View source for Chicano

{{Short description|Ethnic identity of some Mexican Americans}}
{{Redirect|Chicana|the wrestler|Sangre Chicana|other uses|Chicano (disambiguation)}}
[[File:ChicanoPowerCSULA.jpg|alt=|thumb|212x212px|A "Chicano Power!" by [[MEChA|M.E.Ch.A.]] [[California State University, Los Angeles|CSULA]] is held up in a crowd (2006).]]

'''Chicano''' ([[masculine form]]) or '''Chicana''' ([[feminine form]]) is an ethnic identity for [[Mexican Americans]] that emerged from the [[Chicano Movement]].<ref name="Salazar-1970">{{cite news |last=Salazar |first=Rubén |author-link=Rubén Salazar |date=February 6, 1970 |title=Who is a Chicano? And what is it the Chicanos want? |work=Los Angeles Times |quote=A Chicano is a Mexican-American with a non-Anglo image of himself.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Marie Contreras |first=Sheila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y786DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22chicano%22+%22non-anglo%22&pg=PA32 |title=Keywords for Latina/o Studies |date=2017 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=9781479866045 |page=32 |language=en |quote=To name oneself 'Chicano' or 'Chicana' is to assert a gendered, racial, ethnic, class, and cultural identity in opposition to Anglo-American hegemony...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Anreus |first1=Alejandro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQlDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22chicano%22+%22non-anglo%22&pg=PA244 |title=Mexican Muralism: A Critical History |last2=Folgarait |first2=Leonard |last3=Greeley |first3=Robin Adle |date=2012-09-08 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=9780520271616 |page=242 |language=en |quote=It fought against the privilege and power of the Anglo-European mainstream...}}</ref> 

In the 1960s, ''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed among Hispanics in the building of a movement toward political [[empowerment]], ethnic [[solidarity]], and pride in being of [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous]] descent (with many [[Nahuatl language in the United States|using the Nahuatl language]] or [[Chicano names|names]]).<ref name="López-2009">{{Cite book|last=López|first=Ian Haney|title=Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780674038264|pages=1–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=San Miguel|first=Guadalupe|title=Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2005|isbn=9781585444939|page=200}}</ref>

''Chicano'' was used in a sense separate from ''Mexican American'' identity.<ref name="López-2009" /><ref name="Rodriguez-2020">{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Luis J. |title=From Our Land to Our Land: Essays, Journeys, and Imaginings from a Native Xicanx Writer |publisher=Seven Stories Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781609809737 |chapter=A Note on Terminology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1-link=Pancho McFarland |last=McFarland |first=Pancho |title=Toward a Chican@ Hip Hop Anti-colonialism |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2017 |isbn=9781351375276 |pages=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Falcon |first=Kandance Creel |title=How Dare We! Write: A Multicultural Creative Writing Discourse |publisher=Modern History Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781615993307 |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Sherry Quan |page=14 |chapter=What Would Eden Say? Reclaiming the Personal and Grounding Story in Chicana Feminist (Academic) Writing}}</ref> Youth in ''[[Barrioization|barrios]]'' rejected [[cultural assimilation]] into [[Mainstream culture|mainstream]] American culture and embraced their own identity and worldview as a form of empowerment and resistance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=List |first=Christine |title=Chicano Images: Refiguring Ethnicity in Mainstream Film |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |isbn=9781317928768 |pages=44–45}}</ref> The community forged an independent political and cultural movement, sometimes working alongside the [[Black power movement]].<ref name="Mantler-2013" /><ref name="MartinezHoSang-2013" />

