View source for Catalan language

{{Short description|Romance language}}
{{Redirect2|Catala|Català|the ship|SS Catala{{!}}SS ''Catala''|the football club|Català FC|the surnames|Català (surname)|and|Catalá}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Catalan
| altname          = Valencian
| nativename       = {{lang|ca|català}} <br /> {{lang|ca-valencia|valencià}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|ca|kətəˈla||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Unjoanqualsevol-català.wav}} ({{abbr|N|Northern}}, {{abbr|C|Central}} & {{abbr|B|Balearic}}) / {{IPA|ca|kataˈla||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Millars-català.wav}} ({{abbr|NW|North-Western}} & {{abbr|A|Algherese}}) <br /> {{IPA|ca-valencia|valensiˈa||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Millars-valencià.wav}} ({{abbr|V|Valencian}})
| states           = {{hlist|[[Andorra]]|[[Spain]]|[[France]]|[[Italy]]}}
| region           = [[Southern Europe]]
| speakers         = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|4.141310|2}} million
| date             = 2022
| ref              = e25
| speakers2        = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|5.100000|2}} million<br />Total: {{sigfig|9.241310|2}} million
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3             = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4             = [[Latin]]
| fam5             = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6             = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7             = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam8             = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]{{Efn|Catalan is also classified as an [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] language.}}
| fam9             = [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2        = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4        = [[Old Occitan]]
| ancestor5        = [[Old Catalan]]
| script           = {{ubl
 |  [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Catalan alphabet]])
 | [[Catalan Braille]]
}}
| nation           = {{collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left|title=1 state, 3 communities and 1 city
|[[Andorra]]
|the Spanish communities of:
* [[Balearic Islands]]
* [[Catalonia]]
* [[Valencian Community]] (as ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'')
|the Italian city of:
* [[Alghero]], [[Sardinia]]}}
| minority         = {{collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left|title=3 sub-regions or areas
|the French sub-region of:
* [[Northern Catalonia]] ([[Roussillon]]), part of [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitania]]
|the Spanish sub-regions of:
* [[La Franja]], part of the community of [[Aragon]]
* [[Carche]], part of the [[Region of Murcia]] (as ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'')}}
| agency           = ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (IEC) <br /> ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (AVL)
| iso1             = ca
| iso2             = cat
| iso3             = cat
| lingua           = 51-AAA-e
| map              = Catalan language in Europe (cropped).png
| map2             = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption       = {{legend|#00A86B|Catalan/Valencian is the native language and has official status}} {{legend|#50C878|Catalan/Valencian is the native language but with no official status}} {{legend|#77dd77|Catalan/Valencian is not historically spoken but has official status}}
| mapcaption2      = {{center|Standard Catalan is classified as Potentially Vulnerable by the UNESCO [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/standard-catalan|title=World Atlas of Languages: Standard Catalan|website=en.wal.unesco.org|access-date=2023-12-04|archive-date=4 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204123215/https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/standard-catalan|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = stan1289
| glottorefname    = Catalan
}}

'''Catalan''' ({{lang|ca|català}}) is a [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance language]]. It is the official language of [[Andorra]]{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} and the official language of three [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] in eastern [[Spain]]: [[Catalonia]], the [[Balearic Islands]] and the [[Valencian Community]], where it is called ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'' ({{lang|ca|valencià}}). It has semi-official status in the [[Italy|Italian]] municipality of [[Alghero]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Minder |first=Raphael |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/europe/catalan-italy-alghero.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/europe/catalan-italy-alghero.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited |title=Italy's Last Bastion of Catalan Language Struggles to Keep It Alive |date=21 November 2016 |work=The New York Times |access-date=21 January 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and it is spoken in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] department of [[France]] and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the [[La Franja|eastern strip]] of [[Aragon]] and the [[Carche]] area in the [[Region of Murcia]]. The Catalan-speaking territories are often called the {{lang|ca|Països Catalans}} or "[[Catalan Countries]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=els Països Catalans |url=https://www.enciclopedia.cat/gran-enciclopedia-catalana/els-paisos-catalans |work=[[Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana|enciclopèdia.cat]] |access-date=15 August 2023 |language=ca |archive-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815020536/https://www.enciclopedia.cat/gran-enciclopedia-catalana/els-paisos-catalans |url-status=live}}</ref>

The language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] in the Middle Ages around the eastern [[Pyrenees]]. It became the language of the [[Principality of Catalonia]] and the kingdoms of [[kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] and [[Kingdom of Majorca|Mallorca]], being present throughout the Mediterranean as the main language of the [[Crown of Aragon]].{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} It was replaced by Spanish as a language of government and literature in the 1700s, but nineteenth century Spain saw a [[Renaixença|Catalan literary revival]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} culminating in the early 1900s. With the end of [[Francoist Spain|Franco dictatorship]] (1975) and its repressive measures against the language, Catalan entered a relatively successful process of re-normalization between the 1980s and the 2000s. However, during the 2010s, it experienced signs of decline in social use, [[diglossia]] and the re-growth of discrimination cases.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cebrián |first1=Joan |title=El català, el quart motiu de discriminació a Barcelona |url=https://www.ara.cat/societat/barcelona/catala-quart-motiu-discriminacio-barcelona_1_4435335.html |access-date=29 May 2024 |publisher=Ara.cat |date=15 July 2022}}</ref>

== Etymology and pronunciation {{Anchor|Etymology and pronunciation}} ==
{{Main|Catalonia#Etymology and pronunciation}}

The word ''Catalan'' is derived from the territorial name of [[Catalonia]], itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} ({{langx|la|Gathia Launia}}) derives from the name {{lang|la|Gothia}} or {{lang|la|Gauthia}} ('Land of the [[Goths]]'), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the [[March of Gothia]], whence ''Gothland'' > ''Gothlandia'' > ''Gothalania'' > ''Catalonia'' theoretically derived.{{sfn|García Venero|2006}}{{sfn|Burke|1900|p=154}}

In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as ''Catelaner'', followed in the 15th century as {{lang|frm|Catellain}} (from [[Middle French]]). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. The word ''Catalan'' can be pronounced in English as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|t|ə|l|ə|n|,_|-|æ|n}} {{respell|KAT|ə|lən|,_|-|lan}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|t|ə|ˈ|l|æ|n}} {{respell|KAT|ə|LAN}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan |title=Definition of Catalan |date=16 August 2023 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510200230/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dictionary.reference.com">{{Cite dictionary |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/catalan |title=Catalan |dictionary=Dictionary.com |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828073000/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/catalan |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[endonym]] is pronounced {{IPA|ca|kətəˈla|}} in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and {{IPA|ca|kataˈla|}} in the Western dialects. In the [[Valencian Community]] and [[Carche]], the term {{lang|ca|valencià}} {{IPA|ca-valencia|valensiˈa|}} is frequently used instead. Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole,<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005">{{cite web |author=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua |date=9 February 2005 |title=Acord de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL), adoptat en la reunió plenària del 9 de febrer del 2005, pel qual s'aprova el dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |pages=52 |language=ca-valencia |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> synonymous with "Catalan".{{sfn|Lledó|2011|pp=334–337}}<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /> Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (AVL)<ref group="note" name="DNV_AVL_1">The ''Valencian Normative Dictionary'' of the Valencian Academy of the Language states that Valencian is a "Romance language spoken in the Valencian Community, as well as in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, the French department of the {{lang|fr|Pyrénées-Orientales}}, the Principality of Andorra, the eastern flank of Aragon and the Sardinian town of Alghero (unique in Italy), where it receives the name of 'Catalan{{'"}}.</ref> and the ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (IEC).<ref group="note" name="IEC">The ''Catalan Language Dictionary'' of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans states in the sixth definition of "Valencian" that, in the Valencian Community, it is equivalent to Catalan language.</ref> (See also [[#Status of Valencian|status of Valencian]] below).

== History ==
{{Main|History of Catalan}}

=== Middle Ages ===
{{Further|Old Catalan|Phonological history of Catalan}}

{{Multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Greuges de Guitard Isarn.jpg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Homilies d'Organya.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left: Fragment of the ''[[Greuges de Guitard Isarn]]'' ({{Circa|1080}}–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan,{{sfn|Veny|1997|pp=9–18}}{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} predating the famous ''[[Homilies d'Organyà]]'' by a century. Right: ''[[Homilies d'Organyà]]'' (early 12th century)
}}
By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] on both sides of the eastern end of the [[Pyrenees]], as well as the territories of the Roman province of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]] to the south.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the [[Muslims]], bringing their language with them.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the [[County of Barcelona]] from the [[Carolingian Empire]] in 988.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}}

In the 11th century, documents written in [[macaronic language|macaronic Latin]] begin to show Catalan elements,{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} Old Catalan shared many features with [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]], diverging from [[Old Occitan]] between the 11th and 14th centuries.{{sfn|Riquer|1964}}

During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the [[Ebro river]],{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} and in the 13th century they conquered the lands that would become the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] and the [[Kingdom of Majorca|Majorca]].{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The city of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]] was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached [[Murcia]], which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}}

[[File:Map of the Crown of Aragon.svg|thumb|upright=1|Diachronic map of the Crown of Aragon. King [[James I of Aragon|James the Conqueror]] (1208–1276) dictated his autobiographical chronicles entirely in Catalan. Some of this territory nowadays makes up the ''[[Catalan Countries]].'']]
In the [[Low Middle Ages]], Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath [[Ramon Llull]] (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in [[Ausiàs March]] (1397–1459).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} By the 15th century, the city of [[Valencia]] had become the sociocultural center of the [[Crown of Aragon]], and Catalan was present all over the [[Mediterranean]] world.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe".{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}}

[[Joanot Martorell|Martorell]]'s novel of chivalry ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'' (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in [[Bernat Metge|Metge]]'s work.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The first book produced with movable type in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was printed in Catalan.<ref>''Trobes en llaors de la Verge Maria'' ("Poems of praise of the Virgin Mary") 1474.</ref>{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}}

=== Early modern era ===
{{See also|Nation state|Anti-Catalan sentiment}}

==== Spain ====
With the union of the crowns of [[Crown of Castille|Castille]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the [[laws]] of each territory before the respective [[parliament]]s. But after the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], Spain became an [[absolute monarchy]] under [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], which led to the assimilation of the [[Crown of Aragon]] by the [[Crown of Castile]] through the [[Nueva Planta decrees]], as a first step in the creation of the Spanish [[Nation state|nation-state]]; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sales Vives |first=Pere |title=L'Espanyolització de Mallorca: 1808–1932 |date=22 September 2020 |publisher=El Gall editor |isbn=9788416416707 |pages=422 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>Antoni Simon, [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 Els orígens històrics de l'anticatalanisme] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605094401/https://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 |date=5 June 2022 }}, páginas 45-46, L'Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València</ref> Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayans Balcells |first=Pere |title=Cròniques Negres del Català A L'Escola |year=2019 |isbn=978-84-947201-4-7 |edition=del 1979 |pages=230 |publisher=Edicions del 1979 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name="Recopilació d'accions genocides con">{{cite book |last=Lluís |first=García Sevilla |title=Recopilació d'accions genocides contra la nació catalana |publisher=Base |year=2021 |isbn=9788418434983 |pages=300 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=Bea Seguí |first=Ignaci |title=En cristiano! Policia i Guàrdia Civil contra la llengua catalana |publisher=Cossetània |year=2013 |isbn=9788490341339 |pages=216 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name="galeusca2">{{cite web |title=Enllaç al Manifest Galeusca on en l'article 3 es denuncia l'asimetria entre el castellà i les altres llengües de l'Estat Espanyol, inclosa el català. |url=http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719071429/http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-date=19 July 2008 |access-date=2 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Radatz |first=Hans-Ingo |date=8 October 2020 |title=Spain in the 19th century: Spanish Nation Building and Catalonia's attempt at becoming an Iberian Prussia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344608600 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref>{{POV statement|date=October 2023|reason=One of the sources is titled "Recopilation of genocidal actions against the Catalan language". Seriously? Most of these sources are Catalan, foreign authors should be cited for controversial statements like these.}}

The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed".<ref name="Historia general de España: Llegada2">{{cite book |last=de la Cierva |first=Ricardo |title=Historia general de España: Llegada y apogeo de los Borbones |date=1981 |publisher=Planeta |isbn=8485753003 |pages=78 |language=ca}}</ref> From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish".<ref name="Historia general de España: Llegada2" /> The use of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] gradually became more prestigious{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} and marked the start of the decline of Catalan.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|pp=6–7|2009}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became [[bilingualism|bilingual]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}}
{{clear}}

==== France ====
{{See also|Language policy in France|Vergonha|Patuet}}

With the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] (1659), [[Spain]] ceded the [[Northern Catalonia|northern part of the Principality of Catalonia]] to [[France]], and soon thereafter the [[Northern Catalan|local Catalan varieties]] came under the influence of [[French language|French]], which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf |title=''L'interdiction de la langue catalane en Roussillon par Louis XIV'' |publisher="CRDP, Académie de Montpellier |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214055235/http://crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf |archive-date=14 December 2010}}</ref>

Shortly after the [[French Revolution]] (1789), the [[French First Republic]] prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]], and [[Basque language|Basque]].

