View source for Celtic languages

{{short description|Language family}}
{{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ll|date=October 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Celtic
| region        = Formerly widespread in much of [[Europe]] and central [[Anatolia]]; today [[Cornwall]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]], [[Brittany]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Chubut Province]] ([[Y Wladfa]]), and [[Nova Scotia]]
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Italo-Celtic]]?
| protoname     = [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]
| child1        = [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
| child2        = [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
| child3        = [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] {{extinct}}
| child4        = [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
| child5        = [[Noric language|Noric]] {{extinct}}
| child6        = [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
| child7        = [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| iso2          = cel
| iso5          = cel
| lingua        = 50= (phylozone)
| glotto        = celt1248
| glottorefname = Celtic
| map           = Celts in Europe.png
| mapcaption    = Distribution of Celtic speakers:
{{legend|#ffff43|[[Hallstatt culture]] area, 6th century BC}}
{{legend|#97ffb6|Maximal Celtic expansion, c. 275 BC}}
{{legend|#d2ffd2|[[Lusitanians|Lusitanian]] area; Celtic affiliation unclear}}
{{legend|#27c600|Areas where Celtic languages were spoken in the Middle Ages}}
{{legend|#1A8000|Areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today}}
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}

The '''Celtic languages''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|l|t|ᵻ|k|audio=en-us-Celtic.ogg}} {{respell|KEL|tik}}) are a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]], descended from the hypothetical [[Proto-Celtic language]].<ref>"The Celtic languages: An Overview", Donald MacAulay, ''The Celtic Languages'', ed. Donald MacAulay, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 3.</ref> The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by [[Edward Lhuyd]] in 1707,<ref>Cunliffe, Barry W. 2003. ''The Celts: a very short introduction''. pg.48</ref> following [[Paul-Yves Pezron]], who made the explicit link between the [[Celts]] described by classical writers and the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]] languages.<ref>Alice Roberts, ''The Celts'' (Heron Books 2015)</ref>

During the first millennium BC, Celtic languages were spoken across much of [[Europe]] and central [[Anatolia]]. Today, they are restricted to the northwestern fringe of Europe and [[Celtic diaspora (disambiguation)|a few diaspora communities]]. There are six living languages: the four continuously living languages [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and the two [[revived language]]s [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. All are minority languages in their respective countries, though there are continuing efforts at [[Language revitalization|revitalisation]]. Welsh is an official language in [[Wales]] and Irish is an official language across the island of [[Ireland]] and of the [[European Union]]. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as [[endangered language|endangered]] by [[UNESCO]]. The Cornish and Manx languages became extinct in modern times but have been revived. Each now has several hundred second-language speakers.

Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic form the [[Goidelic languages]], while Welsh, Cornish and Breton are [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]. All of these are [[Insular Celtic languages]], since Breton, the only living Celtic language spoken in continental Europe, is descended from the language of settlers from Britain. There are a number of extinct but attested [[Continental Celtic languages]], such as [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Galatian language|Galatian]] and [[Gaulish]]. Beyond that, there is no agreement on the subdivisions of the Celtic language family. Traditionally, they are considered to be divided into [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|P-Celtic]] and [[Q-Celtic]]. However, Gaulish is widely considered more closely related to Insular Celtic than either of these two are to Celtiberian; together, Gaulish and Insular Celtic may form the [[Nuclear Celtic languages|Nuclear Celtic]] subfamily.

The Celtic languages have [[Celtic literature|a rich literary tradition]]. The earliest specimens of written Celtic are [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] inscriptions from the 6th century BC in the Alps. Early Continental inscriptions used [[Old Italic script|Italic]] and [[Paleohispanic scripts|Paleohispanic]] scripts. Between the 4th and 8th centuries, Irish and [[Pictish language|Pictish]] were occasionally written in an original script, [[Ogham]], but [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]] came to be used for all Celtic languages. Welsh has had [[Welsh-language literature|a continuous literary tradition]] from the 6th century AD.

== Living languages ==
[[SIL Ethnologue]] lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are: the [[Goidelic languages]] ([[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]], both descended from [[Middle Irish]]) and the [[Brittonic languages]] ([[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]], descended from [[Common Brittonic]]).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://aboutworldlanguages.com/celtic-branch |title=Celtic Branch |website=About World Languages |access-date=18 September 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170925040807/http://aboutworldlanguages.com/Celtic-Branch| archive-date=25 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The other two, [[Cornish language|Cornish]] (Brittonic) and [[Manx language|Manx]] (Goidelic), died out in modern times<ref name="Koch06">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |date=2006 |pages=34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151231222127/https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia |archive-date=31 December 2015 |url-status=live |isbn=9781851094400}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A brief history of the Cornish language |url= http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival |publisher=Maga Kernow |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081225172227/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival |archive-date=25 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Beresford Ellis |first=Peter |title=The Story of the Cornish Language |date=2005 |orig-date=1990 |publisher=Tor Mark Press |isbn=0-85025-371-3 |pages=20–22}}</ref> with their presumed last native speakers in [[last speaker of the Cornish language|1777]] and [[Ned Maddrell|1974]] respectively. [[Language revitalization|Revitalisation]] movements in the 2000s led to the re-emergence of native speakers of both languages following their adoption by adults and children.<ref name="iomtoday.co.im">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |url= http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp |title=Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge |publisher=Iomtoday.co.im |access-date=18 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090704115241/http://www.iomtoday.co.im/manx-language/Fockle-ny-ghaa-schoolchildren-take.3901786.jp |archive-date=4 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=South West |url= http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west |access-date=9 February 2010 |work=TeachingEnglish.org.uk |publisher=[[BBC]] / [[British Council]] |date=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100108190250/http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west |archive-date=8 January 2010}}</ref>

=== Demographics ===
{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col"| Language !! scope="col" width=150pt| Native name !! scope="col"| Grouping !! scope="col" width=200pt| Number of native speakers !! scope="col" width=260pt| Number of skilled speakers !! scope="col"| Area of origin<br /><small>(still spoken)</small> !! scope="col" width=200pp| [[List of language regulators|Regulated by/language body]] !! width=140| Estimated number of speakers in major cities
|-
| scope="row"| [[Irish language|Irish]] || {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}} / {{lang|ga|Gaedhilg}} / {{lang|ga|Gaelainn}} / {{lang|ga|Gaeilig}} / {{lang|ga|Gaeilic}}
| [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| 40,000–80,000<ref>{{cite web |url= http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp |title=Irish Examiner – 2004/11/24: EU grants Irish official language status |work=Irish Examiner |publisher=Archives.tcm.ie |date=24 November 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050119114400/http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp |archive-date=19 January 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies |last=Christina Bratt Paulston |date=24 March 1994 |publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. Co |page=81 |isbn=1-55619-347-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century |last=Pierce |first=David |date=2000 |publisher=Cork University Press |page=1140 |isbn=1-85918-208-9}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Ó hÉallaithe |first=Donncha |date=1999 |title=Cuisle}}<!-- ISBN needed --></ref><br />In the Republic of Ireland, 73,803 people use Irish daily outside the education system.<ref>{{cite news |title=Just 6.3% of Gaeilgeoirí speak Irish on a weekly basis |work=[[TheJournal.ie]] |date=23 November 2017 |url= https://www.thejournal.ie/census-irish-education-3712741-Nov2017/ |access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref>
Northern Ireland: 5,971 (2021)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Main language – full detail MS-B13 |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b13.xlsx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250213114426/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b13.xlsx |archive-date=2025-02-13}}</ref>