The Chicano Movement faltered by the mid-1970s as a result of external and internal pressures. It was under state surveillance, infiltration, and repression by U.S. [[Government agency|government agencies]], [[informant]]s, and [[agents provocateurs]], such as through the FBI's [[COINTELPRO]].<ref name="Kunkin-1972">{{Cite book|last=Kunkin|first=Art|title=The Chicano Movement: A Historical Exploration of Literature|publisher=Los Angeles Free Press|year=1972|isbn=9781610697088|pages=108–110|chapter=Chicano Leader Tells of Starting Violence to Justify Arrests}}</ref><ref name="Montoya-2016">{{Cite book|last=Montoya|first=Maceo|title=Chicano Movement for Beginners|publisher=For Beginners|year=2016|isbn=9781939994646|pages=192–93}}</ref><ref name="Delgado-2008">{{Cite book|last=Delgado|first=Héctor L.|title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society|publisher=SAGE Publications|year=2008|isbn=9781412926942|page=274}}</ref><ref name="Suderburg-2000">{{Cite book|last=Suderburg|first=Erika|title=Space, Site, Intervention: Situating Installation Art|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2000|isbn=9780816631599|page=191}}</ref> The Chicano Movement also had a fixation on masculine pride and [[machismo]] that fractured the community through [[sexism]] toward Chicanas and [[homophobia]] toward [[queer]] Chicanos.<ref name="Gutiérrez-Jones-1995" /><ref name="Orosco-2008" /><ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" />

In the 1980s, increased assimilation and [[economic mobility]] motivated many to embrace ''[[Hispanic and Latino (ethnic categories)|Hispanic]]'' identity in an era of [[conservatism]].<ref name="Mora-2007">{{Cite book|last=Mora|first=Carlos|title=Latinos in the West: The Student Movement and Academic Labor in Los Angeles|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2007|isbn=9780742547841|pages=53–60}}</ref> The term ''Hispanic'' emerged from consultation between the U.S. government and Mexican-American political elites in the [[Hispanic Caucus]] of Congress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lezama |first=Ricardo |date=2023-11-14 |title=Latino: the Manufactured Super Consumer (July 4, 2014) |url=https://lacartita.com/latino-the-manufactured-super-consumer-july-4-2014/ |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=La Cartita Noticias |language=en |archive-date=2023-11-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114191204/https://lacartita.com/latino-the-manufactured-super-consumer-july-4-2014/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They used the term to identify themselves and the community with [[Mainstream culture|mainstream]] American culture, depart from ''[[Chicanismo]],'' and distance themselves from what they perceived as the "militant" [[Congressional Black Caucus|Black Caucus]].<ref name="Martinez-2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Martinez|first1=Daniel E.|last2=Gonzalez|first2=Kelsey E.|date=2020|title="Latino" or "Hispanic"? The Sociodemographic Correlates of Panethnic Label Preferences among U.S. Latinos/Hispanics|url=https://www.academia.edu/43915627|journal=Sociological Perspectives|pages=1–5|archive-date=2022-11-11|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111021330/https://www.academia.edu/43915627|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gomez-1992">{{Cite journal|last=Gomez|first=Laura E.|date=Autumn 1992|title=The Birth of the "Hispanic" Generation: Attitudes of Mexican-American Political Elites toward the Hispanic Label|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2633844|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=19|issue=4|pages=50–53|doi=10.1177/0094582X9201900405|jstor=2633844|s2cid=144239298|archive-date=2020-11-02|access-date=2020-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102011215/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2633844|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
[[File:Women's March LA 2019 (46753441972).jpg|thumb|214x214px|"Chicana by luck, proud by choice" at [[2019 Women's March]], [[Los Angeles]]]]At the [[Grassroots|grassroots level]], Chicano/as continued to build the [[Feminism|feminist]], [[Gay and lesbian rights movement|gay and lesbian]], and [[Anti-Apartheid movement in the United States|anti-apartheid]] movements, which kept the identity politically relevant.<ref name="Mora-2007" /> After a decade of ''Hispanic'' dominance, Chicano [[student activism]] in the [[Early 1990s recession in the United States|early 1990s recession]] and the anti-[[Gulf War]] movement revived the identity with a demand to expand [[Chicano studies]] programs.<ref name="Mora-2007" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mora-Ninci|first=Carlos|title=The Chicano/a Student Movement in Southern California in the 1990s|publisher=University of California, Los Angeles|year=1999|page=358}}</ref> Chicanas were active at the forefront, despite facing critiques from "movement loyalists", as they did in the [[Chicano Movement]]. [[Chicana feminism|Chicana feminists]] addressed [[employment discrimination]], [[environmental racism]], [[Health care|healthcare]], [[sexual violence]], and exploitation in their communities and in solidarity with the [[Third World]].<ref name="Blackwell-2016" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Navarro|first=Armando|title=Mexicano and Latino Politics and the Quest for Self-Determination: What Needs to Be Done|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2015|isbn=9780739197363|page=72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Córdova|first=Teresa|title=Mexico and the United States|publisher=Marshall Cavendish Corporation|year=2002|isbn=9780761474029|pages=154–56|chapter=Chicana Feminism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Aldama |first=Frederick Luis |title=Routledge Handbook of Chicana/o Studies |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=9781317536697 |chapter=Chicana/o literature's multi-spatiotemporal projections and impacts; or back to the future}}</ref> Chicanas worked to "liberate her ''entire people''"; not to oppress men, but to be equal partners in the movement.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roth|first=Benita|title=Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America's Second Wave|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780521529723|pages=154–55}}</ref> ''[[Xicanisma]]'', coined by [[Ana Castillo]] in 1994, called for Chicana/os to "reinsert the forsaken feminine into our consciousness",<ref name="Lerate-2007" /><ref name="Velasco-2002">{{Cite book |last=Velasco |first=Juan |title=Latino/a Popular Culture |publisher=NYU Press |year=2002 |isbn=9780814736258 |page=217 |chapter=Performing Multiple Identities}}</ref> to embrace one's Indigenous roots, and support [[Indigenous sovereignty]].<ref name="López-2017">{{Cite book |last=López |first=Francesca A. |title=Asset Pedagogies in Latino Youth Identity and Achievement: Nurturing Confianza |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=9781138911413 |pages=177–178}}</ref><ref name="Velasco-2002" />