=== France: 19th to 20th century ===
{{Multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Interdiction officielle de la langue catalana 2 avril 1700.jpg
| width1            = 140
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = SpeakFrenchBeClean.jpg
| width2            = 200
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| footer            = Left: Official decree prohibiting the Catalan language in France. Right: "Speak French, be clean", school wall in [[Ayguatébia-Talau]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]), 2010
}}

After the French colony of [[French Algeria|Algeria]] was established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there. People from the Spanish [[province of Alicante]] settled around [[Oran]], while those from [[Northern Catalonia|French Catalonia]] and [[Menorca]] migrated to [[Algiers]].

By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers of ''[[Patuet]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Àngela-Rosa Menages, Joan-Lluís Monjo |title=El patuet valencià, un reflex lingüístic de la societat algeriana colonial (1830–1962) |url=https://www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054920/http://www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>  as their speech was called.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Plataforma per la llengua |title=The Catalan Language |url=https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307203232/https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all the ''[[Pied-Noir]]'' Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marfany |first1=Marta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C |title=Els menorquins d'Algèria |last2=Simó |first2=Marta Marfany |date=2002 |publisher=L'Abadia de Montserrat |isbn=978-84-8415-366-5 |language=ca |access-date=14 December 2022 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415045602/https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C |url-status=live}}</ref> or Alicante.{{sfn|Marfany|2002}}

The French government only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the then [[General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales]] officially recognized Catalan as one of the départment's languages<ref name="Charte en faveur du Catalan">{{cite web |url=http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm |title=''Charte en faveur du Catalan'' |access-date=18 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222154353/http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}} {{cite web |url=http://www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm |title=''La catalanitat a la Catalunya Nord'' |access-date=13 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309142734/http://www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm |archive-date=9 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and seeks to further promote it in public life and education.

=== Spain: 18th to 20th century ===
{{See also|Nueva Planta decrees|Language politics in Spain under Franco}}
[[File:Mapa_político_de_España,_1850.jpg|thumb|Political map of Spain (1850), divided into four parts: The ''Fully constitutional Spain'' (brown), most of the former [[Crown of Castile]]; ''Assimilated Spain'' (green), the former [[Crown of Aragon]], including the [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking lands]]; ''Foral Spain'' (blue), the Basque-speaking territories; and ''Colonial Spain'' (yellow)]]

In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the [[Prefect (France)|prefects]] for an official survey on the limits of the [[French language]]. The survey found that in [[Roussillon]], almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the [[consul]] in [[Barcelona]] was also asked. He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts". He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña".<ref>{{cite book |last=Merle |date=5 January 2010 |publisher=Editorial Trabucaire |isbn=978-2849741078 |language=French |location=Perpinyà |first=René |pages=223 |title=Visions de "l'idiome natal" à travers l'enquête impériale sur les patois 1807–1812}}</ref>

The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1714) initiated a series of [[Nueva planta decrees|laws]] which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] in legal documentation all over Spain. Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century.

However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival ({{lang|ca|[[Renaixença]]}}), which has continued up to the present day.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} This period starts with [[Bonaventura Carles Aribau|Aribau]]'s ''Ode to the Homeland'' (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of [[Jacint Verdaguer|Verdaguer]] (poetry), [[Narcís Oller|Oller]] (realist novel), and [[Àngel Guimerà|Guimerà]] (drama).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=10–11}} In the 19th century, the region of [[Carche]], in the [[province of Murcia]] was repopulated with Valencian speakers.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the [[Second Spanish Republic]] (1931–1939). The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The [[Generalitat]] (the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at the social level, including in schools and the [[University of Barcelona]].

The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due to [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of [[Spain]], while banning the use of Catalan in them.<ref name="Guardian1">{{Cite news |last=Burgen |first=Stephen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived |title=Catalan: a language that has survived against the odds |date=22 November 2012 |work=The Guardian |access-date=18 January 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=24 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224061600/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Manent |first1=Albert |last2=Crexell |first2=Joan |title=Bibliografia catalana dels anys més difícils (1939–1943) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14 |date=1988 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat, S.A |location=Barcelona |isbn=8472029379 |page=14 |access-date=9 December 2023 |archive-date=31 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131130959/https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref> Francisco Franco's desire for a homogeneous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan. Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco's dictatorship. At the end of [[World War II]], however, some of the harsh measures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated. Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=CORNELLÀ-DETRELL |first=JORDI |jstor=10.7722/j.cttn346z |title=Literature as a Response to Cultural and Political Repression in Franco's Catalonia |date=2011 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-85566-201-8}}</ref> Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among them ''Joan Martorell'' prize (1947), ''Víctor Català'' prize (1953) ''Carles Riba'' award (1950), or the [[Premi d'Honor de les Lletres Catalanes|Honor Award of Catalan Letters]] (1969).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Una polèmica literària sota el franquisme |url=https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/ |website=Palavracomum |date=20 July 2015 |language=ca-ES |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817040501/https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Primera emisión de un programa en catalán |url=https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml |website=RTVE |date=30 July 2018 |language=es-ES |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525000521/https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casademont |first=Enric Pujol |date=2020 |title=Culture, language and politics. The Catalan cultural resistance during the Franco regime (1939–1977) |url=https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Catalan Historical Review |volume=13 |pages=69–84}}</ref>

In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into [[Francoist Catalonia|Catalonia]] from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language. These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it. [[Catalonia]] was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country. Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not [[Multilingualism|bilingual]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rendon |first=Sílvio |date=2007 |title=The Catalan premium: language and employment in Catalonia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773 |journal=Journal of Population Economics |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=669–686 |doi=10.1007/s00148-005-0048-5 |jstor=20730773 |hdl=10016/291 |s2cid=29009762 |issn=0933-1433 |hdl-access=free |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204184857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773 |url-status=live}}</ref> Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco's death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War, [[Avui]], began to be published in 1976.<ref>{{cite book |author=Katrin Voltmer |title=Mass Media and Political Communication in New Democracies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19 |year=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-33779-3 |page=19 |access-date=18 September 2023 |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205220526/https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Present day ===
Since the [[Spanish transition to democracy]] (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} In [[Catalonia]], there is an unparalleled large [[bilingualism|bilingual]] European [[Stateless nation|non-state]] linguistic community.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools,{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations—if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Armora |first=Esther |url=http://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html |title=Cataluña ordena incumplir las sentencias sobre el castellano en las escuelas |date=9 September 2013 |work=ABC |access-date=10 September 2013 |language=es |trans-title=Catalonia orders violate the judgments on the Castilian in schools |archive-date=11 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911073217/http://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html |url-status=live}}</ref> There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}

More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.<ref name=":52">{{Cite news |last=Wong |first=Alia |date=3 November 2017 |title=Is Catalonia Using Schools as a Political Weapon? |language=en-US |work=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/ |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103153605/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/ |archive-date=3 November 2017}}</ref> As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html |title=You are here: ANSAmed. Catalonia: Supreme Court, 25% of lessons must be in Spanish |date=21 January 2022 |language=en |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122124224/https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to the [[Statistical Institute of Catalonia]], in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after [[Spanish language|Spanish]], as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.<ref name="idescat.cat">{{Cite web |url=http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en |title=Idescat. Annual indicators. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. Results |website=Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya |access-date=27 September 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072106/http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8 |title=Idescat. Demographics and quality of life. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. 2003. Results |website=Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya |language=en |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002849/http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8 |url-status=live}}</ref> To promote use of Catalan, the [[Generalitat de Catalunya]] (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as {{ill|lt=''Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística''|Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística|ca||es|Consorcio para la normalización lingüística|vertical-align=sup}} (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |title=2010 Language Policy Report |website=Generalitat de Catalunya |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415001016/http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |archive-date=15 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cpnl.cat/ |title=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística |first=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística- |last=CPNL |website=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística – CPNL |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828073003/https://www.cpnl.cat/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Andorra]], Catalan has always been the sole official language.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Since the promulgation of the [[Constitution of Andorra|1993 constitution]], several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, such as Catalan medium education.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}

On the other hand, there are several [[language shift]] processes currently taking place. In the [[Northern Catalonia]] area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The cultural association {{lang|ca|[[La Bressola]]}} promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.

In [[Alicante province]], Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in [[Alghero]] by [[Italian language|Italian]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} There is also well ingrained [[diglossia]] in the [[Valencian Community]], [[Ibiza]], and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the [[Balearic islands]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}

During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to [[Venezuela]], [[Mexico]], [[Cuba]], [[Argentina]], and other South American countries. They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Philip D. Rasico |title=La llengua dels mallorquins de San Pedro (Argentina) |url=https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116201349/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> They also founded many Catalan casals (associations).<ref>{{Cite web |title=COMUNITATS CATALANES A L'EXTERIOR – index |url=https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/ |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=catalansalmon.com |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103064445/https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Classification and relationship with other Romance languages ==
[[File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|upright=1.36|thumb|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.]]
One classification of Catalan is given by [[Pierre Bec|Pèire Bèc]]:
* [[Romance languages]]
** [[Italo-Western languages]]
*** [[Western Romance languages]]
**** [[Gallo-Iberian languages]]
***** [[Gallo-Romance languages]]
****** [[Occitano-Romance languages]]
******* Catalan language

However, the ascription of Catalan to the [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] branch of [[Gallo-Romance languages]] is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]].

Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term ''[[Occitan language]]'' (see also [[Occitan language#Differences between Occitan and Catalan|differences between Occitan and Catalan]] and [[Gallo-Romance languages]]). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages.

=== Relationship with other Romance languages ===
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the [[linguistic distance]] between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the [[Gascon dialect]]) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Julius W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnM7xFCej5cC&pg=PA80 |title=Stateless Nations: Western European Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-36179-9 |page=80 |access-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> and still today remains its closest relative.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Nathaniel B. |last2=Bergin |first2=Thomas Goddard |title=An Old Provençal Primer |publisher=Garland |place=New York |year=1984 |isbn=0-8240-9030-6 |page=9}}</ref>

Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring [[Romance languages]] (Occitan, French, [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} However, despite being spoken mostly on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Catalan has marked differences with the [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] group ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]) in terms of [[pronunciation]], grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly [[Occitan language|Occitan]]{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} and to a lesser extent [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] ([[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], [[French language|French]], [[Gallo-Italian languages|Gallo-Italian]]).<ref name="Ross 2007">{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Marc Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe4popSDfW0C |title=Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=139 |isbn=978-1-139-46307-2}}</ref>{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}}