Canada: 530 (2021)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Knowledge of languages by generation status, mother tongue, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories and economic regions |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv!recreate.action?pid=9810061901&selectedNodeIds=1D9,4D99,4D100,4D101,4D102,4D103&checkedLevels=0D1,1D1,2D1,4D1,5D1&refPeriods=20210101,20210101&dimensionLayouts=layout3,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2&vectorDisplay=false |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=Statistics Canada| date=4 December 2024 }}</ref>
| Total speakers: '''2,024,095'''<br />[[Republic of Ireland]]: 1,774,437 (2011)<ref name="csoi2011">{{cite web |url= http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011pdr/Pdf%208%20Tables.pdf |title=cso.ie Central Statistics Office, Census 2011 – This is Ireland – see table 33a |access-date=27 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130525115907/http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011pdr/Pdf%208%20Tables.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br>1,873,997 (of whom 788,927 (14.6% of the population) could speak it "well")(2022)<ref>{{Cite web |title=F8014: Irish speakers aged three years and over by sex, single year of age, level of Irish spoken and frequency of speaking Irish, 2022 |url=https://ws.cso.ie/public/api.restful/PxStat.Data.Cube_API.ReadDataset/F8014/XLSX/2007/en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250331072607/https://ws.cso.ie/public/api.restful/PxStat.Data.Cube_API.ReadDataset/F8014/XLSX/2007/en |archive-date=2025-03-31 |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=Ireland Central Statistics Office}}</ref>
[[Northern Ireland]]: 126,743 (2021)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequency of Speaking Irish [Updated] |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b07.xlsx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250127210845/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b07.xlsx |archive-date=2025-01-27 |website=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency}}</ref><br />[[United States]]: 18,000<br>[[Canada]]: 5,355 (2021)
| ''[[Gaeltacht]]'' of [[Ireland]]
| {{lang|ga|[[Foras na Gaeilge]]|italic=no}}
| [[Dublin]]: 184,140<br />[[Galway]]: 37,614<br />[[Cork (city)|Cork]]: 57,318<ref>{{cite web |author=Central Statistics Office |url= http://www.cso.ie/px/pxeirestat/Statire/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?maintable=C0905&Planguage=0 |title=Population Aged 3 Years and Over by Province County or City, Sex, Ability to Speak Irish and Census Year |publisher=Government of Ireland |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160307112148/http://www.cso.ie/px/pxeirestat/Statire/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?maintable=C0905&Planguage=0 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />[[Belfast]]: 14,086<ref>{{cite web |author=Department of Finance and Personnel |url= http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |title=Census 2011 Key Statistics for Northern Ireland |publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121224033625/http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Welsh language|Welsh]] || {{lang|cy|Cymraeg}} / {{lang|cy|Y Gymraeg}} || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
| 538,000 (17.8% of the population of Wales) claim that they "can speak Welsh" (2021)<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-63860772 | title = Welsh language: Fewer speakers in Wales in past decade | date = 2022-12-06 | website = [[BBC News Online]] | access-date = 2024-10-24}}</ref>
Canada: 820 (2021)<ref name=":0" />
| Total speakers: ≈ '''947,700''' (2011)<br /> [[Wales]]: 788,000 speakers (26.7% of the population)<ref name="Stats Wales">{{cite web |title=Welsh language skills by local authority, gender and detailed age groups, 2011 Census |url= https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census |work=StatsWales website |publisher=[[Welsh Government]] |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117063712/https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ons.gov.uk">Office for National Statistics 2011 [http://ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh 2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales]{{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130605111007/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh|date=5 June 2013}}</ref><br /> [[England]]: 150,000<ref>{{cite web |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url= http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – UK: Welsh |publisher=United Nations High Commission for Refugees |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110520030519/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html |archive-date=20 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br /> [[Chubut Province]], [[Argentina]]: 5,000<ref name="WAG">{{cite web |title=Wales and Argentina |url= http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx |work=Wales.com website |publisher=[[Welsh Government]] |date=2008 |access-date=23 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121016085047/http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx |archive-date=16 October 2012}}</ref><br /> [[United States]]: 2,500<ref>{{cite web |date=27 April 2010 |title=Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008 Release Date: April 2010 |url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922225023/https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls |archive-date=22 September 2014 |access-date=2 January 2011 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |format=xls}}</ref><br /> [[Canada]]: 2,200<ref>{{cite web |title=2006 Census of Canada: Topic based tabulations: Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data |url= http://www12.statcan.gc.ca:80/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=70&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |access-date=3 January 2011 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=7 December 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110826154809/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=70&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archive-date=26 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Knowledge of languages by generation status, mother tongue, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories and economic regions |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv!recreate.action?pid=9810061901&selectedNodeIds=1D9,5D189,5D190,5D191,5D192&checkedLevels=0D1,1D1,2D1,3D1,5D1&refPeriods=20210101,20210101&dimensionLayouts=layout2,layout2,layout2,layout2,layout3,layout2,layout2&vectorDisplay=false |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=Statistics Canada| date=4 December 2024 }}</ref>
| [[Wales]]
| [[Welsh Language Commissioner]]<br />The [[Welsh Government]]<br />(previously the [[Welsh Language Board]], {{lang|cy|Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg}})
| [[Cardiff]]: 54,504<br />[[Swansea]]: 45,085<br />[[Newport, Wales|Newport]]: 18,490<ref>{{cite web |work=StatsWales |url= https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census |title=Welsh language skills by local authority, gender and detailed age groups, 2011 Census |publisher=Welsh Government |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151231222127/https://statswales.wales.gov.uk/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshLanguageSkills-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census |archive-date=31 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />[[Bangor, Gwynedd|Bangor]]: 7,190
|-
| scope="row"| [[Breton language|Breton]] || {{lang|br|Brezhoneg}} || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] || 206,000
| 356,000<ref name="ofis-stats">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.ofis-bzh.org/fr/langue_bretonne/chiffres_cles/index.php Données clés sur breton, Ofis ar Brezhoneg] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120315110648/http://www.ofis-bzh.org/fr/langue_bretonne/chiffres_cles/index.php/ |date=15 March 2012}}</ref>
| [[Brittany]] || {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]|italic=no}}
| [[Rennes]]: 7,000<br />[[Brest, France|Brest]]: 40,000<br />[[Nantes]]: 4,000<ref>{{cite web |author=Pole Études et Développement Observatoire des Pratiques Linguistiques |url= http://www.fr.brezhoneg.bzh/46-situation-de-la-langue.htm |title=Situation de la Langue |publisher=Office Public de la Langue Bretonne |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305122618/http://www.fr.brezhoneg.bzh/46-situation-de-la-langue.htm |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Scottish Gaelic]] || {{lang|gd|Gàidhlig}} || [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| Scotland: 57,375  (2011)<ref name="2011 Scotland Census">[http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/data-warehouse.html 2011 Scotland Census] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200212/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/data-warehouse.html|date=4 June 2014}}, Table QS211SC.</ref>
Canada: 385 (2021)<ref name=":0" />
| Scotland:<br> 87,056 (2011)<ref name="2011 Scotland Census" /> (1.7% of the population)<br>130,156 (2022)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Census 2022 – Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion |url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/2022-results/scotland-s-census-2022-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion/ |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=Scotland's Census |language=en}}</ref> (2.5% of the population)