In the 2000s, earlier traditions of [[anti-imperialism]] in the [[Chicano Movement]] were expanded.<ref name="López-2011">{{Cite book |last=López |first=Marissa K. |url=https://archive.org/details/chicanonationshe00lope |title=Chicano Nations: The Hemispheric Origins of Mexican American Literature |publisher=NYU Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780814752623 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chicanonationshe00lope/page/n211 201]-208 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Building solidarity with [[undocumented immigrants]] became more important, despite issues of [[legal status]] and [[Competition (economics)|economic competitiveness]] sometimes maintaining distance between groups.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aguilar |first1=Carlos |title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Child Migrants: Seen But Not Heard |last2=Marquez |first2=Raquel R. |last3=Romo |first3=Harriet D. |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2017 |isbn=9781498549714 |page=160 |chapter=From DREAMers to DACAdemics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosales |first=F. Arturo |title=Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement |publisher=Arte Publico Press |year=1996 |isbn=9781611920949 |page=42}}</ref> [[Foreign interventions by the United States|U.S. foreign interventions]] abroad were connected with domestic issues concerning the rights of [[Undocumented immigrant population of the United States|undocumented immigrants in the United States]].<ref name="López-2011" /><ref name="Olivia-Rotger-2007" /> Chicano/a consciousness increasingly became [[Transnationalism|transnational]] and [[Transculturalism|transcultural]], thinking beyond and bridging with communities over political borders.<ref name="Olivia-Rotger-2007">{{Cite book|last=Olivia-Rotger|first=Maria Antònia|title=Border Transits: Literature and Culture Across the Line|publisher=Rodopi|year=2007|isbn=9789042022492|pages=181–184|chapter=Ethnographies of Transnational Migration in Rubén Martinez's 'Crossing Over' (2001)}}</ref> The identity was renewed based on [[Indigenous Knowledge|Indigenous]] and [[Decoloniality|decolonial consciousness]], cultural expression, resisting [[gentrification]], defense of immigrants, and the rights of women and [[queer]] people.<ref name="Romero-2018">{{cite web|last=Romero|first=Dennis|date=15 July 2018|title=A Chicano renaissance? A new Mexican-American generation embraces the term|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/chicano-renaissance-new-mexican-american-generation-embraces-term-n869846|access-date=2 August 2019|website=NBC News|archive-date=1 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801185307/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/chicano-renaissance-new-mexican-american-generation-embraces-term-n869846|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite news |date=2017-10-22 |title=From Chicano to Xicanx: A brief history of a political and cultural identity |language=en-US |work=The Daily Dot |url=https://www.dailydot.com/irl/xicano/ |access-date=2018-03-10 |archive-date=2018-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311140653/https://www.dailydot.com/irl/xicano/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Xicanx]]'' identity also emerged in the 2010s, based on the [[Chicana feminism|Chicana feminist]] intervention of ''[[Xicanisma]]''.<ref name="Borunda-2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Borunda|first1=Rose|last2=Magdalena Martinez|first2=Lorena|date=4 August 2020|title=Strategies for Defusing Contemporary Weapons in the Ongoing War Against Xicanx Children and Youth|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40688-020-00312-x|journal=Contemporary Social Psychology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=266–278|doi=10.1007/s40688-020-00312-x|s2cid=225409343|via=Springer|archive-date=17 October 2020|access-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017151937/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40688-020-00312-x|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Zepeda-2020">{{Cite journal|last=Zepeda|first=Susy|date=Spring 2020|title=Decolonizing Xicana/x Studies: Healing the Susto of De-indigenization|url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/64376429/Zepeda_Susy_Decolonzing%20Xicanax%20Studies_Aztlan_2020.pdf?1599508578=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDecolonizing_Xicana_x_Studies_Healing_th.pdf&Expires=1602974603&Signature=GRuOzPgxXYGi-M1j4QKACRjOCMTs9gAnB6wuMUZI-dSJJGUelf1BxK6FxCA47gfwNJBAeRTfvNUqa~-hMzgH6X9GQQjy6bsBi-aXUDVpOQhCEDtj8tPABUpGIc88WSe282RuiGap~3Em~jppCQ9F~972A37RiWCrHxXsPYdSea~7IUyA-rDJvV3V~uet4b9Yt6N~e1RdOX8CxBS6QKYmE4T-~Tto-81R4n~5GcNg2keQVBzz6ReA9A8nQ3boLR4zdTVZq1OCUZ-TbHUkiXV50ciMbUSvCUsDuvbcVi-Nx2AKKil01hDt2zbkjrxH3O7VFwyd8QCOcY3O6tv~QeIJ4w__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|journal=Atzlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies|volume=45|pages=227–29}}{{dead link|date=May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Luna-2020">{{Cite book |last1=Luna |first1=Jennie |title=Decolonizing Latinx Masculinities |last2=Estrada |first2=Gabriel S. |publisher=University of Arizona Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780816541836 |editor-last=Aldama |editor-first=Arturo J. |pages=251–268 |chapter=Trans*lating the Genderqueer -X through Caxcan, Nahua, and Xicanx Indígena Knowledge |editor-last2=Luis Aldama |editor-first2=Frederick}}</ref>