According to [[Ethnologue]], the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.<ref name="e25" />
<!--These 2 tables are related to the paragraph above, they come from the same source and should be treated as a whole. See talk page for more-->
{| class="wikitable"  style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"
|+ Lexical comparison of 24 words among Romance languages:<br />17 cognates with Gallo-Romance, 5 [[isogloss]]es with Iberian Romance, 3 isoglosses with Occitan, and 1 unique word.{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}
|-
! Gloss !! Catalan !! [[Occitan language|Occitan]] !! ([[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]]) <br /> [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] !! [[Italian language|Italian]] !! [[French language|French]] !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] !! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] !! [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
<!--Don't add or remove any item of this table. Also, don't add any other language translation. Otherwise, the original point of the table would be lost-->
|-
| cousin || {{lang|ca|'''cosí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cosin'''}} || {{lang|src|fradili}} || {{lang|it|'''cugino'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''cousin'''}} || {{lang|es|primo}} || {{lang|pt|primo}}, {{lang|pt|coirmão}} || {{lang|ro|văr}}
|-
| brother || {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}} || {{lang|oc|fraire}} || {{lang|src|fradi}} || {{lang|it|fratello}} || {{lang|fr|frère}} || {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''irmão'''}} || {{lang|ro|frate}}
|-
| nephew || {{lang|ca|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|src|'''nebodi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''nipote'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''neveu'''}} || {{lang|es|sobrino}} || {{lang|pt|sobrinho}} || {{lang|ro|'''nepot'''}}
|-
| summer || {{lang|ca|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|src|'''istadi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''estate'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''été'''}} || {{lang|es|verano}}, {{lang|es|'''estío'''}}<ref name="estiagem">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|estiagem}} and {{lang|es|estiaje}}, respectively, for drought, dry season or low water levels.</ref> || {{lang|pt|verão}}, {{lang|pt|'''estio'''}}<ref name="estiagem" /> || {{lang|ro|vară}}
|-
| evening || {{lang|ca|'''vespre'''}} || {{lang|oc|ser}}, {{lang|oc|'''vèspre'''}} || {{lang|src|seru}} || {{lang|it|sera}} || {{lang|fr|soir}} || {{lang|es|tarde}}, {{lang|es|noche}}<ref name="vespera">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|véspera}} and {{lang|es|víspera}}, respectively, for eve, or the day before.</ref> || {{lang|pt|tarde}}, {{lang|pt|serão}}<ref name="vespera" /> || {{lang|ro|seară}}
|-
| morning || {{lang|ca|'''matí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|src|mangianu}} || {{lang|it|'''mattina'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|es|mañana}} || {{lang|pt|manhã}}, {{lang|pt|'''matina'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''dimineață'''}}
|-
| frying pan || {{lang|ca|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''padena'''}} || {{lang|src|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|it|'''padella'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''poêle'''}} || {{lang|es|sartén}} || {{lang|pt|frigideira}}, {{lang|pt|fritadeira}} || {{lang|ro|tigaie}}
|-
| bed || {{lang|ca|'''llit'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''lièch'''}} (or {{lang|oc|'''lèit'''}}) || {{lang|src|'''letu'''}} || {{lang|it|'''letto'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''lit'''}} || {{lang|es|cama}}, {{lang|es|'''lecho'''}} || {{lang|pt|cama}}, {{lang|pt|'''leito'''}} || {{lang|ro|pat}}
|-
| bird || {{lang|ca|'''ocell'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''au'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''aucèl'''}} || {{lang|src|pilloni}} || {{lang|it|'''uccello'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''oiseau'''}} || {{lang|es|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|es|pájaro}}|| {{lang|pt|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|pt|pássaro}}|| {{lang|ro|pasăre}}
|-
| dog || {{lang|ca|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''ca'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|oc|'''canh'''}} || {{lang|src|'''cani'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cane'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chien'''}} || {{lang|es|perro}}, {{lang|es|'''can'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''cão'''}}, {{lang|pt|cachorro}} || {{lang|ro|'''câine'''}}
|-
| plum || {{lang|ca|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|it|'''prugna'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prune'''}} || {{lang|es|ciruela}} || {{lang|pt|ameixa}} || {{lang|ro|'''prună'''}}
|-
| butter || {{lang|ca|'''mantega'''}} || {{lang|oc|bodre}} || {{lang|src|burru}} <br /> (or {{lang|src|butiru}}) || {{lang|it|burro}} || {{lang|fr|beurre}} || {{lang|es|'''mantequilla'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|es|'''manteca'''}}) || {{lang|pt|'''manteiga'''}} || {{lang|ro|unt}}
|-
| piece || {{lang|ca|'''tros'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''tròç'''}}, {{lang|oc|petaç}} || {{lang|src|arrogu}} || {{lang|it|pezzo}} || {{lang|fr|morceau}}, {{lang|fr|pièce}} || {{lang|es|pedazo}}, {{lang|es|'''trozo'''}}<ref name="trozo">Spanish also has {{lang|es|trozo}}, and it is actually a borrowing from Catalan {{lang|ca|tros}}. Colón 1993, p 39. Portuguese has {{lang|es|troço}}, but aside from also being a loanword, it has a very different meaning: "thing", "gadget", "tool", "paraphernalia".</ref> || {{lang|pt|pedaço}}, {{lang|pt|bocado}} || {{lang|ro|bucată}}
|-
| gray || {{lang|ca|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|src|canu}} || {{lang|it|'''grigio'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|es|'''gris'''}}, {{lang|es|pardo}}<ref>Modern Spanish also has {{lang|es|gris}}, but it is a modern borrowing from Occitan. The original word was {{lang|es|pardo}}, which stands for "reddish, yellow-orange, medium-dark and of moderate to weak saturation. It also can mean ochre, pale ochre, dark ohre, brownish, tan, greyish, grey, desaturated, dirty, dark, or opaque." {{cite book |last1=Gallego |first1=Rosa |last2=Sanz |first2=Juan Carlos |year=2001 |title=Diccionario Akal del color |publisher=Akal |language=es |isbn=978-84-460-1083-8}}</ref> || {{lang|pt|cinzento}}, {{lang|pt|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''gri'''}},<ref>A 20th century introduction from French.</ref> {{lang|ro|sur}}, {{lang|ro|cenușiu}}
|-
| hot || {{lang|ca|'''calent'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''caud'''}} || {{lang|src|'''callenti'''}} || '''{{lang|it|caldo}}''' || '''{{lang|fr|chaud}}''' || {{lang|es|'''caliente'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''quente'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''cald'''}}
|-
| too much || {{lang|ca|'''massa'''}} || {{lang|oc|tròp}} || {{lang|src|tropu}} || {{lang|it|troppo}} || {{lang|fr|trop}} || {{lang|es|de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|pt|de'''mais''', de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|ro|prea}}
|-
| to want || {{lang|ca|'''voler'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''vòler'''}} || {{lang|src|'''bolli(ri)'''}} || {{lang|it|'''volere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''vouloir'''}} || {{lang|es|querer}} || {{lang|pt|querer}} || {{lang|ro|'''a vrea'''}}
|-
| to take || {{lang|ca|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''prendre'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|oc|'''prene'''}}) || {{lang|src|pigai}} || {{lang|it|'''prendere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|es|tomar}}, {{lang|es|'''prender'''}} || {{lang|pt|apanhar}}, {{lang|pt|levar}} || {{lang|ro|a lua}}
|-
| to pray || {{lang|ca|'''pregar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''resar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''orar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pregai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''pregare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prier'''}} || {{lang|es|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|es|'''rezar'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''rezar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a se ruga}}
|-
| to ask || {{lang|ca|'''demanar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''demandar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''dimandai'''}}, {{lang|src|'''preguntai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''domandare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''demander'''}} || {{lang|es|pedir}}, {{lang|es|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|pt|pedir}}, {{lang|pt|'''perguntar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a cere}}, {{lang|ro|a întreba}}
|-
| to search || {{lang|ca|'''cercar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cercar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''circai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cercare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chercher'''}} || {{lang|es|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|pt|procurar}}, {{lang|pt|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a căuta}}
|-
| to arrive || {{lang|ca|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''arribai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''arrivare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''arriver'''}} || {{lang|es|llegar}}, {{lang|es|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|pt|chegar}} || {{lang|ro|a ajunge}}
|-
| to speak || {{lang|ca|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|src|chistionnai}}, {{lang|src|fueddai}} || {{lang|it|'''parlare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''parler'''}} || {{lang|es|hablar}}, {{lang|es|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|pt|falar}}, {{lang|pt|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a vorbi}}
|-
| to eat || {{lang|ca|'''menjar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''manjar'''}} || {{lang|src|pappai}} || {{lang|it|'''mangiare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''manger'''}} || {{lang|es|comer}} <br /> ({{lang|es-AR|'''manyar'''}} in [[lunfardo]]; <br /> {{lang|es|papear}} in slang) || {{lang|pt|comer}}, {{lang|pt|'''manjar'''}} <br /> ({{lang|pt|papar}} in slang) || {{lang|ro|'''a mânca'''}}
|}

During much of its history, and especially during the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and [[French language|French]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}}

There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century AD, the vocabulary and phonology of Roman [[Tarraconensis]] was different from the rest of Roman Hispania.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, [[Asturian language|Asturian]], and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish {{lang|es|hervir}}, Asturian and Portuguese {{lang|pt|ferver}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|bullir}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|bolir}} "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Spanish {{lang|es|novillo}}, Asturian {{lang|ast|nuviellu}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|torell}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|taurèl}} "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.{{sfn|Colón|1993|p=55}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; text-align:center;"
|+ Catalan and Spanish cognates with different meanings{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}
! [[Latin]] !! Catalan !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|accostare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|acostar}} "to bring closer" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|acostar}}'' "to put to bed"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|levare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|llevar}} "to remove;<br />wake up" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|llevar}}'' "to take"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|trahere}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|traure}} "to remove" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|traer}}'' "to bring"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|circare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|cercar}} "to search" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|cercar}}'' "to fence"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|collocare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|colgar}}  "to bury" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|colgar}}'' "to hang"
|-
| {{Wikt-lang|la|mulier}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|muller}} "wife" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|mujer}}'' "woman or wife"
|}

Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere. These include:
* verbs: {{sm|cōnfīgere}} 'to fasten; transfix' > {{lang|ca|confegir}} 'to compose, write up', {{sm|congemināre}} > {{lang|ca|conjuminar}} 'to combine, conjugate', {{sm|de-ex-somnitare}} > {{lang|ca|deixondar/-ir}} 'to wake; awaken', {{sm|dēnsāre}} 'to thicken; crowd together' > {{lang|ca|desar}} 'to save, keep', {{sm|īgnōrāre}} > {{lang|ca|enyorar}} 'to miss, yearn, pine for', {{sm|indāgāre}} 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan ''enagar'' 'to incite, induce', {{sm|odiāre}} > Old Catalan ''ujar'' 'to exhaust, fatigue', {{sm|pācificāre}} > {{lang|ca|apaivagar}} 'to appease, mollify', {{sm|repudiāre}} > {{lang|ca|rebutjar}} 'to reject, refuse';
* nouns: {{sm|brīsa}} > {{lang|ca|brisa}} 'pomace', {{sm|buda}} > {{lang|ca|boga}} 'reedmace', {{sm|catarrhu}} > {{lang|ca|cadarn}} 'catarrh', {{sm|congesta}} > {{lang|ca|congesta}} 'snowdrift', {{sm|dēlīrium}} > {{lang|ca|deler}} 'ardor, passion', {{sm|fretu}} > {{lang|ca|freu}} 'brake', {{sm|lābem}} > {{lang|ca|(a)llau}} 'avalanche', {{sm|ōra}} > {{lang|ca|vora}} 'edge, border', {{sm|pistrīce}} 'sawfish' > ''pestriu'' > {{lang|ca|pestiu}} 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', {{sm|prūna}} 'live coal' > {{lang|ca|espurna}} 'spark', {{sm|tardātiōnem}} > ''tardaó'' > {{lang|ca|tardor}} 'autumn'.{{sfn|Bruguera|2008|p=3046}}{{Clarify|date=February 2023|reason=Significance of all caps vs. italic is unclear }}

The [[Gothic language|Gothic]] superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|fang}} "mud" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rostir}} "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|lodo}} and {{wikt-lang|es|asar}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|filosa}} "spinning wheel" and {{wikt-lang|ca|templa}} "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|rueca}} and {{wikt-lang|es|sien}}, of Germanic origin.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

The same happens with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] loanwords. Thus, Catalan {{lang|ca|alfàbia}} "large earthenware jar" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rajola}} "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|tinaja}} and {{wikt-lang|es|teja}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|oli}} "oil" and {{wikt-lang|ca|oliva}} "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|aceite}} and {{wikt-lang|es|aceituna}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as {{wikt-lang|ca|enyorar}} "to miss somebody", {{wikt-lang|ca|apaivagar}} "to calm somebody down", and {{wikt-lang|ca|rebutjar}} "reject".{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

== Geographic distribution ==

=== Catalan-speaking territories ===
{{Main|Catalan Countries}}

{| style="float: right;"
|+ Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories in dark gray; non-Catalan-speaking territories belonging to traditionally Catalan-speaking regions in light gray
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{Image label begin|image=Paisos catalans.svg|width=350|float=none|Catalan-speaking territories}}
{{Image label small|x=0.62|y=0.15|scale=350|text=[[Northern Catalonia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.45|y=0.29|scale=350|text=[[Catalonia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.51|scale=350|text=[[Alghero]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.28|y=0.28|scale=350|text=''[[La Franja|La<br />Franja]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.185|y=0.68|scale=350|text=[[Valencian Community|Valencian<br />Community]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.07|y=0.83|scale=350|text=[[Carche]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.33|scale=350|text=''[[Sardinia|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Sardinia<br />(Italy)</span>]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.15|y=0.35|scale=350|text=''[[Autonomous Community of Aragon|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Aragon<br />(Spain)</span>]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.08|y=0.89|scale=350|text=''[[Autonomous Community of Murcia|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Murcia<br />(Spain)</span>]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.48|y=0.05|scale=350|text=''[[France|<span style="color:#AAA300;">France</span>]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.43|y=0.16|scale=350|text=''[[Andorra]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.535|y=0.6|scale=350|text=[[Balearic Islands]]}}
{{Image label end}}
|}

Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the {{lang|ca|[[Països Catalans]]}} (Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Territories where Catalan is spoken{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}
! State !! Territory !! Catalan name !! Notes
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Andorra]] || {{lang|ca|Andorra}} || A [[sovereign state]] where Catalan is the [[national language|national]] and the sole [[official language]]. The Andorrans speak a Western Catalan variety.{{Efn|Although in business and daily life other languages are common, and due to immigration Catalan mother-tongue speakers are only 35.7% of the population. See [[Languages of Andorra]].}}
|-
| [[France]] || [[Northern Catalonia]] || {{lang|ca|Catalunya Nord}} || Roughly corresponding to the {{lang|fr|département}} of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]], with the exception of the traditionally [[Occitan language|Occitan]]-speaking [[comarca]] of [[Fenouillèdes]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}
|-
| rowspan="5" | [[Spain]] || [[Catalonia]] || {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} || In the [[Aran Valley]] (northwest corner of Catalonia), in addition to [[Occitan language|Occitan]], which is the local language, Catalan, Spanish and French are also spoken.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}
|-
| [[Valencian Community]] <br /> ({{abbr|a.k.a.|also known as|}} Valencian Country) || {{lang|ca|Comunitat Valenciana}} <br /> (''País Valencià'') || Excepting some regions in the west and south which have been Aragonese/Spanish-speaking since at least the 18th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} The Western Catalan variety spoken there is known as "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]".
|-
| [[La Franja]] || {{lang|ca|La Franja}} || A part of the [[Aragon|Autonomous Community of Aragon]], specifically a strip bordering Western Catalonia. It comprises the {{lang|ca|[[Comarcas of Aragon|comarques]]}} of [[Ribagorza/Ribagorça|Ribagorça]], [[Llitera]], [[Baix Cinca]], and [[Matarranya]].
|-
| [[Balearic Islands]] || {{lang|ca|Illes Balears}} || Comprising the islands of [[Mallorca]], [[Menorca]], [[Ibiza]] and [[Formentera]].
|-
| [[Carche]] || {{lang|ca|El Carxe}} || A small area of the [[Region of Murcia|Autonomous Community of Murcia]], settled in the 19th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}
|-
| [[Italy]] || [[Alghero]] || {{lang|ca|L'Alguer}} || A city in the [[Province of Sassari]], on the island of [[Sardinia]], where the [[Algherese dialect]] is spoken.
|}