Canada: 2,170 (of whom 630 in [[Nova Scotia]]) (2021)<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=12&Data=Count&SearchText=Nova%20Scotia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=12 |title=National Household Survey Profile, Nova Scotia, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=11 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140513084229/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=12&Data=Count&SearchText=Nova%20Scotia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=12 |archive-date=13 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
| [[Scotland]] || {{lang|gd|[[Bòrd na Gàidhlig]]|italic=no}}
| [[Glasgow]]: 5,726<br />[[Edinburgh]]: 3,220<ref>{{cite web |work=Scotland's Census |url= http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/standard-outputs.html |title=Standard Outputs |publisher=National Records of Scotland |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161005011314/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/standard-outputs.html |archive-date=5 October 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />[[Aberdeen]]: 1,397<ref>{{cite web |first=Alison |last=Campsie |url= https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/uncategorized/48308/new-bid-to-get-us-speaking-in-gaelic/ |title=New bid to get us speaking in Gaelic |work=The Press and Journal |date=9 May 2014 |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160310172949/https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/uncategorized/48308/new-bid-to-get-us-speaking-in-gaelic/ |archive-date=10 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Cornish language|Cornish]] || {{lang|kw|Kernowek / Kernewek}} || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
| 563<ref>{{cite web |title=Main language (detailed) |url= https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS024/editions/2021/versions/3 |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=31 July 2023}} (UK 2021 Census)</ref><ref>See [[Cornish language#Geographic distribution and number of speakers|Number of Cornish speakers]]</ref> || 2,000<ref name="BBC BBC/British Council">Around 2,000 fluent speakers. {{cite news |title=South West |url= http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west |access-date=9 February 2010 |work=TeachingEnglish.org.uk |publisher=[[BBC]] / [[British Council]] |date=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100108190250/http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west |archive-date=8 January 2010}}</ref>
| [[Cornwall]] || [[Akademi Kernewek]]<br />[[Cornish Language Partnership]] ({{lang|kw|Keskowethyans an Taves Kernewek}})
| [[Truro]]: 118<ref>{{cite web |author=Equalities and Wellbeing Division |url= http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/articles/languageinenglandandwales/2013-03-04 |title=Language in England and Wales: 2011 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160307100420/http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/articles/languageinenglandandwales/2013-03-04 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row"| [[Manx language|Manx]] || {{lang|gv|Gaelg}} / {{lang|gv|Gailck}} || [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
| 100+,<ref name="iomtoday.co.im" /><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/anyone-here-speak-jersey-657175.html |title=Anyone here speak Jersey? |work=The Independent |date=11 April 2002 |access-date=19 August 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110911095902/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/anyone-here-speak-jersey-657175.html |archive-date=11 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> including a small number of children who are new native speakers<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=glv |title=Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: glv |publisher=Sil.org |date=14 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110728060024/http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=glv |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref>
| 2,223 have some skills in Manx, of whom 2,023 could speak it (2021)<ref>{{cite web |date=January 2022 |title=Isle of Man Census Report 2021 |url=https://www.gov.im/media/1375604/2021-01-27-census-report-part-i-final-2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201191521/https://www.gov.im/media/1375604/2021-01-27-census-report-part-i-final-2.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2022 |access-date= |publisher=Statistics Isle of Man, Cabinet Office |page=28}}</ref>
| [[Isle of Man]] || {{lang|gv|[[Coonceil ny Gaelgey]]|italic=no}} || [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]: 507<ref>{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Whitehead |url= https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man |title=How the Manx language came back from the dead |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=2 April 2015 |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020940/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

=== Mixed languages ===
* [[Beurla Reagaird]], Highland travellers' language
* [[Shelta]], based largely on [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Hiberno-English]] (some 86,000 speakers in 2009).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sth |title=Shelta |publisher=Ethnologue |access-date=9 March 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100629003323/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sth |archive-date=29 June 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Classification ==
[[File:Celtic language family tree.svg|250px|thumb|Classification of Celtic languages according to Insular vs. Continental hypothesis. ''(click to enlarge)'']]
[[File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|250px|thumb|Classification of Indo-European languages. ''(click to enlarge)'']]

[[File:Map of Celtic Nations-flag shades.svg|right|250px|thumb|upright=0.8|The [[Celtic nations]], where Celtic languages are spoken today, or were spoken into the modern era:
{{legend|#009E60|[[Ireland]] ([[Irish language|Irish]])}}
{{legend|#0072C6|[[Scotland]] ([[Scottish Gaelic]])}}
{{legend|#D3B04A|[[Isle of Man]] ([[Manx language|Manx]])}}
{{legend|red|[[Wales]] ([[Welsh language|Welsh]])}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Cornwall]] ([[Cornish language|Cornish]])}}
{{legend|black|[[Brittany]] ([[Breton language|Breton]])}}
]]
[[File:Bronce de Botorrita II.jpg|250px|thumb|upright=1.35|The second of the four [[Botorrita plaque]]s. The third plaque is the longest text discovered in any ancient Celtic language. However, this plaque is inscribed in Latin script.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&dq=botorrita+ii&pg=PA233 Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331025501/https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&lpg=PA233&ots=p-RudfBy1H&dq=botorrita%20ii&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q=botorrita%20ii&f=false|date=31 March 2017}}; Koch, John T.; Vol 1, p. 233.</ref>]]
Celtic is divided into various branches:

* [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]], the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).<ref name="Schumacher" /> Anciently spoken in [[Switzerland]] and in Northern-Central [[Italy]]. Coins with Lepontic inscriptions have been found in [[Noricum]] and [[Gallia Narbonensis]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Percivaldi |first1=Elena |title=I Celti: una civiltà europea |date=2003 |publisher=Giunti Editore |page=82}}</ref><ref name="kruta2" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |date=2008 |pages=12 |url= http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf |access-date=19 December 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>MORANDI 2004, pp. 702–703, n. 277</ref>
* [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], also called Eastern or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic, spoken in the ancient [[Iberian Peninsula]], in the eastern part of [[Old Castile]] and south of [[Aragon]]. Modern provinces: Segovia, Burgos, Soria, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Zaragoza and Teruel. The relationship of Celtiberian with [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]], in northwest Iberia, is uncertain.<ref>{{cite book |last=Prósper |first=B.M. |title=Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica |date=2002 |publisher=Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca |isbn=84-7800-818-7 |pages=422–27}}</ref><ref>Villar F., B. M. Prósper. (2005). ''Vascos, Celtas e Indoeuropeos: genes y lenguas. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca''. pgs. 333–350. {{ISBN|84-7800-530-7}}.</ref>
* [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]], also known as Western or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, anciently spoken in the northwest of the peninsula (modern [[Northern Portugal]], and the Spanish regions of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]] and northwestern [[Castile and León]]).<ref>"In the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and more specifically between the west and north Atlantic coasts and an imaginary line running north-south and linking Oviedo and Merida, there is a corpus of Latin inscriptions with particular characteristics of its own. This corpus contains some linguistic features that are clearly Celtic and others that in our opinion are not Celtic. The former we shall group, for the moment, under the label northwestern Hispano-Celtic. The latter are the same features found in well-documented contemporary inscriptions in the region occupied by the Lusitanians, and therefore belonging to the variety known as LUSITANIAN, or more broadly as GALLO-LUSITANIAN. As we have already said, we do not consider this variety to belong to the Celtic language family." Jordán Colera 2007: p.750</ref>
* [[Gaulish]] languages, including [[Galatian language|Galatian]] and possibly [[Noric language|Noric]]. These were once spoken in a wide arc from [[Belgium]] to modern-day [[Turkey]]. They are now all extinct.
* [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]], spoken in [[Great Britain]] and [[Brittany]]. Including the living languages [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], and [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and the lost [[Cumbric]] and [[Pictish language|Pictish]], though Pictish may be a sister language rather than a daughter of [[Common Brittonic]].<ref>[[Kenneth H. Jackson]] suggested that there were two Pictish languages, a pre-Indo-European one and a ''[[Pritennic|Pritenic]]'' Celtic one. This has been challenged by some scholars. See [[Katherine Forsyth]]'s ''"Language in Pictland: the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish{{' "}} '' {{cite web |url= http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf |title=Etext |access-date=20 January 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060219054300/http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf |archive-date=19 February 2006 |url-status=live}}&nbsp;{{small|(27.8&nbsp;[[Megabyte|MB]])}}. See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the ''"Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W. J. Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland{{' "}}'' {{cite web |url= http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf |title=Etext |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060220054951/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2006}}&nbsp;{{small|(172&nbsp;[[Kilobyte|KB]] )}}. Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's ''The Languages of Britain'' (1984) with his ''Languages in Britain & Ireland'' (2000).</ref> Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language there. The theory of a Brittonic [[Iverni#O'Rahilly's theory|Ivernic language]] predating Goidelic speech in Ireland has been suggested, but is not widely accepted.<ref name="Koch06" />
* [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]], including the extant [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]], and [[Scottish Gaelic]].

=== Continental/Insular Celtic and P/Q-Celtic hypotheses ===
Scholarly handling of Celtic languages has been contentious owing to scarceness of primary source data. Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) posit that the primary distinction is between [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] and [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]], arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brittonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.digitalmedievalist.com/opinionated-celtic-faqs/celtic-languages/ |title=What are the Celtic Languages? |work=Celtic Studies Resources |access-date=18 September 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171010203551/http://www.digitalmedievalist.com/opinionated-celtic-faqs/celtic-languages/ |archive-date=10 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) make the primary distinction between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages based on the replacement of initial Q by initial P in some words. Most of the Gallic and Brittonic languages are P-Celtic, while the Goidelic and Hispano-Celtic (or Celtiberian) languages are Q-Celtic. The P-Celtic languages (also called [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|Gallo-Brittonic]]) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. According to [[Ranko Matasović]] in the introduction to his 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'': "Celtiberian&nbsp;... is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early."<ref>{{cite book |first=Ranko |last=Matasović |date=2009 |title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |page=13 |url=https://archive.org/details/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish; though there may be some input from the latter,<ref>{{cite book |last=Barbour and Carmichael |first=Stephen and Cathie |title=Language and nationalism in Europe |date=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=56 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&q=Breton%20Gaulish%20words&pg=PA56 |isbn=978-0-19-823671-9}}</ref> having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era.
In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late.

The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray & Atkinson<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature02029 |last1=Gray |first1=Russell D. |last2=Atkinson |first2=Quentin D. |title=Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=426 |issue=6965 |pages=435–439 |date=2003 |pmid=14647380 |bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G |s2cid=42340 |url= https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00299.x |last1=Rexova |first1=K. |last2=Frynta |first2=D. |last3=Zrzavy |first3=J. |date=2003 |title=Cladistic analysis of languages: Indo-European classification based on lexicostatistical data |journal=[[Cladistics (journal)|Cladistics]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=120–127 |s2cid=84085451}}</ref> but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. A controversial paper by Forster & Toth<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Peter |last2=Toth |first2=Alfred |date=2003 |title=Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=100 |issue=15 |pages=9079–9084 |pmid=12837934 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1331158100 |pmc=166441 |bibcode=2003PNAS..100.9079F |doi-access=free}}</ref> included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological [[Urnfield culture]], the [[Hallstatt culture]], and the [[La Tène culture]], though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.<ref name="Renfrew">{{cite book |last=Renfrew |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Renfrew |title=Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins |date=1987 |publisher=[[Jonathan Cape]] |location=London |isbn=0224024957}}</ref><ref name="James">{{cite book |last1=James |first1=Simon |title=The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People or Modern Invention? |date=1999 |publisher=[[British Museum]] Press |location=London |isbn=0714121657}}</ref>

There are legitimate scholarly arguments for both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-/Q-Celtic theory found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation ''-nm-'' > ''-nu'' (Gaelic {{lang|ga|ainm}} / Gaulish {{lang|xtg|anuana}}, Old Welsh {{lang|owl|enuein}} 'names'), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|Gallo-Brittonic]] dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986).

The interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument for Insular Celtic is connected with the development of verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated theory.<ref name="Schumacher">{{cite book |last1=Schumacher |first1=Stefan |last2=Schulze-Thulin |first2=Britta |last3=aan de Wiel |first3=Caroline |title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon |date=2004 |publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen, [[University of Innsbruck]] |isbn=3-85124-692-6 |pages=84–87 |language=de}}</ref> Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is "out of favour" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and the Insular Celtic hypothesis "widely accepted".<ref>{{cite book |last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |date=2008 |pages=11 |url= http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf |access-date=19 December 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brittonic".

How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used:
{{col-begin|width=50%}}
{{col-2}}
"'''Insular Celtic hypothesis'''"
{{tree list}}
* [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]
** [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
** [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
*** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
*** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
{{tree list/end}}
{{col-break}}
"'''P/Q-Celtic hypothesis'''"
{{tree list}}
* [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]]
** Q-Celtic
*** [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
** [[Gallo-Brittonic languages|P-Celtic]]
*** [[Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
*** [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
{{tree list/end}}
{{col-end}}

=== Eska (2010) ===
Eska<ref>Joseph F. Eska (2010) "The emergence of the Celtic languages". In Martin J. Ball and Nicole Müller (eds.), ''The Celtic languages''. Routledge. {{ISBN|9781138969995}}</ref> evaluates the evidence as supporting the following tree, based on [[comparative method#Terminology|shared innovations]], though it is not always clear that the innovations are not [[areal feature]]s. It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust. On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure. Schumacher (2004, p.&nbsp;86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on the shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun ''*i̯os, *i̯ā, *i̯od'' into an uninflected enclitic particle. Eska sees [[Cisalpine Gaulish]] as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish.

{{Tree list}}
*'''Celtic'''
**[[Hispano-Celtic languages|Hispano-Celtic]] {{extinct}}
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] {{extinct}}
***[[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]] {{extinct}}
**[[Nuclear Celtic languages|Nuclear Celtic]]
***[[Cisalpine Celtic]]: [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] → [[Cisalpine Gaulish]] {{extinct}}
***Core Celtic (secure)
****[[Transalpine Gaulish]] {{extinct}} ("Transalpine Celtic")
****[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
*****[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
*****[[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
{{Tree list/end}}

Eska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because the Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a [[sprachbund]]. However, if they have another explanation (such as an [[Subject–verb–object|SOV]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|substratum]] language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be:

{{Tree list}}
*Core Celtic (P-Celtic hypothesis)
**[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
**[[Gallo-Brittonic languages|Gallo-Brittonic]]
***[[Transalpine Gaulish]] ("Transalpine Celtic") {{extinct}}
***[[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]]
{{Tree list/end}}

=== Italo-Celtic ===
Within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the [[Italic languages]] in a common [[Italo-Celtic]] subfamily. This hypothesis fell somewhat out of favour after reexamination by American linguist [[Calvert Watkins]] in 1966.<ref>[[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]], "Italo-Celtic Revisited". In: {{cite book |title=Ancient Indo-European dialects |editor-last=Birnbaum |editor-first=Henrik |editor2=Puhvel, Jaan |date=1966 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |oclc=716409 |pages=29–50}}</ref> Irrespectively, some scholars such as Ringe, Warnow and Taylor and many others have argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic grouping in 21st century theses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ringe |first1=Don |last2=Warnow |first2=Tandy |last3=Taylor |first3=Ann |title=Indo-European and Computational Cladistics |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |date=March 2002 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=59–129 |doi=10.1111/1467-968X.00091 |citeseerx=10.1.1.139.6014 |url= https://www.cs.rice.edu/~nakhleh/CPHL/RWT02.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060222105246/http://www.cs.rice.edu/%7Enakhleh/CPHL/RWT02.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2006 |url-status=live |access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances.

* [[consonant mutation]]s (Insular Celtic only)
* [[inflected preposition]]s (Insular Celtic only)
* two [[grammatical gender]]s (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders, although Gaulish may have merged the neuter and masculine in its later forms)<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3cHdQC1cXLEC&pg=PA222 |title=The Celts: History, Life, and Culture |last1=Koch |first1=John T. |author1-link=John T. Koch |last2=Minard |first2=Antone |date=2012 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-59884-964-6}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}
* a [[vigesimal]] number system (counting by twenties)
** Cornish {{lang|kw|hwetek ha dew ugens}} "fifty-six" (literally "sixteen and two twenty")
* verb–subject–object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only)
* an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others
* an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a [[passive voice|passive]] or [[intransitive verb|intransitive]]
** Welsh {{lang|cy|dysgaf}} "I teach" vs. {{lang|cy|dysgir}} "is taught, one teaches"
** Irish {{lang|ga|múinim}} "I teach" vs. {{lang|ga|múintear}} "is taught, one teaches"
* no [[infinitive]]s, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or [[verbnoun]]
* frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc.
* use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause
** mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativisers
** [[grammatical particle|particle]]s for [[affirmation and negation|negation]], interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations
* pronouns positioned between particles and verbs
* lack of simple verb for the [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition
** Cornish {{lang|kw|Yma kath dhymm}} "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat to me"
** Welsh {{lang|cy|Mae cath gyda fi}} "I have a cat", literally "a cat is with me"
** Irish {{lang|ga|Tá cat agam}} "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat at me"
* use of [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] constructions to express verbal tense, voice, or [[grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions
* distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and [[copula (linguistics)|copula]]
* bifurcated [[demonstrative]] structure
* suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns
* use of singulars or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared

Examples:
: {{langx|ga|Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.}}
: (Literal translation) ''Do not bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.''
:* {{lang|ga|bhacaigh}} is the genitive of {{lang|ga|bacach}}. The {{lang|ga|igh}} the result of [[affection (linguistics)|affection]]; the {{vr|bh}} is the [[Irish initial consonant mutations|lenited]] form of {{vr|b}}.
:* {{lang|ga|leat}} is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition {{lang|ga|le}}.
:* The order is verb–subject–object (VSO) in the second half. Compare this to English or French (and possibly Continental Celtic) which are normally subject–verb–object in word order.