{{Chicano and Mexican American topics sidebar}}

== Etymology ==
[[File:Aztec drums, Florentine Codex..jpg|thumb|173x173px|''Chicano'' may derive from the [[Mexica|Mexica people]], originally pronounced ''Meh-Shee-Ka''.<ref name="Baca-2008" />]]
The etymology of the term ''Chicano'' is the subject of some debate by historians.<ref name="Zaragoza-2017">{{Cite book|title=Aztlán: Essays on the Chicano Homeland. Revised and Expanded Edition|last=Zaragoza|first=Cosme|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2017|isbn=9780826356758|page=137}}</ref> Some believe ''Chicano'' is a [[Spanish language]] derivative of an older [[Nahuatl]] word ''[[Mexitli]]'' ("Meh-shee-tlee"). Mexitli formed part of the expression ''Huitzilopochtlil Mexitli''—a reference to the historic migration of the [[Mexica|Mexica people]] from their homeland of [[Aztlán]] to the [[Valley of Mexico]]. Mexitli is the root of the word ''Mexica'', which refers to the [[Mexica|Mexica people]], and its singular form ''Mexihcatl'' ({{IPA|/meːˈʃiʔkat͡ɬ/}}). The ''x'' in Mexihcatl represents an /ʃ/ or ''sh'' sound in both Nahuatl and early modern Spanish, while the [[glottal stop]] in the middle of the Nahuatl word disappeared.<ref name="Baca-2008" />