=== Number of speakers ===
The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used. A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5&nbsp;million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB |title=Sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas. Tables. Official data about the sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas: Catalonia (2003), Andorra (2004), the Balearic Islands (2004), Aragonese Border (2004), Northern Catalonia (2004), Alghero (2004) and Valencian Community (2004) |publisher=[[Generalitat of Catalonia]] |date=7 August 2008 |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314032229/http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB |url-status=live}}</ref> The web site of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya]] estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Catalan, language of Europe |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222153758/http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |publisher=[[Generalitat of Catalonia]] |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.<ref name="habitual">[http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B Población según lengua habitual. Datos comparados 2003–2008. Cataluña. Año 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102013451/http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B |date=2 November 2013 }}, Encuesta de Usos Lingüísticos de la población (2003 y 2008), Instituto de Estadística de Cataluña</ref> According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'', Catalan had 4.1&nbsp;million [[First language|native speakers]] and 5.1&nbsp;million [[Second language|second-language speakers]] in 2021.<ref name="e25" />

[[File:Llengua catalana al món.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|Geographical distribution of Catalan language by official status]]
According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8&nbsp;million, with 5.9&nbsp;million residing in Catalonia. More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4&nbsp;million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).<ref>{{Citation |title=Informe sobre la situació de la llengua catalana |date=2011 |url=http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |trans-title=Report on the situation of the Catalan language |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123162105/http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |publisher=Xarxa CRUSCAT |archive-date=23 January 2013 |language=ca}}</ref> Very few Catalan [[monoglot]]s exist; virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are [[bilingual]] speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with 99.7% of Catalan speakers in Catalonia able to speak Spanish and 99.9% able to understand it.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/arxius/ambits-treball/Drets%20Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstics/Seminari%20Internacional%20sobre%20les%20lleng%C3%BCes%20en%20l'%C3%A0mbit%20de%20la%20salut.pdf |title="Can you understand me, doctor?" Dealing with linguistic rights in public health systems in Catalan-speaking areas of Spain |last1=Ibáñez Ferreté |first1=Òscar-Adrià |date=November 2020 |publisher=[[Åbo Akademi University]] |location=[[Vaasa]], Finland |conference=Seminarium om social- och hälsovård för språkliga minoriteter [Seminar on social and health service for linguistic minorities]}}</ref>

In [[Roussillon]], only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of [[language shift]]. According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html |title=El uso del catalán crece: lo entiende el 94,4% y lo habla el 81,2% |last=Geli |first=Carles |date=8 July 2019 |work=El País |access-date=8 July 2019 |language=es |issn=1134-6582 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708163015/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Spanish Language|Spanish]] was the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Departament d'Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona |title=Coneixement del català: Evolució de les característiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona) |url=http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |website=Ajuntament de Barcelona |access-date=13 November 2015 |language=ca |date=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210119/http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |archive-date=31 December 2015}}</ref> The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%)<ref>{{cite web |title=Coneixement del català: Evolució de les característiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona) |url=http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |website=Ajuntament de Barcelona |access-date=13 November 2015 |language=ca |date=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210119/http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |archive-date=31 December 2015}}</ref> was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a [[language immersion]] educational system. An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Territory !! State !! Understand {{ref|a|1}}<ref name="speakers">Sources:

* Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya}} [http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306011428/http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B|date=6 March 2007}}.
* Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana}} {{cite web |title=Població |url=http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906084332/http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2005 |access-date=23 June 2005}}.
* Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana}} [http://www.ive.es/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216011800/http://www.ive.es/|date=16 February 2015}}.
* Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears}} [http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101133851/http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm|date=1 January 2006}}.
* Northern Catalonia: {{lang|fr|Media Pluriel}} Survey commissioned by Prefecture of [[Languedoc-Roussillon Region]] done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 {{cite web |title=Information_catalan |url=http://www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414192723/http://linmiter.net/information_catalan.html |archive-date=14 April 2005 |access-date=23 June 2005}}.
* Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999.
* Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127151122/http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html|date=27 November 2005}}.
* Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051112153819/http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html|date=12 November 2005}}.
* Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the {{lang|ca|Federació d'Entitats Catalanes}} outside the Catalan Countries.</ref>
! Can speak {{ref|b|2}}<ref name=speakers />
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| Catalonia || Spain || 6,502,880 || 5,698,400
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| Valencian Community || Spain || 3,448,780 || 2,407,951
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| Balearic Islands || Spain || 852,780 || 706,065
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| [[Roussillon]] || France || 203,121 || 125,621
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| Andorra || Andorra || 75,407 || 61,975
|- style="background:#fff;"
| [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || Spain || 47,250 || 45,000
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| [[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]]) || Italy || 20,000 || 17,625
|- style="background:#fff;"
| [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Spain || ~600 || 600<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martínez |first=D. |date=26 November 2011 |title=Una isla valenciana en Murcia |language=es |trans-title=A Valencian island in Murcia |work=ABC |url=http://www.abc.es/20111226/comunidad-valencia/abcp-isla-valenciana-murcia-20111226.html |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621063418/http://www.abc.es/20111226/comunidad-valencia/abcp-isla-valenciana-murcia-20111226.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| colspan="2" | Total [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking territories]] || 11,150,218 || 9,062,637
|- style="background:#fff;"
| colspan="2" | Rest of World || No data || 350,000
|- style="background:#efefef;"
| colspan="2" | Total || 11,150,218 || 9,412,637
|}
:1.{{note|a}} The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it.
:2.{{note|b}} Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers.

==== Level of knowledge ====
{| style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1
|- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;"
! Area
! Speak
! Understand
! Read
! Write
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Catalonia<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.idescat.cat/novetats/?id=3329 |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics de la població. 2018 |date=2019 |website=IDESCAT/Generalitat de Catalunya |language=ca |trans-title=Survey of the linguistic usage of the population. 2018 |access-date=8 July 2019 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708210510/https://www.idescat.cat/novetats/?id=3329 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| style="text-align: right;" | 81.2
| style="text-align: right;" | 94.4
| style="text-align: right;" | 85.5
| style="text-align: right;" | 65.3
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Valencian Community
| style="text-align: right;" | 57.5
| style="text-align: right;" | 78.1
| style="text-align: right;" | 54.9
| style="text-align: right;" | 32.5
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Balearic Islands
| style="text-align: right;" | 74.6
| style="text-align: right;" | 93.1
| style="text-align: right;" | 79.6
| style="text-align: right;" | 46.9
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Roussillon
| style="text-align: right;" | 37.1
| style="text-align: right;" | 65.3
| style="text-align: right;" | 31.4
| style="text-align: right;" | 10.6
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Andorra
| style="text-align: right;" | 78.9
| style="text-align: right;" | 96.0
| style="text-align: right;" | 89.7
| style="text-align: right;" | 61.1
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Franja Oriental of Aragón
| style="text-align: right;" | 88.8
| style="text-align: right;" | 98.5
| style="text-align: right;" | 72.9
| style="text-align: right;" | 30.3
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Alghero
| style="text-align: right;" | 67.6
| style="text-align: right;" | 89.9
| style="text-align: right;" | 50.9
| style="text-align: right;" | 28.4
|}
(% of the population 15 years old and older).

==== Social use ====
{| style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1
|- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;"
! Area
! At home
! Outside home
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Catalonia
| style="text-align: right;" | 45
| style="text-align: right;" | 51
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Valencian Community
| style="text-align: right;" | 37
| style="text-align: right;" | 32
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Balearic Islands
| style="text-align: right;" | 44
| style="text-align: right;" | 41
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Roussillon
| style="text-align: right;" | 1
| style="text-align: right;" | 1
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Andorra
| style="text-align: right;" | 38
| style="text-align: right;" | 51
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Franja Oriental of Aragón
| style="text-align: right;" | 70
| style="text-align: right;" | 61
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Alghero
| style="text-align: right;" | 8
| style="text-align: right;" | 4
|}
(% of the population 15 years old and older).

<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.noticies.cat/pnoticies/notitem.jsp?item=noticia&idint=223737 |title=El català no avança en la incorporació de nous parlants |date=23 October 2007 |website=Telenotícies |language=ca |trans-title=Catalan is not progressing in the incorporation of new speakers |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124091243/http://www.noticies.cat/pnoticies/notItem.jsp?item=noticia&idint=223737 |archive-date=24 November 2007}}</ref>

==== Native language ====
To calculate the absolute number the figures have been proportioned to the whole population regardless of the age, rounded to the nearest 500.
{| class="wikitable sortable" | style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border="1"
|- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;"
! Area
! People
! Percentage
!Year
!Source
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Catalonia
| style="text-align: right;" | 3,101,500
| style="text-align: right;" | 40.6%
|2021
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=INEbase / Demografía y población /Cifras de población y Censos demográficos /Encuesta de Características Esenciales de la Población y las Viviendas / Microdatos |url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177092&menu=resultados&idp=1254735572981# |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=INE |language=es}}</ref>
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Valencian Community
| style="text-align: right;" | 1,271,000
| style="text-align: right;" | 25.4%
|2021
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" />
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Balearic Islands
| style="text-align: right;" | 401,500
| style="text-align: right;" | 33.2%
|2021
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" />
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Aragon
| style="text-align: right;" | 29,500
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.5%
|2021
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" />
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|Rest of Spain
| style="text-align: right;" |80,500
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|2021
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" />
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Andorra
| style="text-align: right;" | 35,000
| style="text-align: right;" | 44.1%
|2022
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-10 |title=L'estudi de coneixements i usos lingüístics indica que el català és la llengua de referència de la població en coneixement i ús |url=https://www.govern.ad/cultura/item/14986-l-estudi-de-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-indica-que-el-catala-es-la-llengua-de-referencia-de-la-poblacio-en-coneixement-i-us |access-date=2025-03-14 |archive-date=10 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110151633/https://www.govern.ad/cultura/item/14986-l-estudi-de-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-indica-que-el-catala-es-la-llengua-de-referencia-de-la-poblacio-en-coneixement-i-us |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
| Roussillon
| style="text-align: right;" | 60,000
| style="text-align: right;" | 12.7%
|2015
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics a la Catalunya del Nord |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/web/.content/documents/dadesestudis/altres/arxius/EULCN_2015_principals_resultats.pdf}}</ref>
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
| Alghero
| style="text-align: right;" | 10,500
| style="text-align: right;" | 24.1%
|2015
| style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Els usos lingüístics a l'Alguer |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/web/.content/documents/publicacions/btpl/arxius/BTPL_EULA_2015_IT.pdf |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=gencat.cat |language=ca-ES}}</ref>
|- style="background-color: white;"
| '''TOTAL'''
| style="text-align: right;" | '''4,989,500'''
| style="text-align: right;" |
|
|
|}

== Phonology ==
{{Main|Catalan phonology}}
 <!--The Catalan phonology article is very well sourced. If you want to add something, pick it from there, don't put OR.-->

Catalan phonology varies by dialect. Notable features include:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
* Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ, e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ, o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, other than [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
* Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
* Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}

In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Additionally, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as {{lang|ca|amic}} ("male friend") vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ("female friend").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}

[[Central Catalan]] pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety.<ref>Wheeler 2005 takes the same approach</ref> For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on [[#Dialect pronunciation section|pronunciation of dialects]] in this article.<!--This is an internal link to the section about the pronunciation in the different dialects. It uses the Anchor template-->

=== Vowels ===
[[File:Catalan vowel chart.svg|thumb|[[Vowel]]s of Standard Eastern Catalan{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|p=62}}]]
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], with the exception of [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] also has instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ, e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}

In [[Central Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section [[#Dialect pronunciation section|pronunciation of dialects]] in this article).
{| class="wikitable"  style="margin:auto; text-align:center;"
|+ Examples of vowel reduction processes in Central Catalan{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}}<br />The root is stressed in the first word and unstressed in the second
|-
! !! colspan="3" | Front vowels !! colspan="2" | Back vowels
|-
! Word<br />pair
| {{lang|ca|gel}} ("ice") <br /> {{lang|ca|gelat}} ("ice cream") || {{lang|ca|pedra}} ("stone") <br /> {{lang|ca|pedrera}} ("quarry") || {{lang|ca|banya}} ("he bathes") <br /> {{lang|ca|banyem}}/{{lang|ca|banyem}} ("we bathe") || {{lang|ca|cosa}} ("thing") <br /> {{lang|ca|coseta}} ("little thing") || {{lang|ca|tot}} ("everything") <br /> {{lang|ca|total}} ("total")
|-
! IPA<br />transcription
| {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}}<br />{{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}} || {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}}<br />{{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}}<br />{{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || {{IPA|[ˈtot]}}<br />{{IPA|[tuˈtal]}}
|}

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Catalan consonants{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=61–65}}
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />/ [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| ({{IPA link|ŋ}})
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|k}}
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d̪|d}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
|
| {{IPA link|ts}}
| {{IPA link|tɕ|tʃ}}
|
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|
| {{IPA link|dz}}
| {{IPA link|dʑ|dʒ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|ɕ|ʃ}}
|
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| ({{IPA link|v}})
| {{IPA link|z}}
| ({{IPA link|ʑ|ʒ}})
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
! [[Central consonant|central]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|-
! [[Lateral consonant|lateral]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|ʎ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|}