: {{langx|cy|pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain}}
: (Literally) ''four on fifteen and four twenties''
:* {{lang|cy|bymtheg}} is a mutated form of {{lang|cy|pymtheg}}, which is {{lang|cy|pump}} ("five") plus {{lang|cy|deg}} ("ten"). Likewise, {{lang|cy|phedwar}} is a mutated form of {{lang|cy|pedwar}}.
:* The multiples of ten are {{lang|cy|deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant}}.

=== Comparison table ===
The [[lexical similarity]] between the different Celtic languages is apparent in their [[Swadesh list|core vocabulary]], especially in terms of [[phonetic transcription|actual pronunciation]]. Moreover, the [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[comparative method|differences between languages]] are often the product of regular [[sound change]] (i.e. [[lenition]] of {{IPA|/b/}} into {{IPA|/v/}} or Ø).

The table below has words in the modern languages that were [[historical linguistics|inherited direct]] from [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]], as well as a few old [[loanword|borrowing]]s from [[Latin]] that made their way into all the daughter languages. There is often a closer match between Welsh, Breton and Cornish on the one hand and Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx on the other. For a fuller list of comparisons, see the [[wikt:Appendix:Celtic Swadesh lists|Swadesh list for Celtic]].
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| English !! scope="col" colspan="3"| Brittonic !! scope="col" colspan="3"| Goidelic
|-
! scope="col"| Welsh !! scope="col"| Breton<ref>{{cite web |url= http://dico.parlant.breton.free.fr/ |title=Dictionnaires bretons parlants |access-date=6 February 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020502/http://dico.parlant.breton.free.fr/ |archive-date=7 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> !! scope="col"| Cornish 
! scope="col"| Irish<br>Gaelic<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.abair.tcd.ie/?page=transcription&lang=eng |title=Trinity College Phonetics and Speech Lab |access-date=6 February 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190212072649/http://www.abair.tcd.ie/?page=transcription&lang=eng |archive-date=12 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
!Scottish<br>Gaelic<ref>{{cite web |title=Learn Gaelic Dictionary |url= https://learngaelic.scot/dictionary/ |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015434/https://learngaelic.scot/dictionary/ |archive-date=7 February 2019 |access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref>
!Manx
|-
| scope="row"| bee || {{lang|cy|gwenynen}} || {{lang|br|gwenanenn}} || {{lang|kw|gwenenen}} || {{lang|ga|beach}} 
|{{lang|gd|seillean}}
|{{lang|gv|shellan}}
|-
| scope="row"| big || {{lang|cy|mawr}} || {{lang|br|meur}} || {{lang|kw|meur}} || {{lang|ga|mór}} 
|{{lang|gd|mòr}}
|{{lang|gv|mooar}}
|-
| scope="row"| dog || {{lang|cy|ci}} || {{lang|br|ki}} || {{lang|kw|ki}} || {{lang|ga|madra}}, {{lang|ga|gadhar}}<br>({{lang|ga|cú}} "hound") 
|{{lang|gd|cù}}
|{{lang|gv|coo}}
|-
| scope="row"| fish || {{lang|cy|pysgodyn}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|br|pesk}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|kw|pysk}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|ga|iasc}} 
|{{lang|gd|iasg}}
|{{lang|gv|yeeast}}
|-
| scope="row"| full || {{lang|cy|llawn}} || {{lang|br|leun}} || {{lang|kw|leun}} || {{lang|ga|lán}} 
|{{lang|gd|làn}}
|{{lang|gv|lane}}
|-
| scope="row"| goat || {{lang|cy|gafr}} || {{lang|br|gavr}} || {{lang|kw|gaver}} || {{lang|ga|gabhar}} 
|{{lang|gd|gobhar}}
|{{lang|gv|goayr}}
|-
| scope="row"| house || {{lang|cy|tŷ}} || {{lang|br|ti}} || {{lang|kw|chi}} || {{lang|ga|teach, tigh}} 
|{{lang|gd|taigh}}
|{{lang|gv|thie}}
|-
| scope="row"| lip (anatomical) || {{lang|cy|gwefus}} || {{lang|br|gweuz}} || {{lang|kw|gweus}} || {{lang|ga|liopa, beol}} 
|{{lang|gd|bile}}
|{{lang|gv|meill}}
|-
| scope="row"| mouth of a river || {{lang|cy|aber}} || {{lang|br|aber}} || {{lang|kw|aber}} || {{lang|ga|inbhear}} 
|{{lang|gd|inbhir}}
|{{lang|gv|inver}}
|-
| scope="row"| four || {{lang|cy|pedwar}} || {{lang|br|pevar}} || {{lang|kw|peswar}} || {{lang|ga|ceathair, cheithre}} 
|{{lang|gd|ceithir}}
|{{lang|gv|kiare}}
|-
| scope="row"| night || {{lang|cy|nos}} || {{lang|br|noz}} || {{lang|kw|nos}} || {{lang|ga|oíche}} 
|{{lang|gd|oidhche}}
|{{lang|gv|oie}}
|-
| scope="row"| number<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|cy|rhif, nifer}}<sup>†</sup>|| {{lang|br|niver}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|kw|niver}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|ga|uimhir}} 
|{{lang|gd|àireamh}}
|{{lang|gv|earroo}}
|-
| scope="row"| three || {{lang|cy|tri}} || {{lang|br|tri}} || {{lang|kw|tri}} || {{lang|ga|trí}} 
|{{lang|gd|trì}}
|{{lang|gv|tree}}
|-
| scope="row"| milk || {{lang|cy|llaeth}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|br|laezh}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|kw|leth}}<sup>†</sup> || {{lang|ga|bainne, leacht}} 
|{{lang|gd|bainne, leachd}}
|{{lang|gv|bainney}}
|-
| scope="row"| you (sg) || {{lang|cy|ti}} || {{lang|br|te}} || {{lang|kw|ty}} || {{lang|ga|tú, thú}} 
|{{lang|gd|thu, tu}}
|{{lang|gv|oo}}
|-
| scope="row"| star || {{lang|cy|seren}} || {{lang|br|steredenn}} || {{lang|kw|steren}} || {{lang|ga|réalta}} 
|{{lang|gd|reult, rionnag}}
|{{lang|gv|rollage}}
|-
| scope="row"| today || {{lang|cy|heddiw}} || {{lang|br|hiziv}} || {{lang|kw|hedhyw}} || {{lang|ga|inniu}} 
|{{lang|gd|an-diugh}}
|{{lang|gv|jiu}}
|-
| scope="row"| tooth || {{lang|cy|dant}} || {{lang|br|dant}} || {{lang|kw|dans}} || {{lang|ga|fiacail}}, {{lang|ga|déad}} 
|{{lang|gd|fiacaill, deud}}
|{{lang|gv|feeackle}}
|-
| scope="row"| (to) fall || {{lang|cy|cwympo}} || {{lang|br|kouezhañ}} || {{lang|kw|kodha}} || {{lang|ga|tit(im)}} 
|{{lang|gd|tuit(eam)}}
|{{lang|gv|tuitt(ym)}}
|-
| scope="row"| (to) smoke || {{lang|cy|ysmygu}} || {{lang|br|mogediñ, butuniñ}} || {{lang|kw|megi}} || {{lang|ga|caith(eamh) tobac}} 
|{{lang|gd|smocadh}}
|{{lang|gv|toghtaney, smookal}}
|-
| scope="row"| (to) whistle || {{lang|cy|chwibanu}} || {{lang|br|c'hwibanat}} || {{lang|kw|hwibana}} || {{lang|ga|feadáil}} 
|{{lang|gd|fead}}
|{{lang|gv|fed}}
|- 
| scope="row"| time, weather || {{lang|cy|amser}} || {{lang|br|amzer}} || {{lang|kw|amser}} "time",<br>{{lang|kw|kewer}} "weather" || {{lang|ga|aimsir}} 
|{{lang|gd|aimsir}}
|{{lang|gv|emshyr}}
|-
|}
<sup>†</sup> Borrowings from Latin