The word ''Chicano'' may derive from the loss of the initial syllable of ''Mexicano'' (Mexican). According to Villanueva, "given that the [[Velar consonant|velar]] (x) is a [[Palatal consonant|palatal]] [[phoneme]] (S) with the spelling (sh)," in accordance with the Indigenous [[Phonology|phonological]] system of the Mexicas ("Meshicas"), it would become "Meshicano" or "Mechicano."<ref name="Zaragoza-2017" /> In this explanation, ''Chicano'' comes from the "xicano" in "Mexicano."<ref name="libguides-2023">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Research Guides: Chicano Poetry: Náhuatl poetry and Floricanto |url=https://libguides.wustl.edu/c.php?g=853434&p=6109968 |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=libguides.wustl.edu |language=en |archive-date=2023-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121015809/https://libguides.wustl.edu/c.php?g=853434&p=6109968 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some Chicanos replace the ''Ch'' with the letter ''X'', or ''Xicano'', to reclaim the Nahuatl ''sh'' sound. The first two syllables of ''Xicano'' are therefore in Nahuatl while the last syllable is Castilian.<ref name="Baca-2008">{{Cite book|title=Mestiz@ Scripts, Digital Migrations, and the Territories of Writing|url=https://archive.org/details/mestizscriptsdig00baca|url-access=limited|last=Baca|first=D.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2008|isbn=9780230605152|page=[https://archive.org/details/mestizscriptsdig00baca/page/n78 54]}}</ref>

In Mexico's Indigenous regions, [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous people]] refer to members of the non-Indigenous majority<ref>Not to be confused with the language [[Judeo-Spanish|Ladino]] of Spain and Portugal, a Spanish language spoken by Sephardic Jews of Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Israel and the USA.</ref> as ''mexicanos'', referring to the modern nation of Mexico. Among themselves, the speaker identifies by their ''{{lang|es|pueblo}}'' (village or tribal) identity, such as [[Maya peoples|Mayan]], [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]], [[Mixtec]], [[Huastec people|Huastec]], or any of the other hundreds of Indigenous groups. A newly emigrated Nahuatl speaker in an urban center might have referred to his cultural relatives in this country, different from himself, as ''{{lang|es|mexicanos}}'', shortened to ''Chicanos'' or ''Xicanos.''<ref name="Baca-2008" />

== Usage of terms ==

=== Early recorded use ===
[[File:Chicana_Town_1562_Map.jpg|alt=|thumb|220x220px|Closeup of the [[Gutiérrez 1562 New World map]]. The town of ''Chicana'' is listed in the upper left of the map, which is the earliest recorded usage of ''Chicana/o''.<ref name="Rodriguez-2017" />]]
The town of ''Chicana'' was shown on the [[Gutiérrez 1562 New World map]] near the mouth of the [[Colorado River]], and is probably [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] in origin.<ref name="Rodriguez-2017">{{cite web|title=Rodriguez: The X in LatinX|url=https://diverseeducation.com/article/97500/|last1=Rodriguez|first1=Roberto|date=June 7, 2017|website=Diverse: Issues In Higher Education|publisher=Cox, Matthews, and Associates|access-date=August 4, 2019|archive-date=August 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804091036/https://diverseeducation.com/article/97500/|url-status=live}}</ref> The town was again included on [[c:File:Il Desegno del Discoperto della Nova Franza.jpg|Desegno del Discoperto Della Nova Franza]], a 1566 French map by Paolo Forlani. [[Roberto Cintli Rodríguez]] places the location of ''Chicana'' at the mouth of the Colorado River, near present-day [[Yuma, Arizona]].<ref name="Rodriguez-2008">{{Cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Roberto Garcia|title=Centeotzintli: Sacred maize. A 7,000 year ceremonial discourse|publisher=The University of Wisconsin–Madison|year=2008|page=247}}</ref> An 18th century map of the [[Nayarit]] Missions used the name ''Xicana'' for a town near the same location of ''Chicana'', which is considered to be the oldest recorded usage of that term.<ref name="Rodriguez-2008" />

A [[gunboat]], the ''Chicana'', was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the [[Rio Grande]]. The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this gunboat's conversion from a [[Steamboat|passenger steamer]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chance|first=Joseph|title=Jose Maria de Jesus Carvajal: The Life and Times of a Mexican Revolutionary|date=2006|publisher=Trinity University Press|location=San Antonio, Texas|page=195}}</ref> No explanation for the boat's name is known.

