CE/>

The diocese of Ljubljana or Laibach was established by Emperor Frederick III on 6 December 1461. It was directly subject to the pope. This was confirmed by a Bull of Pope Pius II, 10 September 1462. The new diocese consisted of part of Upper Carniola, two parishes in Lower Carniola, and a portion of Lower Styria and Carinthia; the remaining portion of Carniola was attached to Aquileia, later on to [[Gorizia]] and [[Trieste]]. At the redistribution of dioceses (1787 to 1791) not all the parishes in Carniola were included in the Diocese of Ljubljana, but this was accomplished in 1833, by taking two deaneries from the Diocese of Trieste, one from Gorizia, and one parish from the Diocese of Lavant, so as to include all the territory within the political boundaries of the crownland.<ref name=CE/>

===Austrian administration===
{{main article|Duchy of Carniola}}
The [[Austrian Empire]] reorganized the territory in 1849 as a duchy and a [[Cisleithania]]n [[crownland]] in [[Austria-Hungary]] known as the [[Duchy of Carniola]]. It was bounded on the north by Carinthia, on the north-east by Styria, on the south-east and south by Croatia, and on the west by Trieste, Goritza, and Istria; with area of {{convert|3,857|sqmi|km2}} and population of 510,000. The capital, [[Ljubljana]], was the see of a [[prince-bishop]], population, 40,000; it was known to the Romans as Aemona, and was destroyed by Obri in the sixth century. Carniola was divided into Upper Carniola (Slovenian name: Gorenjska), Lower Carniola (Slovenian: Dolenjska), and Inner Carniola (Slovenian: Notranjska). Politically the province was divided into eleven districts consisting of 359 municipalities; the provincial capital was the residence of the imperial governor. The districts were: Kamnik, Kranj, Radovljica, the neighbourhood of Ljubljana, Logatec, Postojna, Litija, Krsko, Novo Mesto, Crnomelj, and Gotschee or Kocevje. There were 31 judicial circuits.<ref name=CE/>

The duchy was constituted by rescript of 20 December 1860, and by imperial patent of 26 February 1861, modified by legislation of 21 December 1867, granting power to the home parliament to enact all laws not reserved to the imperial diet, at which it was represented by eleven delegates, of whom two elected by the landowners, three by the cities, towns, commercial and industrial boards, five by the village communes, and one by a fifth curia by secret ballot, every duly registered male twenty-four years of age has the right to vote. The home legislature consisted of a single chamber of thirty-seven members, among whom the prince-bishop sits ex-officio. The emperor convened the legislature, and it is presided over by the governor. The landed interests elected ten members, the cities and towns eight, the commercial and industrial boards two, the village communes sixteen. In 1907, instead of these rules, universal and equal suffrage for all men was introduced. The business of the chamber was restricted to legislating on agriculture, public and charitable institutions, administration of communes, church and school affairs, the transportation and housing of soldiers in war and during manoeuvres, and other local matters. The land budget of 1901 amounted to 3,573,280 crowns ($714,656).<ref name=CE/>

===Modern era===
In 1918, the duchy ceased to exist and its territory became part of the newly formed [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] and subsequently part of the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (later known as the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]). The western part of the duchy, with the towns of [[Postojna]], [[Ilirska Bistrica]], [[Idrija]], and [[Šturje]], was annexed to [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] in 1920, but was subsequently also included in Yugoslavia in 1947.<ref>See: [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947]]</ref> Since 1991, the region has been part of an independent [[Slovenia]].

==See also==
* [[Battle of Sisak]]
* [[Duchy of Carniola]]
* [[Flag of Slovenia]]
* ''[[The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola]]''—Encyclopedia
* [[History of Slovenia]]
* [[Inner Austria]]
* [[Johann Weikhard von Valvasor]]
* [[March of Carniola]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |author=Dimitz, August |year=2013 |orig-year=1875 |title=History of Carniola: From Primeval Times to the death of Emperor Frederick III (1493) |volume=I |publisher=Slovenian Genealogical Society International|isbn=978-1-48360-408-4 |others=Witter, Andrew J., translator}}
* {{citation |author=Dimitz, August |year=2013 |orig-year=1875 |title=History of Carniola: From the Accession of Maximilian I (1493) to the Year 1813 |volume=II |publisher=Slovenian Genealogical Society International |isbn=978-1-48360-410-7 |others=Witter, Andrew J., translator}}
* {{citation |author=Dimitz, August |year=2013 |orig-year=1875 |title=History of Carniola: From the Accession of Archduke Karl to Leopold I (1564–1657) |volume=III|publisher=Slovenian Genealogical Society International |others=Witter, Andrew J., translator |isbn=978-1-48360-412-1}}
* {{citation |author=Dimitz, August |year=2013 |orig-year=1875 |title=History of Carniola: To the end of French Rule in Illyria (1813) |volume=IV|publisher=Slovenian Genealogical Society International |others=Witter, Andrew J., translator |isbn=978-1-48360-417-6}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150614064557/http://www.sloveniangenealogy.org/community/index.php/connect/news-and-events/113-news-release-publication-of-history-of-carniola Slovenian Genealogical Society International, Inc. Announcement of publication of English translation of History of Carniola by August Dimitz from 1875]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030205035658/http://www.terra.es/personal7/jqvaraderey/185915BK.GIF The Balkans 1815–1859 (Map)] – Carniola in 1849

{{Slovenia topics|state=collapsed}}
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[[Category:Carniola| ]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Slovenia]]
[[Category:Regions of Slovenia]]
[[Category:Southern Limestone Alps]]