The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative.
* {{IPA|/l/}} has a [[dark l|velarized]] allophone in [[syllable coda]] position in most dialects.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=20}} However, {{IPA|/l/}} is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects such as Majorcan{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=3}} and standard Eastern Catalan.
* {{IPA|/v/}} occurs in Balearic,{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]], [[Valencian language#Consonants|standard Valencian]] and some areas in southern Catalonia.{{sfn|Veny|2007|p=51}} It has [[betacism|merged]] with {{IPA|/b/}} elsewhere.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=13}}
* The velar nasal /ŋ/ is an allophone of /n/ before /g/ or /k/. However, it has become phonemic in Central dialects that delete the final element of word-final consonant clusters, resulting in minimal pairs such as ''fan'' [ˈfan] (“they do”) and ''fang'' [ˈfaŋ] (“mud”, pronounced [ˈfaŋk] in other dialects).
* In Valencian, the fricative [ʒ] (and [jʒ]) appears only as a voiced allophone of /ʃ/ (and /jʃ/) before vowels and voiced consonants; e.g. peix al forn [ˈpejʒ al ˈfoɾn] ('oven fish'). The /ʒ/ phoneme in other Catalan dialects is pronounced /dʒ/ in standard Valencian.
* Voiced obstruents undergo [[final-obstruent devoicing]]: {{IPA|/b/ > [p], /d/ > [t], /ɡ/ > [k]}}.{{sfn|Lloret|2004|p=278}}
* Voiced stops become [[lenition|lenited]] to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: {{IPA|/b/}} > {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPA|/d/}} > {{IPAblink|ð}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} > {{IPAblink|ɣ}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}} Exceptions include {{IPA|/d/}} after [[lateral consonant]]s, and {{IPA|/b/}} after {{IPA|/f/}}. In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hualde |first=José |year=1992 |title=Catalan |page=368 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05498-0}}</ref> except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=1}}
* There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}. Some sources{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} describe them as "postalveolar". Others{{sfn|Recasens|Fontdevila|Pallarès|1995|p=288}}{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ}} would be more accurate. However, in all literature only the characters for [[palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ}} for other languages such as Polish and Chinese.<ref>{{harvnb|Recasens|1993}}. Here Recasens labels these Catalan sounds as "laminoalveolars palatalitzades".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Recasens|Pallarès|2001}}. Here the authors label these Catalan sounds as "laminal postalveolar".</ref>{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}}
* The distribution of the two rhotics {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} closely parallels [[Spanish phonology#Alternations|that of Spanish]]. Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, {{IPAblink|r}} appears unless preceded by a consonant. Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring {{IPAblink|ɾ}} and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled {{IPAblink|r}} unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same [[prosodic unit]], in which case {{IPAblink|ɾ}} appears.{{sfn|Padgett|2009|p=432}}
* In careful speech, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/l/}} may be [[gemination|geminated]]. Geminated {{IPA|/ʎ/}} may also occur.{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} Some analyze intervocalic {{IPA|[r]}} as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme.{{sfn|Wheeler|1979}} This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] rhotics.<ref>See {{cite book |last1=Bonet |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Mascaró |first2=Joan |year=1997 |chapter=On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics |title=Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages |editor1-last=Martínez-Gil |editor1-first=Fernando |editor2-last=Morales-Front |editor2-first=Alfonso |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-647-0}} for more information.</ref>

=== Phonological evolution ===
{{Main|Phonological history of Catalan}}

[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe-en.gif|thumb|Linguistic map of Southwestern Europe]]

Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages ([[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}

* Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ/ ~ /e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/ ~ /o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, except Spanish and Sardinian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Lenition of voiced stops {{IPA|[b] → [β], [d] → [ð], [ɡ] → [ɣ]}} as in Galician and Spanish.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]], Sardinian and Portuguese, and unlike French, Spanish and Italian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Abundance of {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} occurring at the end of words, as for instance {{wikt-lang|ca|moll}} ("wet") and {{wikt-lang|ca|any}} ("year"), unlike Spanish,{{sfn|Hall|2001|p=19}} Portuguese or Italian.

In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} Also, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], thus featuring many couplets like {{lang|ca|amic}} ('male friend') vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ('female friend').{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}

== Sociolinguistics ==
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Ona speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|A speaker of Catalan (Majorcan dialect)]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Artur speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|[[Artur Mas]], former president of Catalonia, discussing individual identity, collective identity and language]]

Catalan [[sociolinguistics]] studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan [[philology]] and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).

=== Preferential subjects of study ===
* [[Dialect]]s of Catalan
* Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies
* Process of [[standardization|linguistic normalization]]
* Relations between Catalan and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[French language|French]]
* Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers
* Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors

=== Dialects ===
{{Main|Catalan dialects}}

==== Overview ====
[[File:Catalan dialects-en.png|thumb|Main dialects of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=6}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=4}}]]
The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} both in terms of [[vocabulary]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[phonology]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.<ref name="e25" /> The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic [[Algherese dialect]].{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}

Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed {{lang|ca|a}} and {{lang|ca|e}}; which have merged to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western dialects.{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}

Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western Catalan]] and [[Valencian language|Valencian]]; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: [[Central Catalan]], [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]], [[Northern Catalan|Roussillonese]], and [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]].{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms "Catalan" and "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]" (respectively used in [[Catalonia]] and the [[Valencian Community]]) refer to two varieties of the same language.<ref name="Dictamen de l'Acadèmia">{{Citation |title=Dictamen de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |date=2005 |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |trans-title=Resolution of the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua concerning the principles and criteria for protecting the name and identity of Valencian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |publisher=[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]] |language=ca-valencia |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Institute of Catalan Studies]] in Catalonia and the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of the Language]] in the Valencian Community.

Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the [[Barcelona Province (Spain)|Barcelona province]], the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}

Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have two [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine), and two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for [[grammatical case|case]] and [[T–V distinction|politeness]], and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical gender|gender]]. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; "
|+ Main dialectal divisions of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}}
|-
! Block
| colspan="2" | '''Western Catalan''' || colspan="4" | '''Eastern Catalan'''
|-
! Variety
| '''[[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]]''' || '''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]''' || '''[[Central Catalan|Central]]''' || '''[[Balearic dialect|Balearic]]''' || '''[[Northern Catalan|Northern]]''' (Roussillonese) || '''[[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]]''' (Algherese)
|-
! rowspan="2" | Area
| [[Spain]], [[Andorra]] || colspan="3" | [[Spain]] || [[France]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[Andorra]], provinces of [[province of Lleida|Lleida]], western half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || [[Valencian Community]], [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Provinces of [[province of Barcelona|Barcelona]], eastern half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], most of [[province of Girona|Girona]] || [[Balearic Islands]] || [[Roussillon]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]) || City of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]]
|}

=== Pronunciation {{Anchor|Dialect pronunciation section}} ===

==== Vowels ====
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], except [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] has also instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}

In [[Eastern Catalan]] (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} There are a few instances of unreduced {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[o]}} in some words.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] has lowered {{IPA|[ə]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}.

In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/}} follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however {{IPA|/o, ɔ/}} reduce to {{IPA|[o]}}, with {{IPA|/u/}} remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–54}}

In [[Western Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to five: {{IPA|/e, ɛ/ > [e]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ/ > [o]}}; {{IPA|/a, u, i/}} remain distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=54–55<!-- seems to be wrong page number: this page relates to Arabic according to Google Books -->}} This reduction pattern, inherited from [[Proto-Romance]], is also found in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}} Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Recasens|1996|pp=75–76, 128–129}}

Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Usually, words with {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in Central Catalan correspond to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Balearic and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Words with {{IPA|/e/}} in Balearic almost always have {{IPA|/e/}} in Central and Western Catalan as well.{{vague|date=April 2014}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}

{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Different incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern
|-
! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|set}}''' <br /> ("thirst")
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈset/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsət/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsɛt/}} || {{IPA|/ˈset/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|ven}}''' <br /> ("he sells")
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈven/}} || {{IPA|/ˈvən/}} || {{IPA|/ˈbɛn/}} || {{IPA|/ˈven/}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ General differences in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in different dialects{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Melchor|Branchadell|2002|p=71}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="4" | Eastern
|-
! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|mare}}''' <br /> ("mother") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾe/}} || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾə/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|cançó}}''' <br /> ("song") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kanˈso/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kənˈso/}} || {{IPA|/kənˈsu/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|posar}}''' <br /> ("to put") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/poˈza(ɾ)/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/puˈza(ɾ)/}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|ferro}}''' <br /> ("iron") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛro/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛru/}}
|}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Detailed examples of vowel reduction processes in different dialects{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Word pairs:<br />the first with stressed root,<br />the second with unstressed root !! rowspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern
|-
! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern
|-
! rowspan="4" | Front <br /> vowels
| '''{{lang|ca|gel}}''' ("ice") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|gelat}}''' ("ice cream")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈdʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[dʒeˈlat]}} || colspan="2" style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒel]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|pera}}''' ("pear") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|perera}}''' ("pear tree")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈɾeɾa]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpəɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpɛɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|pedra}}''' ("stone") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|pedrera}}''' ("quarry")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈðɾeɾa]}} || colspan="3" style="background:#cef2da;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|banya}}''' ("he bathes") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|banyem}}'''/{{lang|ca|'''banyam'''}} ("we bathe")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[baˈɲem]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲam]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲem]}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Back <br /> vowels
| '''{{lang|ca|cosa}}''' ("thing") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|coseta}}''' ("little thing")
| style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔza]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzeta]}} || style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzətə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈkozə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzetə]}}
|-
| '''{{lang|ca|tot}}''' ("everything") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|total}}''' ("total")
| colspan="2" style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[toˈtal]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈtut]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}}
|}

==== Consonants ====
Catalan dialects are characterized by [[final-obstruent devoicing]], [[lenition]] and [[voicing assimilation]]. Additionally, many dialects contrast two [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] ({{IPA|/r, ɾ/}}) and two [[lateral consonant|laterals]] ({{IPA|/l, ʎ/}}).

Most Catalan dialects are also renowned by the usage of ''[[dark l]]'' (i.e. [[velarization]] of {{IPA|/l/}} → {{IPAblink|ɫ}}), which is especially noticeable in syllable [[syllabic coda|final]] position, in comparison to neighbouring languages, such as Spanish, Italian and French (that lack this pronunciation).

There is dialectal variation in regard to:
* The pronunciation and distribution of [[sibilant]]s (with different results according to [[voicing (phonetics)|voicing]] and [[affrication]] vs. [[lenition|deaffrication]]).
** While, arguably there are seven to eight sibilants in Standard Catalan and Standard Valencian, dialects like Central Valencian and Ribagorçan only have three or four.
* The usage of the voiced labiodental fricative phoneme {{IPAslink|v}}.
* The pronunciation or not of [[yod (sound)|yod]] ({{IPAslink|j}}) in the digraph {{angbr|ix}}.
* The [[elision]] and pronunciation of final [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] (either {{IPAslink|ɾ}} or {{IPAslink|r}}).
* The [[delateralization]] of the palatal lateral approximant ({{IPAslink|ʎ}}).
* The alternation of [[lenition]] vs. [[fortition]] (such as {{IPA|/b/}} in {{lang|ca|po'''b'''le}} 'village, people' → {{IPA|[β]}} vs. {{IPA|[b]}} vs. {{IPA|[bː]}} vs. {{IPA|[p]}} vs. {{IPA|[pː]}}).

=== Morphology ===
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-e}} in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or {{lang|ca|-o}} in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parle}}, {{lang|ca|tem}}, {{lang|ca|sent}} (Valencian); {{lang|ca|parlo}}, {{lang|ca|temo}}, {{lang|ca|sento}} (North-Western Catalan).

Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-o}}, {{lang|ca|-i}}, or -∅ in all conjugations. <br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parlo}} (Central), {{lang|ca|parl}} (Balearic), and {{lang|ca|parli}} (Northern), all meaning ('I speak').
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 1st-person singular present indicative forms
|-
! colspan="3" , rowspan="2" | Conjugation !! colspan="3" | Eastern Catalan !! colspan="2" | Western Catalan !! rowspan="2" | Gloss
|-
! Central !! Northern !! Balearic !! Valencian !! North-Western
|-
! colspan="3" | 1st
| {{lang|ca|parlo}} || {{lang|ca|parli}} || {{lang|ca|parl}} || {{lang|ca|parle}} || {{lang|ca|parlo}} || 'I speak'
|-
! colspan="3" | 2nd
| {{lang|ca|temo}} || {{lang|ca|temi}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|temo}} || 'I fear'
|-
! colspan="2" , rowspan="2" | 3rd
! {{small|pure}}
| {{lang|ca|sento}} || {{lang|ca|senti}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sento}} || 'I feel', 'I hear'
|-
! {{small|inchoative}}
| {{lang|ca|poleixo}} || {{lang|ca|poleixi}} || {{lang|ca|poleix}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|polisc}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|pol(e)ixo}} || 'I polish'
|}

Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-isc}}/{{lang|ca|-esc}}, {{lang|ca|-ix}}, {{lang|ca|-ixen}}, {{lang|ca|-isca}}/{{lang|ca|-esca}}.

Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-eixo}}, {{lang|ca|-eix}}, {{lang|ca|-eixen}}, {{lang|ca|-eixi}}.

Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in [[proparoxytone]] words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|hòmens}} 'men', {{lang|ca|jóvens}} 'youth'.

Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|homes}} 'men', {{lang|ca|joves}} 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moll, Francesc de B. |title=Gramática catalana; referida especialment a les Illes Balears |date=1968 |publisher=Editorial Moll |isbn=84-273-0044-1 |location=Palma de Mallorca |oclc=2108762}}</ref>).