The Chicano poet and writer [[Tino Villanueva]] traced the first documented use of the term as an [[ethnonym]] to 1911, as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by [[University of Texas at Austin|University of Texas]] [[Anthropology|anthropologist]] José Limón.<ref name="ERIC">Félix Rodríguez González, ed. ''Spanish Loanwords in the English Language. A Tendency towards Hegemony Reversal''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Villanueva is referring to Limón's essay "The Folk Performance of Chicano and the Cultural Limits of Political Ideology," available via [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED198695&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED198695 ERIC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208142445/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED198695&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED198695 |date=2008-12-08 }}. Limón refers to use of the word in a 1911 report titled "Hot tamales" in the Spanish-language newspaper ''La Crónica'' in 1911.</ref> Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, published in the ''Arizona Quarterly'' in 1947.<ref>Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle. "Chicano: Origin and Meaning." ''American Speech'' 44.3 (Autumn 1969): 225–230.</ref> There is ample literary evidence to substantiate that ''Chicano'' is a long-standing [[endonym]], as a large body of Chicano literature pre-dates the 1950s.<ref name="ERIC" />

''Chicano'' was originally a [[classist]] and [[Racism|racist]] [[Pejorative|slur]] used toward [[Low income|low-income]] Mexicans that was [[Reappropriation|reclaimed]] in the 1940s among youth who belonged to the [[Pachuco]] and [[Pachucas|Pachuca]] subculture.<ref name="Macías-2008">{{Cite book|last=Macías|first=Anthony|title=Mexican American Mojo: Popular Music, Dance, and Urban Culture in Los Angeles, 1935–1968|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780822389385|page=9}}</ref>

=== Reclaiming the term ===
{{Main|Pachuco|Pachucas}}
[[File:A man arrested during the Zoot Suit Riots models a zoot suit and pancake hat in a Los Angeles County jail on June 9, 1943.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Frank H. Tellez, a [[Pachuco]] youth, wears a [[zoot suit]] while arrested in the [[Zoot Suit Riots]]. Pachucos were the first to [[Reappropriation|reclaim]] the word ''Chicano'' as a form of pride.<ref name="Macías-2008" />]]
In the 1940s, ''"Chicano"'' was reclaimed by [[Pachuco]] youth as an expression of defiance to [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] society.<ref name="Macías-2008" /> At the time, ''Chicano'' was used among [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers as a [[classist]] and [[racist slur]] to refer to [[working class]] Mexican Americans in Spanish-speaking neighborhoods. In Mexico, the term was used with ''[[Pocho]]'' "to deride Mexicans living in the United States, and especially their U.S.-born children, for losing their culture, customs, and language."<ref name="Veléz-2010">{{Cite book|last=Veléz|first=Lupe|title=From Bananas to Buttocks: The Latina Body in Popular Film and Culture|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292778498|pages=66–67}}</ref> Mexican anthropologist [[Manuel Gamio]] reported in 1930 that ''Chicamo'' (with an ''m'') was used as a derogatory term by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican [[Immigration|immigrants]] displaced during the [[Mexican Revolution]] in the beginning of the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gamio|first=Manuel|title=Mexican Immigration to the United States: A Study of Human Migration and Adjustment|date=1930|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago}}</ref>