=== Examples ===
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
* {{langx|ga|Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.}}
* {{langx|gv|Ta dagh ooilley pheiagh ruggit seyr as corrym ayns ard-cheim as kiartyn. Ren Jee feoiltaghey resoon as cooinsheanse orroo as by chair daue ymmyrkey ry cheilley myr braaraghyn.}}
* {{langx|gd|Tha gach uile dhuine air a bhreith saor agus co-ionnan ann an urram 's ann an còirichean. Tha iad air am breith le reusan is le cogais agus mar sin bu chòir dhaibh a bhith beò nam measg fhèin ann an spiorad bràthaireil.}}
* {{langx|br|Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.}}
* {{langx|kw|Genys frank ha par yw oll tus an bys yn aga dynita hag yn aga gwiryow. Enduys yns gans reson ha kowses hag y tal dhedha omdhon an eyl orth y gila yn spyrys a vrederedh.}}
* {{langx|cy|Genir pawb yn rhydd ac yn gydradd â'i gilydd mewn urddas a hawliau. Fe'u cynysgaeddir â rheswm a chydwybod, a dylai pawb ymddwyn y naill at y llall mewn ysbryd cymodlon.}}

== Possible members of the family ==
Several poorly-documented languages may have been Celtic.

*'''[[Ancient Belgian language|Ancient Belgian]]'''
* '''[[Camunic language|Camunic]]''' is an extinct language spoken in the first millennium BC in the [[Val Camonica]] and [[Valtellina]] valleys of the [[Central Alps]]. It has recently been proposed that it was a Celtic language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Markey |first1=Thomas |title=Shared Symbolics, Genre Diffusion, Token Perception and Late Literacy in North-Western Europe |journal=NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution |date=2008 |volume=54–55 |pages=5–62 |publisher=NOWELE |doi=10.1075/nowele.54-55.01mar}}</ref>
* '''[[Iverni#O'Rahilly's theory|Ivernic]]''' has been suggested to be Celtic by [[T. F. O'Rahilly]],<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Rahilly |first=T. F. |author-link=T. F. O'Rahilly |year=1946 |title=Early Irish History and Mythology |place=Dublin |publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies |pages=88–90, 205–206}}</ref> though this theory has been refuted and is not widely accepted by experts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |date=2006 |page=750}}</ref>
* '''[[Ligurian (ancient language)|Ligurian]]''', on the Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling the southeast French and northwest Italian coasts, including parts of [[Tuscany]], [[Elba]] and [[Corsica]]. Xavier Delamarre argues that Ligurian was a Celtic language similar to Gaulish.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_v/vasio.html |title=Celtic Gods: The Gaulish and Ligurian god, Vasio (He who is given Libation) |access-date=4 March 2015 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518143426/http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_v/vasio.html |archive-date=18 May 2013}}</ref> The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is listed as either Celtic (epigraphic),<ref name="kruta1">{{cite book |last=Kruta |first=Venceslas |title=The Celts |date=1991 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |pages=54}}</ref> or Para-Celtic (onomastic).<ref name="kruta2">{{cite book |last=Kruta |first=Venceslas |title=The Celts |date=1991 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |pages=55}}</ref>
* '''[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]''', spoken in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers of western [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] (a region straddling the present border of [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]). Known from only five inscriptions and various place names.<ref name="Wodtko" /> It is an Indo-European language and some scholars have proposed that it may be a para-Celtic language that evolved alongside Celtic or formed a [[dialect continuum]] or [[sprachbund]] with Tartessian and Gallaecian. This is tied to a theory of an Iberian origin for the Celtic languages.<ref name="Wodtko">{{cite book |last=Wodtko |first=Dagmar S |title=Celtic from the West Chapter 11: The Problem of Lusitanian |date=2010 |publisher=[[Oxbow Books]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-84217-410-4 |pages=360–361}}</ref><ref name="cunliffe" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ballester |first=X. |title="Páramo" o del problema del la */p/ en celtoide |journal=Studi Celtici |date=2004 |volume=3 |pages=45–56}}</ref> It is also possible that the Q-Celtic languages alone, including Goidelic, originated in western Iberia (a theory that was first put forward by [[Edward Lhuyd]] in 1707) or shared a common linguistic ancestor with Lusitanian.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fDYyBwAAQBAJ&dq=edward+lhuyd+lusitanian+celtic&pg=PA8 Unity in Diversity, Volume 2: Cultural and Linguistic Markers of the Concept] Editors: Sabine Asmus and Barbara Braid. Google Books.</ref> Other scholars see greater linguistic affinities between Lusitanian, [[Old Gallo-Italic language|Old Gallo-Italic]] (particularly with [[Ligurian (ancient language)|Ligurian]]) and [[Old European hydronymy|Old European]].<ref name="Villar2000">{{cite book |last1=Villar |first1=Francisco |title=Indoeuropeos y no indoeuropeos en la Hispania Prerromana |date=2000 |publisher=Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca |location=Salamanca |isbn=84-7800-968-X |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G7zC8UCvmo0C |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231222127/https://books.google.com/books?id=G7zC8UCvmo0C |archive-date=31 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>''The inscription of Cabeço das Fráguas revisited. Lusitanian and Alteuropäisch populations in the West of the Iberian Peninsula'' Transactions of the Philological Society vol. 97 (2003)</ref> Prominent modern linguists such as [[Ellis Evans]], believe [[Gallaecian]]-Lusitanian was in fact one same language (not separate languages) of the "P" Celtic variant.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ilg.usc.es/agon/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Callaica_Nomina.pdf |title=Callaica_Nomina |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930005923/https://ilg.usc.es/agon/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Callaica_Nomina.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2020 |website=ilg.usc.es}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=Evans+lusitanian+celt+linguist&pg=PA484 |title=Celtic Culture: A-Celti |date=2006 |isbn=9781851094400 |last1=Koch |first1=John T. |author-link=John T. Koch |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]]}}</ref>
* '''[[Rhaetic]]''', spoken in central [[Switzerland]], [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]] in [[Austria]], and the Alpine regions of northeast [[Italy]]. Documented by a limited number of short inscriptions (found through Northern Italy and Western Austria) in two variants of the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. Its linguistic categorisation is not clearly established, and it presents a confusing mixture of what appear to be [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], and uncertain other elements. [[Howard Hayes Scullard]] argues that Rhaetian was also a Celtic language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scullard |first1=HH |title=The Etruscan Cities and Rome |url=https://archive.org/details/etruscancitiesro0000scul |url-access=registration |date=1967 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=9780801403736}}</ref>
* '''[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]''', spoken in the southwest of the Iberia Peninsula (mainly southern [[Portugal]] and southwest Spain).<ref name="koch2">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic |date=2010 |publisher=[[Oxbow Books]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-84217-410-4 |pages=292–293}}</ref> Tartessian is known by 95 inscriptions, with the longest having 82 readable signs.<ref name="cunliffe">{{cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |title=The Celts – A Very Short Introduction – see figure 7 |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-280418-9 |pages=51–52}}</ref><ref name="Colera">{{cite journal |last=Cólera |first=Carlos Jordán |title=The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula:Celtiberian |journal=E-Keltoi |date=16 March 2007 |volume=6 |pages=749–750 |url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf |access-date=16 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624081159/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="koch2011">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Tartessian 2: The Inscription of Mesas do Castelinho ro and the Verbal Complex. Preliminaries to Historical Phonology |date=2011 |url=http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow |publisher=[[Oxbow Books]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-907029-07-3 |pages=1–198 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723195518/http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow |archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref> [[John T. Koch]] argues that Tartessian was also a Celtic language.<ref name="koch2011" />