=== Vocabulary ===
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Selection of different words between Western and Eastern Catalan
|-
! Gloss !! "mirror" !! "boy" !! "broom" !! "navel" !! "to exit"
|-
! Eastern Catalan
| {{lang|ca|mirall}} || {{lang|ca|noi}} || {{lang|ca|escombra}} || {{lang|ca|llombrígol}} || {{lang|ca|sortir}}
|-
! Western Catalan
| {{lang|ca|espill}} || {{lang|ca|xiquet}} || {{lang|ca|granera}} || {{lang|ca|melic}} || {{lang|ca|eixir}}
|}

== Standards ==
{{Main|Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua}}

[[File:Casa de Convalescència - IEC.JPG|thumb|left|Casa de Convalescència, Headquarters of the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC)]]

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 1em;"
|+ Written varieties
! Catalan&nbsp;(IEC)
! Valencian&nbsp;(AVL)
! gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|anglès}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|anglés}}
| English
|-
| {{lang|ca|conèixer}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|conéixer}}
| to know
|-
| {{lang|ca|treure}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|traure}}
| take out
|-
| {{lang|ca|néixer}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|nàixer}}
| to&nbsp;be&nbsp;born
|-
| {{lang|ca|càntir}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|cànter}}
| pitcher
|-
| {{lang|ca|rodó}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|redó}}
| round
|-
| {{lang|ca|meva}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|meua}}
| my, mine
|-
| {{lang|ca|ametlla}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|ametla}}
| almond
|-
| {{lang|ca|estrella}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|estrela}}
| star
|-
| {{lang|ca|cop}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|colp}}
| hit
|-
| {{lang|ca|llagosta}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|llangosta}}
| lobster
|-
| {{lang|ca|homes}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|hòmens}}
| men
|-
| {{lang|ca|servei}}
| {{lang|ca-valencia|servici}}
| service
|}

Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers,{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} is mostly based on Eastern Catalan,{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=170}} which is the most widely used dialect. Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=170}}

The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic {{angbr|e}} accentuation, for instance: {{lang|ca|francès, anglès}} (IEC) – {{lang|ca-valencia|francés, anglés}} (AVL). Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent {{angbr|è}}, while pronouncing it as {{IPA|/e/}} rather than {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, in some words such as: {{lang|ca-valencia|què}} ('what'), or {{lang|ca-valencia|València}}. Other divergences include the use of {{angbr|tl}} (AVL) in some words instead of {{angbr|tll}} like in {{lang|ca-valencia|ametla}}/{{lang|ca|ametlla}} ('almond'), {{lang|ca-valencia|espatla}}/{{lang|ca|espatlla}} ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives ({{lang|ca|este}} 'this', {{lang|ca|eixe}} 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones ({{lang|ca|aquest, aqueix}}) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, such as subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in {{lang|ca|-ix-}} at the same level as {{lang|ca|-eix-}} or the priority use of {{lang|ca|-e}} morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative ({{lang|ca|-ar}} verbs): {{lang|ca|jo compre}} instead of {{lang|ca|jo compro}} ('I buy').

In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the [[University of the Balearic Islands]]'s philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing {{lang|ca|cantam}} as much as {{lang|ca|cantem}} ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be {{lang|ca|cantam}} in all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: {{lang|ca|jo compr}} ('I buy'), {{lang|ca|jo tem}} ('I fear'), {{lang|ca|jo dorm}} ('I sleep').

In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] dialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article {{lang|ca|lo}} instead of {{lang|ca|el}}, special possessive pronouns and determinants {{lang|ca|la mia}} ('mine'), {{lang|ca|lo sou/la sua}} ('his/her'), {{lang|ca|lo tou/la tua}} ('yours'), and so on, the use of {{lang|ca|-v-}} {{IPA|/v/}} in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: {{lang|ca|cantava}}, {{lang|ca|creixiva}}, {{lang|ca|llegiva}}; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: {{lang|ca|manco}} instead of {{lang|ca|menys}} ('less'), {{lang|ca|calqui u}} instead of {{lang|ca|algú}} ('someone'), {{lang|ca|qual/quala}} instead of {{lang|ca|quin/quina}} ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of [[weak pronouns in Catalan|weak pronouns]]. In 1999, Catalan ([[Algherese dialect]]) was among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's "[[Languages of Italy#Historical linguistic minorities|historical linguistic minorities]]" by the Italian State under Law No. 482/1999.<ref>Law No. 482 of 15 December 1999. "Rules on the protection of historical linguistic minorities". Article 2. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297. 20 December 1999</ref>

In 2011,<ref>Decreto 89/2011, de 5 de abril, del Gobierno de Aragón, por el que se aprueban los
Estatutos de la Academia Aragonesa del Catalán. [http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=592553980606 BOA núm. 77, de 18 de abril de 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145503/http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=592553980606 |date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> the [[Aragon]]ese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in [[La Franja]] (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009.<ref>Ley 10/2009, de 22 de diciembre, de uso, protección y promoción de las lenguas propias de Aragón [https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-1711 BOE núm. 30, de 4 de febrero de 2010.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145822/https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-1711 |date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> The new entity, designated as {{lang|ca|[[Institut Aragonès del Català]]}}, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in [[La Franja]].

== Status of Valencian {{Anchor|About Valencian}} ==
{{Wikisourcelang|ca|Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià|AVL: Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià}}
{{Main|Valencian (disambiguation){{!}}Valencian|Valencian language controversy|Blaverism|Anti-Catalanism}}

[[File:Subdialectes del valencià.svg|thumb|Subdialects of Valencian]]

Valencian is classified as a [[Western Catalan|Western]] dialect, along with the [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]] varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of [[Lleida province|Lleida]] and the western half of [[Tarragona province|Tarragona]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}} Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.<ref name="e25" />

Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of Language]] (''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'', AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" />

{{Quote box|width=40%|align=left|quote= [T]he historical patrimonial language of the [[Valencian people]], from a philological standpoint, is the same shared by the autonomous communities of [[Catalonia]] and [[Balearic islands]], and [[Principality of Andorra]]. Additionally, it is the patrimonial historical language of other territories of the ancient [[Crown of Aragon]] [...] The different varieties of these territories constitute a language, that is, a "linguistic system" [...] From this group of varieties, Valencian has the same hierarchy and dignity as any other dialectal modality of that linguistic system [...]|source=Ruling of the Valencian Language Academy of 9 February 2005, extract of point 1.<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /><ref>Original full text of Dictamen 1: ''D'acord amb les aportacions més solvents de la romanística acumulades des del segle XIX fins a l'actualitat (estudis de gramàtica històrica, de dialectologia, de sintaxi, de lexicografia…), la llengua pròpia i històrica dels valencians, des del punt de vista de la filologia, és també la que compartixen les comunitats autònomes de Catalunya i de les Illes Balears i el Principat d'Andorra. Així mateix és la llengua històrica i pròpia d'altres territoris de l'antiga Corona d'Aragó (la franja oriental aragonesa, la ciutat sarda de l'Alguer i el departament francés dels Pirineus Orientals). Els diferents parlars de tots estos territoris constituïxen una llengua, és a dir, un mateix «sistema lingüístic», segons la terminologia del primer estructuralisme (annex 1) represa en el Dictamen del Consell Valencià de Cultura, que figura com a preàmbul de la Llei de Creació de l'AVL. Dins d'eixe conjunt de parlars, el valencià té la mateixa jerarquia i dignitat que qualsevol altra modalitat territorial del sistema lingüístic, i presenta unes característiques pròpies que l'AVL preservarà i potenciarà d'acord amb la tradició lexicogràfica i literària pròpia, la realitat lingüística valenciana i la normativització consolidada a partir de les Normes de Castelló.''</ref>}}

The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (''[[Normes de Castelló]]''). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian.

Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html |title=Casi el 65% de los valencianos opina que su lengua es distinta al catalán, según una encuesta del CIS |date=9 December 2004 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es |trans-title=Almost 65% of Valencians believe that their language is different from Catalan, according to a CIS survey |agency=Europa Press |access-date=8 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082617/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html |url-status=live}}</ref> showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joan i Marí |first=Bernat |date=2020-11-26 |title=Llengua catalana: unitat i fragmentació |url=https://www.diaridegirona.cat/opinio/2020/11/26/llengua-catalana-unitat-i-fragmentacio-48657883.html |access-date=2025-07-11 |website=Diari de Girona |language=ca |quote=La majoria dels valencianoparlants consideren que el valencià i el català són la mateixa llengua. No així, per cert, els no valencianoparlants (incloent-hi els «coents», és a dir els valencians que parlen només espanyol. |trans-quote=Most speakers of Valencian Catalan consider Valencian and Catalan to be the same language. Not so, it's true, when it comes to non-speakers of Valencian (including what are called «coents», that is, Valencians who only speak Spanish.}}</ref> Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero |title=Llistat dels Acadèmics de número |website=Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=List of RACV academics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214031455/http://www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero |archive-date=14 December 2016}}</ref>

This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of the [[European Constitution]] in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the [[European Union|EU]] with translations of the text into [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Galician language|Galician]], Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html |title=Traducció única de la Constitució europea |last=Isabel i Vilar |first=Ferran |date=30 October 2004 |website=I-Zefir |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=Unique translation of the European Constitution |access-date=29 April 2009 |archive-date=9 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224822/http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Vocabulary ==

=== Word choices ===
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}

=== Latin and Greek loanwords ===
Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples in [[Ramon Llull]]'s work.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in [[Roís de Corella]]'s writings.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, [[Latin language|Latin]], into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of [[Classical Latin|written language]] and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan.

=== Word formation ===
The process of [[morphological derivation]] in Catalan follows the same principles as the other [[Romance languages]],{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} where [[inflection]] is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example {{lang|ca|elèctri'''c'''}} {{IPA|[əˈlɛktri<u>k</u>]}} ("electrical") vs. {{lang|ca|electri'''c'''itat}} {{IPA|[ələktri<u>s</u>iˈtat]}}. [[Prefixes]] are usually appended to verbs, as in {{lang|ca|'''pre'''veure}} ("foresee").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}

There is greater regularity in the process of [[word-compounding]], where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common types of word compounds in Catalan{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}
|-
! Type !! Example !! Gloss
|-
| two nouns, the second assimilated to the first || {{lang|ca|paper moneda}} || "banknote paper"
|-
| noun delimited by an adjective || {{lang|ca|estat major}} || "military staff"
|-
| noun delimited by another noun and a preposition || {{lang|ca|màquina d'escriure}} || "typewriter"
|-
| verb radical with a nominal object || {{lang|ca|<u>para</u>caigudes}} || "parachute"
|-
| noun delimited by an adjective, with adjectival value || {{lang|ca|pit-roig}} || "robin" (bird)
|}

== Writing system ==
{{Main|Catalan orthography}}

[[File:Catalan geminated L in a dictionary.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The word {{lang|ca|noveŀla}} ("novel") in a dictionary. The geminated L ({{lang|ca|ŀl}}) is a distinctive character used in Catalan.]]
[[File:Billboard in Barcelona (detail).png|thumb|upright=0.8|Billboard in [[Barcelona]] (detail), showing the word {{lang|ca|iŀlusió}} ("illusion")]]

{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
! Main forms
| {{lang|ca|[[A]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[a]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[B]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[b]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[C]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[c]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[D]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[d]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[E]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[e]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[F]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[f]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[G]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[g]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[H]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[h]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[I]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[i]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[J]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[j]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[K]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[k]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[L]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[l]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[M]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[m]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[N]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[n]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[O]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[o]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[P]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[p]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Q]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[q]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[R]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[r]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[S]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[s]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[T]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[t]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[U]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[u]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[V]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[v]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[W]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[w]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[X]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[x]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Y]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[y]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Z]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[z]]|italic=unset}}
|-
! Modified forms
| {{lang|ca|[[À]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[à]]|italic=unset}} || style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ç]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ç]]|italic=unset}} || style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[É]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[é]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[È]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[è]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Í]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[í]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ï]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ï]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Catalan orthography#Punt volat (middot)|ĿL]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[Catalan orthography#Punt volat (middot)|ŀl]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ó]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ó]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ò]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ò]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="5" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ú]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ú]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ü]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ü]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="5" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" |
|}