By the 1950s, ''Chicano'' referred to those who resisted total assimilation, while ''Pocho'' referred (often [[pejorative]]ly) to those who strongly advocated for assimilation.<ref>See: Adalberto M. Guerrero, Macario Saldate IV, and Salomon R. Baldenegro. [http://www.aache.org/news0999.htm "Chicano: The term and its meanings."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022034412/http://www.aache.org/news0999.htm|date=October 22, 2007}} A paper written for Hispanic Heritage Month, published in the 1999 conference newsletter of the Arizona Association of Chicanos for Higher Education.</ref> In his essay "Chicanismo" in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures'' (2002), [[José Cuéllar]], dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with increasing use by young Mexican-American high school students. These younger, politically aware Mexican Americans adopted the term "as an act of political defiance and ethnic pride", similar to the reclaiming of [[Black people|''Black'']] by [[African Americans]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herbst|first=Philip|title=The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States|publisher=Intercultural Press|year=2007|isbn=9781877864971|page=47}}</ref> The [[Chicano Movement]] during the 1960s and early 1970s played a significant role in reclaiming ''"Chicano,"'' challenging those who used it as a term of derision on both sides of the [[Mexico–United States border|Mexico-U.S. border]].<ref name="Veléz-2010" />

Demographic differences in the adoption of ''Chicano'' occurred at first. It was more likely to be used by males than females, and less likely to be used among those of higher socioeconomic status. Usage was also generational, with [[Immigrant generations|third-generation]] men more likely to use the word. This group was also younger, more political, and different from traditional Mexican cultural heritage.<ref>Vicki L. Ruiz & Virginia Sanchez Korrol, editors. ''Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia''. [[Indiana University Press]], 2006.</ref><ref>Maria Herrera-Sobek. Chicano folklore; a handbook. Greenwood Press 2006.</ref> ''Chicana'' was a similar classist term to refer to "[a] marginalized, brown woman who is treated as a foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives."<ref>{{cite video|title=How I Became a Genre-jumper|date=May 25, 2006|people=Ana Castillo|publisher=UCTV Channel 17|location=Santa Barbara, California|medium=TV broadcast of a lecture}}</ref> Among Mexican Americans, ''Chicano'' and ''Chicana'' began to be viewed as a positive identity of [[self-determination]] and political solidarity.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Chicana Subject in Ana Castillo's Fiction and the Discursive Zone of Chicana/o Theory|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ769174&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ769174|work=ERIC.Ed.gov|access-date=October 13, 2008|archive-date=December 8, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208142450/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ769174&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ769174|url-status=live}}</ref> In Mexico, ''Chicano'' may still be associated with a [[Mexican Americans|Mexican American]] person of low importance, [[Social class|class]], and poor morals (similar to the terms ''[[Cholo (subculture)|Cholo]]'', [[Majo|''Chulo'']] and ''Majo''), indicating a difference in cultural views.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chicano Art|url=http://www.umich.edu/~ac213/student_projects/ca/background.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516000827/http://www.umich.edu/~ac213/student_projects/ca/background.htm|archive-date=2007-05-16|quote=Thus, the "Chicano" term carried an inferior, negative connotation because it was usually used to describe a worker who had to move from job to job to be able to survive. Chicanos were the low class Mexican Americans.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=McConnell, Scott|date=1997-12-31|title=Americans no more? – immigration and assimilation|work=National Review|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n25_v49/ai_20208927/pg_4|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013201342/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n25_v49/ai_20208927/pg_4|archive-date=2007-10-13|quote=In the late 1960s, a nascent Mexican-American movement adopted for itself the word "Chicano" (which had a connotation of low class) and broke forth with surprising suddenness.}}</ref><ref name="Alcoff, Linda Martín 2005 395–407">{{cite journal|author=Alcoff, Linda Martín|year=2005|title=Latino vs. Hispanic: The politics of ethnic names|journal=Philosophy & Social Criticism|publisher=SAGE Publications|volume=31|issue=4|pages=395–407|doi=10.1177/0191453705052972|s2cid=144267416}}</ref>