== See also ==
* [[Ogham]]
* [[Celts]]
* [[Celts (modern)]]
* [[wikt:Appendix:Celtic Swadesh lists|A Swadesh list of the modern Celtic languages]]
* [[Celtic Congress]]
* [[Celtic League]]
* [[Continental Celtic languages]]
* [[Italo-Celtic]]
* [[Language family]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). ''The Celtic Languages''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-01035-7}}.
* Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). ''The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0521481600}}.
* {{cite book |last=Cowgill |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Cowgill |date=1975 |chapter=The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings |editor=H. Rix |title=Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973 |location=Wiesbaden |pages=40–70 |publisher=Reichert |isbn=3-920153-40-5}}
* ''Celtic Linguistics, 1700–1850'' (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vols comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.
* {{cite journal |last1=Forster |first1=Peter |last2=Toth |first2=Alfred |title=Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=100 |issue=15 |pages=9079–84 |date=July 2003 |pmid=12837934 |pmc=166441 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1331158100 |bibcode=2003PNAS..100.9079F |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Gray |first1=Russell D. |last2=Atkinson |first2=Quentin D. |title=Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin |journal=Nature |volume=426 |issue=6965 |pages=435–39 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14647380 |doi=10.1038/nature02029 |bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G |s2cid=42340 |url= https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1}}
* {{cite book |last=Hindley |first=Reg |title=The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary |publisher=Routledge |date=1990 |isbn=0-415-04339-5}}
* Lewis, Henry & [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] (1989). ''A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. {{ISBN|3-525-26102-0}}.
* {{cite journal |last=McCone |first=Kim |date=1991 |title=The PIE stops and syllabic nasals in Celtic |journal=Studia Celtica Japonica |volume=4 |pages=37–69}}
* {{cite book |last=McCone |first=Kim |date=1992 |chapter=Relative Chronologie: Keltisch |title=Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten Der VIII. Fachtagung Der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31 August – 4 September 1987 |editor=R. Beekes |editor2=A. Lubotsky |editor3=J. Weitenberg |pages=12–39 |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |isbn=3-85124-613-6}}
* {{cite book |last=McCone |first=Kim |date=1996 |title=Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change |location=Maynooth |publisher=Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College |isbn=0-901519-40-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Paul |title=An Introduction to the Celtic Languages |publisher=Longman |date=1995 |isbn=0582100828}}
* {{cite book |last=Schmidt |first=K. H. |date=1988 |chapter=On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic |editor=G. W. MacLennan |title=Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986 |pages=231–48 |location=Ottawa |publisher=Chair of Celtic Studies |isbn=0-09-693260-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Schrijver |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Schrijver |date=1995 |title=Studies in British Celtic historical phonology |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=90-5183-820-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Schumacher |first1=Stefan |last2=Schulze-Thulin |first2=Britta |last3=aan de Wiel |first3=Caroline |title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon |date=2004 |publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck |location=Innsbruck |isbn=3-85124-692-6 |language=de}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last=Markey |first=Thomas L. |date=2006 |title=Early Celticity in Slovenia and at Rhaetic Magrè (Schio) |journal=Linguistica |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=145–72 |doi=10.4312/linguistica.46.1.145-172 |doi-access=free}}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Sims-Williams |first=Patrick |title=An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West' |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=30 |issue=3 |date=2020 |pages=511–29 |doi=10.1017/S0959774320000098 |s2cid=216484936 |doi-access=free |hdl=2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437 |hdl-access=free}}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Stifter |first=David |title=The early Celtic epigraphic evidence and early literacy in Germanic languages |journal=NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution |volume=73 |issue=1 |date=Apr 2020 |pages=123–152 |issn=0108-8416 |doi=10.1075/nowele.00037.sti |s2cid=219024967 |url= http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/12914/1/Stifter}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q25293|s=Portal:Celtic languages|c=category:Celtic languages|b=Category:Languages of Europe|v=Category:Celtic languages|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|n=no|wikt=Category:Celtic languages|q=no}}
* [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic Aberdeen University Celtic Department] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081208012252/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic |date=8 December 2008 }}
* [http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/celticlanguage/labara1.html "Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages", by Meredith Richard]
* [http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf Celts and Celtic Languages] (PDF)
{{Celtic languages|state=expanded}}
{{Celts}}
{{Indo-European languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Celtic languages}}
[[Category:Celtic languages| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Europe]]