Catalan uses the [[Latin script]], with some added symbols and digraphs.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=6}} The [[Catalan orthography]] is systematic and largely phonologically based.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=6}} Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC, founded in 1911) published the ''Normes ortogràfiques'' in 1913 under the direction of [[Antoni Maria Alcover]] and [[Pompeu Fabra]]. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in [[Castelló de la Plana]] to make a formal adoption of the so-called ''[[Normes de Castelló]]'', a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUu_apMqBF0C |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected writings |date=2009 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-9027289247 |editor-last=Carreras |editor-first=Joan Costa |language=en |translator-last=Yates |translator-first=Alan}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronunciation of Catalan special characters and digraphs{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}}
|-
! !! Pronunciation !! Usage !! Examples{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}}
|-
! {{lang|ca|ç}}
| {{IPA|/s/}} || before {{lang|ca|a}}, {{lang|ca|o}} and {{lang|ca|u}}; or final position || {{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy")
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|gu}}
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ɡ ~ ɣ]}}) || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|guerra}} ("war")
|-
| {{IPA|/ɡw/}} || elsewhere || {{lang|ca|guant}} ("glove")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ig}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || in final position || {{lang|ca|raig}} ("ray")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ix}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ({{IPA|[jʃ]}} in most Western dialects) || medially and finally || {{lang|ca|caixa}} ("box")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ll}}
| {{IPA|/ʎ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|lloc}} ("place")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ŀl}}
| {{IPA|/lː/}} (normatively, but usually {{IPA|/l/}}) || between vowels || {{lang|ca|noveŀla}} ("novel")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ny}}
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} ("Catalonia")
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|qu}}
| {{IPA|/k/}} || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|qui}} ("who")
|-
| {{IPA|/kw/}} || before other vowels || {{lang|ca|quatre}} ("four")
|-
! {{lang|ca|rr}}
| {{IPA|/r/}} || between vowels <br /> intervocalic {{lang|ca|r}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ɾ/}} || {{lang|ca|carrer}} ("street") <br /> {{lang|ca|mira}} ("he or she looks")
|-
! {{lang|ca|sc}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}} || between vowels, before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|ascens}} ("rise")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ss}}
| between vowels <br /> intervocalic {{lang|ca|s}} is pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} || {{lang|ca|grossa}} ("big, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") <br /> {{lang|ca|casa}} ("house")
|-
! {{lang|ca|tg}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|fetge}} ("liver")
|-
! {{lang|ca|tj}}
| elsewhere || {{lang|ca|mitjó}} ("sock")
|-
! {{lang|ca|ts}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|potser}} ("maybe")
|-
! {{lang|ca|tx}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|despatx}} ("office")
|-
! {{lang|ca|tz}}
| {{IPA|/d͡z/}} || mainly word medially || {{lang|ca|dotze}} ("twelve")
|-
| colspan="4" style="border-left: #fff solid 1px; border-right:  #fff solid 1px" | &nbsp;
|-
! !! Pronunciation !! Usage !! Examples
|-
! {{lang|ca|ch}}
| {{IPA|/k/}} || in final position || {{lang|ca|Llach}} ("Llach")
|-
! {{lang|ca|kh}}
| {{IPA|/x/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|sikh}} ("sikh")
|-
! {{lang|ca|th}}
| {{IPA|/θ/}} || in any position <br /> {{IPA|/t/}} in native words || {{lang|ca|theta}} ("theta") <br /> {{lang|ca|tothom}} ("everybody")
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Letters and digraphs with contextually conditioned pronunciations{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}}
|-
! !! Notes !! Examples{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}}
|-
! {{lang|ca|c}}
| {{IPA|/s/}} before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|ç}} in other contexts || {{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy, {{smallcaps|masculine singular}}") vs. {{lang|ca|felices}} ("happy, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}")<br />{{lang|ca|caço}} ("I hunt") vs. {{lang|ca|caces}} ("you hunt")
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|g}}
| {{IPA|/ʒ/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|j}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|envejar}} ("to envy") vs. {{lang|ca|envegen}} ("they envy")
|-
| final {{lang|ca|g}} before {{lang|ca|i}} and final {{lang|ca|ig}} before other vowels are pronounced {{IPA|[tʃ]}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|j}}~{{lang|ca|g}} or {{lang|ca|tj}}~{{lang|ca|tg}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|desig}} ("wish") vs. {{lang|ca|desitjar}} ("to wish") vs. {{lang|ca|desitgem}} ("we wish"), exception: {{lang|ca|càstig}} ("punishment"), pronounced with {{IPA|/k/}} <br /> {{lang|ca|boig}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|masculine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|boja}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|boges}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}")
|-
! {{lang|ca|gu}}
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|g}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|botiga}} ("shop") vs. {{lang|ca|botigues}} ("shops")
|-
! {{lang|ca|gü}}
| {{IPA|/ɡw/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|gu}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|llengua}} ("language") vs. {{lang|ca|llengües}} ("languages")
|-
! {{lang|ca|qu}}
| {{IPA|/k/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|c}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|vaca}} ("cow") vs. {{lang|ca|vaques}} ("cows")
|-
! {{lang|ca|qü}}
| {{IPA|/kw/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|qu}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|obliqua}} ("oblique, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|obliqües}} ("oblique, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}")
|-
! {{lang|ca|x}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (also {{IPA|[tʃ]}} dialectally) initially and in onsets after a consonant; {{IPA|[ʃ]}} after {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> {{IPA|/ks/}} between vowels and syllable final (except after {{lang|ca|i}} in most cases) <br /> {{IPA|/ɡz/}} between vowels and syllable final before voiced consonants || {{lang|ca|xinxa}} ("bedbug"), {{lang|ca|guix}} ("chalk") <br /> {{lang|ca|taxi}} ("taxi"), {{lang|ca|fixar}} ("to fix"), {{lang|ca|extra}} ("extra") <br /> {{lang|ca|exacte}} ("exact"), {{lang|ca|exdirector}} ("ex-director")
|}

== Grammar ==
{{Main|Catalan grammar}}

The grammar of Catalan is similar to other [[Romance languages]]. Features include:{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
* Use of [[definite article|definite]] and [[indefinite article]]s.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
* [[Noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and [[article (grammar)|articles]] are [[inflection|inflected]] for [[grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine and feminine), and [[grammatical number|number]] (singular and plural). There is no [[case (grammar)|case]] inflexion, except in pronouns.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
* [[Verb]]s are highly inflected for [[person (grammar)|person]], [[number (grammar)|number]], [[tense (grammar)|tense]], [[aspect (grammar)|aspect]], and [[mood (grammar)|mood]] (including a [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]).{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
* There are no [[modal auxiliary|modal auxiliaries]].{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
* Word order is freer than in English.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}

=== Gender and number inflection ===
[[File:Flexió of word Gat.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Gender and number inflection of the word {{lang|ca|gat}} ("cat")]]
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Regular noun with definite article: {{lang|ca|el gat}} ("the cat")
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{lang|ca|el gat}} || {{lang|ca|la gat'''a'''}}
|-
! plural
| {{lang|ca|els gat'''s'''}} || {{lang|ca|les gat'''es'''}}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Adjective with 4 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|verd}} ("green")
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{lang|ca|verd}} || {{lang|ca|verd'''a'''}}
|-
! plural
| {{lang|ca|verd'''s'''}} || {{lang|ca|verd'''es'''}}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Adjective with 3 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy")
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|feliç}}
|-
! plural
| {{lang|ca|feliç'''os'''}} || {{lang|ca|felic'''es'''}}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Adjective with 2 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}}} ("indifferent")
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}}}
|-
! plural
| colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}'''s'''}}
|}
|}

In [[gender inflection]], the most notable feature is (compared to [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Italian language|Italian]]), the loss of the typical [[masculine]] [[suffix]] {{lang|ca|-o}}. Thus, the alternance of {{lang|ca|-o}}/{{lang|ca|-a}}, has been replaced by ''ø''/{{lang|ca|-a}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} There are only a few exceptions, such as {{lang|ca|minso}}/{{lang|ca|minsa}} ("scarce").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
* Affrication: {{lang|ca|bo'''ig'''}}/{{lang|ca|bo'''j'''<u>a</u>}} ("insane") vs. {{lang|ca|lle'''ig'''}}/{{lang|ca|lle'''tj'''<u>a</u>}} ("ugly")
* Loss of {{lang|ca|n}}: {{lang|ca|pla}}/{{lang|ca|pla'''n'''<u>a</u>}} ("flat") vs. {{lang|ca|sego'''n'''}}/{{lang|ca|sego'''n'''<u>a</u>}} ("second")
* [[Final obstruent devoicing]]: {{lang|ca|senti'''t'''}}/{{lang|ca|senti'''d'''<u>a</u>}} ("felt") vs. {{lang|ca|di'''t'''}}/{{lang|ca|di'''t'''<u>a</u>}} ("said")

Catalan has few [[Suppletion|suppletive]] couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has {{lang|ca|noi}}/{{lang|ca|noia}} ("boy"/"girl") and {{lang|ca|gall}}/{{lang|ca|gallina}} ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has {{lang|ca|garçon}}/{{lang|ca|fille}} and {{lang|ca|coq}}/{{lang|ca|poule}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}

There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and French. Thus, one can find {{lang|ca|bullent}}/{{lang|ca|bullenta}} ("boiling") in contrast with traditional {{lang|ca|bullent}}/{{lang|ca|bullent}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}

As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix {{lang|ca|-s}}, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} The most important one is the addition of {{lang|ca|-o-}} before certain consonant groups, a [[phonetic]] phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: {{lang|ca|el pols}}/{{lang|ca|els polsos}} ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. {{lang|ca|la pols}}/{{lang|ca|les pols}} ("the dust"/"the dusts").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=630–631}}

=== Determiners ===
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Definite article in Standard Catalan <br />(elided forms in brackets){{sfn|Fabra|1926|pp=29–30}}
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{lang|ca|el}} ({{lang|ca|l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|la}} ({{lang|ca|l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}})
|-
! plural
| {{lang|ca|els}} || {{lang|ca|les}}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Contractions of the definite article
|-
! colspan="2"  rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | preposition
|-
! ''a'' !! ''de'' !! ''per''
|-
! rowspan="2" | article || ''el''
| {{lang|ca|al}} ({{lang|ca|a l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|del}} ({{lang|ca|de l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|pel}} ({{lang|ca|per l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}})
|-
! ''els''
| {{lang|ca|als}} || {{lang|ca|dels}} || {{lang|ca|pels}}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Indefinite article
|-
! !! masculine !! feminine
|-
! singular
| {{lang|ca|un}} || {{lang|ca|una}}
|-
! plural
| {{lang|ca|uns}} || {{lang|ca|unes}}
|}
|}

The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than [[Spanish language|Spanish]], such as {{lang|ca|dels}} ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as [[Italian language|Italian]] (which has {{lang|it|sul}}, {{lang|it|col}}, {{lang|it|nel}}, etc.).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}

Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives ({{lang|ca|mon}}, etc.) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms ({{lang|ca|el meu}}, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}

=== Personal pronouns ===
{| class="wikitable"  style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 1em;"
|+ Catalan stressed pronouns{{sfn|Fabra|1926|p=42}}
! colspan="2" | &nbsp; !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| {{lang|ca|jo}}, {{lang|ca|mi}} || {{lang|ca|nosaltres}}
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2nd person !! informal
| {{lang|ca|tu}} || {{lang|ca|vosaltres}}
|-
! formal
| {{lang|ca|vostè}} || {{lang|ca|vostès}}
|-
! respectful
| colspan="2" | ({{lang|ca|vós}})<ref>Archaic in most dialects.</ref>
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person !! masculine
| {{lang|ca|ell}} || {{lang|ca|ells}}
|-
! feminine
| {{lang|ca|ella}} || {{lang|ca|elles}}
|}

The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Features include the gender-neutral {{lang|ca|ho}} and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}

Catalan pronouns exhibit [[T–V distinction]], like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality.

This flexibility allows Catalan to use [[extraposition]] extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have {{lang|ca|m'hi recomanaren}} ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say {{lang|fr|ils m'ont recommandé à lui}}, and Spanish {{lang|es|me recomendaron a él}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence [[Topic–comment|topic]], without having to use so often the [[passive voice]] (as in French or English), or identifying the [[direct object]] with a [[preposition]] (as in Spanish).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}
{{clear}}

=== Verbs ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|+ Simple forms of a regular verb of the first conjugation: {{lang|ca|portar}} ("to bring"){{sfn|Fabra|1926|pp=70–71}}
! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Non-finite || colspan="6" style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Form
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Infinitive || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portar}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Gerund || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portant}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Past participle || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portat}} ({{lang|ca|portat}}, {{lang|ca|portada}}, {{lang|ca|portats}}, {{lang|ca|portades}})
|- style="text-align: center;"
! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Indicative || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}]
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Present || {{lang|ca|porto}} || {{lang|ca|portes}} || {{lang|ca|porta}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|porten}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Imperfect || {{lang|ca|portava}} || {{lang|ca|portaves}} || {{lang|ca|portava}} || {{lang|ca|portàvem}} || {{lang|ca|portàveu}} || {{lang|ca|portaven}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Preterite (archaic) || {{lang|ca|portí}} || {{lang|ca|portares}} || {{lang|ca|portà}} || {{lang|ca|portàrem}} || {{lang|ca|portàreu}} || {{lang|ca|portaren}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Future || {{lang|ca|portaré}} || {{lang|ca|portaràs}} || {{lang|ca|portarà}} || {{lang|ca|portarem}} || {{lang|ca|portareu}} || {{lang|ca|portaran}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Conditional || {{lang|ca|portaria}} || {{lang|ca|portaries}} || {{lang|ca|portaria}} || {{lang|ca|portaríem}} || {{lang|ca|portaríeu}} || {{lang|ca|portarien}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Subjunctive || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}]
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Present || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portis}} || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|portin}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| Imperfect || {{lang|ca|portés}} || {{lang|ca|portéssis}} || {{lang|ca|portés}} || {{lang|ca|portéssim}} || {{lang|ca|portéssiu}} || {{lang|ca|portessin}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Imperative || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}]
|- style="text-align: center;"
| — || — || {{lang|ca|porta}} || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|portin}}
|}

Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. [[Suffixation]] is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}

The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of {{lang|ca|anar}} ("to go") + infinitive.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}

Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes {{lang|ca|-a-}}, {{lang|ca|-e-}}, {{lang|ca|-i-}}, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of {{lang|ca|servir}}, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}
{{clear}}

=== Syntax ===
{{Main|Catalan syntax}}

The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primary [[word order]] is [[subject–verb–object]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl |title=Catalan |website=World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) Online |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-date=12 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212065626/https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl |url-status=live}}</ref> However, word order is very flexible. Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated as {{lang|ca|Ha arribat el tren}} or {{lang|ca|El tren ha arribat}}. Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival. This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train".{{sfn|Wheeler|Yates|Dols|1999}}

== Catalan names ==
{{Main|Catalan names}}

In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}} The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction ''i'' ("and").{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}}<ref>article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames"</ref>

== Sample text ==
Selected text{{sfn|Swan|2001|p=112}} from [[Manuel de Pedrolo]]'s 1970 novel {{lang|ca|Un amor fora ciutat}} ("A love affair outside the city").
{| border="0" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
! Original || Word-for-word translation{{sfn|Swan|2001|p=112}} || Free translation
|-
| {{lang|ca|Tenia prop de divuit anys quan vaig conèixer}} || I was having close to eighteen years, when I go {{IPA|[past auxiliary]}} know (=I met) || I was about eighteen years old when I met
|-
| {{lang|ca|en Raül, a l'estació de [[Manresa]].}} || the Raül, at the station of (=in) Manresa.  || Raül, at [[Manresa]] railway station.
|-
| {{lang|ca|El meu pare havia mort, inesperadament i encara jove,}} || The my father had died, unexpectedly and still young, || My father had died, unexpectedly and still young,
|-
| {{lang|ca|un parell d'anys abans, i d'aquells temps}} || a couple of years before, and of those times  || a couple of years before; and from that time
|-
| {{lang|ca|conservo un record de punyent solitud.}} || I keep a memory of acute loneliness  || I still harbor memories of great loneliness.
|-
| {{lang|ca|Les meves relacions amb la mare}} || The my relations with the mother || My relationship with my mother
|-
| {{lang|ca|no havien pas millorat, tot el contrari,}} ||  not had at all improved, all the contrary,  || had not improved; quite the contrary,
|-
| {{lang|ca|potser fins i tot empitjoraven}} || perhaps even they were worsening  || and arguably it was getting even worse
|-
| {{lang|ca|a mesura que em feia gran.}} || at step that (=in proportion as) myself I was making big (=I was growing up). || as I grew up.
|-
| {{lang|ca|No existia, no existí mai entre nosaltres, }} ||  Not it was existing, not it existed never between us, || There did not exist, at no point had there ever existed between us
|-
| {{lang|ca|una comunitat d'interessos, d'afeccions.}} ||  a community of interests, of affections.  || shared interests or affection.
|-
| {{lang|ca|Cal creure que cercava... una persona}} || It is necessary to believe that I was seeking... a person  || I guess I was seeking... a person
|-
| {{lang|ca|en qui centrar la meva vida afectiva.}} || in whom to center the my life affective. || in whom I could center my emotional life.
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spain|Andorra|Italy|France|Language}}
{{div col}}
;Organizations
* ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (Catalan Studies Institute)
* ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (Valencian Academy of the Language)
* [[Òmnium Cultural]]
* [[Plataforma per la Llengua]]
;Scholars
* [[Marina Abràmova]]
* [[Germà Colón]]
* [[Dominique de Courcelles]]
* [[Martí de Riquer]]
* [[Arthur Terry]]
* [[Lawrence Venuti]]
;Other
* [[Languages of Catalonia]]
** [[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers]]
* [[Languages of France]]
* [[Languages of Italy]]
* [[Languages of Spain]]
* [[Normes de Castelló]]
* [[Pompeu Fabra]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Works cited ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Bonet |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Mascaró |first2=Joan |year=1997 |chapter=On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics |title=Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages |editor1-last=Martínez-Gil |editor1-first=Fernando |editor2-last=Morales-Front |editor2-first=Alfonso |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-647-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Britton |first=A. Scott |year=2011 |title=Catalan Dictionary & Phrasebook |place=New York |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1258-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Bruguera |first=Jordi |year=2008 |chapter=Historia interna del catalán: léxico, formación de palabras y fraseología |title=Romanische Sprachgeschichte |editor-last=Ernst |editor-first=Gerhard |volume=3 |place=Berlin, New York |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=3045–3055}}
* {{cite book |last=Burke |first=Ulrik Ralph |title=A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog |year=1900 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog/page/n187 154]}}
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* {{cite book |title=Collins English Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1991 |isbn=0-00-433286-5 |ref={{harvid|Collins English Dictionary}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Colón |first=Germà |year=1993 |title=El lèxic català dins la Romània. Biblioteca Lingüística Catalana |publisher=Universitat de València |place=Valencia |isbn=84-370-1327-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Costa Carreras |first1=Joan |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected Writings/Pompeu Fabra (1868–1948) |year=2009 |publisher=Instutut d'Estudis Catalans & Universitat Pompeu Fabra & Jonh Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-3264-9 |pages=6–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKvQg1323YkC}}
* {{cite book |last=Fabra |first=Pompeu |title=Gramàtica Catalana |year=1926 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |location=Barcelona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC |edition=4th |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085647/https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Feldhausen |first=Ingo |title=Sentential Form and Prosodic Structure of Catalan |year=2010 |publisher=John Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-5551-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085512/https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |author1=Ferrater |title=Enciclopèdia Catalana Volum 4 |year=1973 |publisher=Enciclopèdia Catalana |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-85-194-04-7 |pages=628–639 |edition=1977, corrected |language=ca |chapter=Català |ref={{harvid|Enciclopèdia Catalana}} |display-authors=etal}}
* {{Citation
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* {{cite book |last=García Venero |first=Maximiano |title=Historia del nacionalismo catalán: 2a edición |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ |access-date=25 April 2010 |date=7 July 2006 |publisher=Ed. Nacional |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425120752/https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Gove |editor-first=Philip Babcock |title=Webster's Third New International Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Inc. |year=1993 |editor-link=Philip Babcock Gove |isbn=3-8290-5292-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Grau Mateu |first=Josep |title=El català, llengua de govern: la política lingüística de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya (1914–1924) |journal=Revista de Llengua I Dret |publisher=Revista de llengua i dret, 64 |url=https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594 |year=2015 |pages=86–101 |access-date=9 June 2019 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609083746/https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Guinot |first=Enric |title=Els fundadors del Regne de València: replobament, antroponímia i llengua a la València medieval |year=1999 |publisher=Tres i Quatre |location=Valencia |isbn=8475025919}}
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* {{cite book |last=Hualde |first=José |year=1992 |title=Catalan |page=368 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05498-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Jud |first=Jakob |title=Problèmes de géographie linguistique romane |year=1925 |publisher=Revue de Linguistique Romane |location=Paris |pages=181–182 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=Koryakov |first=Yuri |title=Atlas of Romance languages |place=Moscow |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Lledó |first=Miquel Àngel |title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity : The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts (Volume 2) |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-539245-6 |pages=336–348 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337 |chapter=26. The Independent Standardization of Valencia: From Official Use to Underground Resistance |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085540/https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337#v=snippet&q=IEC%20AVL%20catalan&f=false |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Lloret |first=Maria-Rosa |editor-last=Auger |editor-first=Julie |editor2-last=Clements |editor2-first=J. Clancy |editor3-last=Vance |editor3-first=Barbara |chapter=The Phonological Role of Paradigms: The Case of Insular Catalan |title=Contemporary Approaches to Romance Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 33rd Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages |date=2004 |page=278 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins}}
* {{cite book |last=Marfany |first=Marta |title=Els menorquins d'Algèria |year=2002 |publisher=Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-8415-366-5 |language=ca}}
* {{cite book |last1=Melchor |first1=Vicent de |last2=Branchadell |first2=Albert |title=El catalán: una lengua de Europa para compartir |year=2002 |publisher=Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona |location=Bellaterra |isbn=84-490-2299-1 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC |language=es |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085544/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Moll |first=Francesc de B. |title=Gramàtica Històrica Catalana |orig-date=1958 |date=2006 |publisher=Universitat de València |isbn=978-84-370-6412-3 |edition=Catalan |page=47 |language=ca}}
* {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Josep |title=Treballs de lingüística històrica catalana |year=1994 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Monsterrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-7826-568-6 |pages=55–93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38 |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085649/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38#v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Josep |title=Estudis d'història de la llengua catalana |year=2004 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-8415-672-9 |pages=37–38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425121043/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Padgett |first=Jaye |date=December 2009 |journal=The Linguistic Review |volume=26 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/tlir.2009.016 |title=Systemic Contrast and Catalan Rhotics |url=https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/ |pages=431– |s2cid=15197551 |access-date=17 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082601/https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Recasens |first=Daniel |year=1993 |chapter=Fonètica i Fonologia |title=Enciclopèdia Catalana}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Fontdevila |first2=Jordi |last3=Pallarès |first3=Maria Dolors |year=1995 |title=Velarization Degree and Coarticulatory Resistance for /l/ in Catalan and German |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=288 |doi=10.1016/S0095-4470(95)80031-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Recasens |first=Daniel |year=1996 |title=Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX |edition=2nd |place=Barcelona |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |isbn=9788472833128 |pages=75–76, 128–129}}
* {{cite book |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Pallarès |first2=Maria Dolors |year=2001 |title=De la fonètica a la fonologia: les consonants i assimilacions consonàntiques del català |publisher=Editorial Ariel |place=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-344-2884-3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Espinosa |first2=Aina |year=2005 |title=Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1, 20 |doi=10.1017/S0025100305001878 |s2cid=14140079}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Espinosa |first2=Aina |year=2007 |title=An Electropalatographic and Acoustic Study of Affricates and Fricatives in Two Catalan Dialects |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=37 |issue=2 |page=145 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002829 |s2cid=14275190}}
* {{cite book |last=Riquer |first=Martí de |title=Història de la Literatura Catalana |year=1964 |publisher=Ariel |location=Barcelona |language=ca |chapter=Vol.1}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Russell-Gebbett |editor-first=Paul |title=Mediaeval Catalan Linguistic Texts |publisher=Dolphin Book Co. Ltd., Oxford |year=1965 |editor-link=Paul S. N. Russell-Gebbett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085542/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Schlösser |first=Rainer |title=Die romanischen Sprachen |year=2005 |publisher=C.H. Beck |location=Munich}}
* {{cite book |last=Swan |first=Michael |title=Learner English: A Teacher's Guide to Interference and Other Problems, Volume 1 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC |isbn=978-0-521-77939-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Earl W. |year=1962 |pages=43–48 |title=The Resurgence of Catalan |journal=Hispania |volume=45 |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/337523 |jstor=337523}}
* {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max W. |date=1979 |title=Phonology of Catalan |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-11621-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Max |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |last3=Dols |first3=Nicolau |year=1999 |title=Catalan: A Comprehensive Grammar |place=London |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |title=The Romance Languages |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-16417-6 |pages=170–208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC |chapter=5. Catalan}}
* {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=2005 |title=The Phonology of Catalan |url=https://archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee |url-access=limited |place=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee/page/n66 54] |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925814-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=2006 |title=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics}}
* {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |year=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |pages=188–192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |chapter=Catalan |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324124913/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Veny |first=Joan |title=Homenatge a Arthur Terry |year=1997 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-7826-894-4 |pages=9–18 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17 |chapter=greuges de Guitard isarn, Senyor de Caboet (1080–1095) |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425121102/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17#v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Veny |first=Joan |year=2007 |title=Petit Atles lingüístic del domini català |volume=1 & 2 |place=Barcelona |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |page=51 |isbn=978-84-7283-942-7}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
'''Institutions'''
* [http://www.cpnl.cat/ ''Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística'']
* [https://www.iec.cat/ ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC)]
* [https://www.avl.gva.es/ ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' (AVL)]

'''About the Catalan/Valencian language'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529085634/http://www2.iec.cat/institucio/seccions/Filologica/gramatica/default.asp ''Gramàtica de la Llengua Catalana''] (Catalan grammar), from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans''
* [https://www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV ''Gramàtica Normativa Valenciana''] (Valencian grammar). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101063611/http://www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV |date=1 November 2020}}, from the ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua''
* [https://www.apuntsdellengua.es/ ''Apunts de llengua''], learning program by À Punt
* [https://llengua.gencat.cat/ca/inici llengua.gencat.cat], by the Government of Catalonia
* [https://www.verbs.cat/en/ verbs.cat] (Catalan verb conjugations with online trainers)
* [http://www.ub.edu/lexdialgram/ LEXDIALGRAM] (online portal of 19th-century dialectal lexicographical and grammatical works of Catalan hosted by the University of Barcelona)

'''Monolingual dictionaries'''
* [https://dlc.iec.cat/ DIEC2], from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans''
* [http://www.avl.gva.es/lexicval/ ''Diccionari Normatiu Valencià'' (DNV)], from the ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua''
* [http://ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= ''Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana'']. {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518140450/http://ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= |date=18 May 2016 }}, from Enciclopèdia Catalana
* [http://dcvb.iecat.net/ ''Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear''] d'Alcover i Moll. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040826061207/http://dcvb.iecat.net/ |date=26 August 2004 }}, from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans''
* [http://www.dilc.org/ ''Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana''] (Dictionary of Catalan words spelled backward)
* [http://www.trobat.com/servicis/dvo.php trobat.com] (online Valencian dictionary)

'''Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries'''
* [http://www.grec.cat/cgibin/mlt00.pgm ''Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe'']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531071849/http://www.grec.cat/cgibin/mlt00.pgm |date=31 May 2014 }} (Catalan ↔ English, French, German and Spanish), from Enciclopèdia Catalana

'''Automated translation systems'''
* [https://traductor.gencat.cat/text.do Traductor] automated, online translations of text and web pages (Catalan ↔ English, French and Spanish), from gencat.cat by the Government of Catalonia

'''Learning resources'''
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Catalan_Swadesh_list Catalan Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words], from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]

'''Catalan-language online encyclopedia'''
* ''[https://www.enciclopedia.cat/ Enciclopèdia Catalana]''

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