=== Chicano Movement ===
{{Main|Chicano Movement}}
[[File:Chicano power flag of aztlan.jpg|thumb|230x230px|''Chicano'' became widely adopted during the [[Chicano Movement]].]]
''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed in the 1960s and 1970s during the [[Chicano Movement]] to assert a distinct ethnic, political, and cultural identity that resisted assimilation into the [[Mainstream culture|mainstream]] American culture, systematic racism and stereotypes, colonialism, and the American nation-state.<ref name="Varon-2018" /> Chicano identity formed around seven themes: unity, economy, education, institutions, self-defense, culture, and political liberation, in an effort to bridge regional and class divisions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://icaa.mfah.org/s/en/item/803398#?c=&m=&s=&cv=1&xywh=-408%2C-54%2C3275%2C1833 | title=El plan espiritual de Aztlan · ICAA Documents Project · ICAA/MFAH | access-date=2023-03-05 | archive-date=2023-03-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305005255/https://icaa.mfah.org/s/en/item/803398#?c=&m=&s=&cv=1&xywh=-408%2C-54%2C3275%2C1833 | url-status=live }}</ref> The notion of [[Aztlán]], a mythical homeland claimed to be located in the [[southwestern United States]], mobilized Mexican Americans to take social and political action. ''Chicano'' became a unifying term for ''[[mestizo]]s''.<ref name="Varon-2018">{{Cite book|title=Before Chicano: Citizenship and the Making of Mexican American Manhood, 1848-1959|last=Varon|first=Alberto|publisher=NYU Press|year=2018|isbn=9781479831197|pages=207–211}}</ref> ''Xicano'' was also used in the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pdx1AAAAMAAJ&q=before:1980+%22xicano%22 |title=El Quetzal Emplumece |date=1976 |publisher=Mexican American Cultural Center |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Terán |first=Heriberto G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFY_AAAAIAAJ&q=before:1980+%22xicano%22 |title=Espejo de Alma Y Corazon |date=1975 |publisher=Familia y Amigos de Terán |language=en}}</ref>

In the 1970s, Chicanos developed a reverence for [[machismo]] while also maintaining the values of their original platform. For instance, [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]] defined machismo as the source of Chicano identity, claiming that this "instinctual and mystical source of manhood, honor and pride... alone justifies all behavior."<ref name="Gutiérrez-Jones-1995">{{Cite book|title=Rethinking the Borderlands: Between Chicano Culture and Legal Discourse|last=Gutiérrez-Jones|first=Carl|publisher=University of California Press|year=1995|isbn=9780520085794|page=134}}</ref> Armando Rendón wrote in ''Chicano Manifesto'' (1971) that machismo was "in fact an underlying drive of the gathering identification of Mexican Americans... the essence of ''machismo'', of being ''macho'', is as much a symbolic principle for the Chicano revolt as it is a guideline for family life."<ref name="Jacobs-2006">{{Cite book|title=Mexican American Literature: The Politics of Identity|url=https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericanl00jaco|url-access=limited|last=Jacobs|first=Elizabeth|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=9780415364904|page=[https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericanl00jaco/page/n93 87]}}</ref>

From the beginning of the Chicano Movement, some Chicanas criticized the idea that [[machismo]] must guide the people and questioned if machismo was "indeed a genuinely Mexican cultural value or a kind of distorted view of masculinity generated by the psychological need to compensate for the indignities suffered by Chicanos in a [[White Supremacist|white supremacist]] society."<ref name="Orosco-2008" /> [[Angie Chabram-Dernersesian]] found that most of the literature on the Chicano Movement focused on men and boys, while almost none focused on Chicanas. The omission of Chicanas and the machismo of the Chicano Movement led to a shift by the 1990s.<ref name="Orosco-2008">{{Cite book|title=Cesar Chavez and the Common Sense of Nonviolence|last=Orosco|first=José-Antonio|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2008|isbn=9780826343758|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cesarchavezcommo00oros/page/71 71–72, 85]|url=https://archive.org/details/cesarchavezcommo00oros/page/71}}</ref>

=== Xicanisma ===
{{Main|Xicanisma}}
[[File:Ana Castillo by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|203x203px|[[Ana Castillo]] coined ''Xicanisma'' to reflect a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement.<ref name="Lerate-2007" />]]
''[[Xicanisma]]'' was coined by [[Ana Castillo]] in ''Massacre of the Dreamers'' (1994) as a recognition of a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement and to reinvigorate [[Chicana feminism]].<ref name="Lerate-2007">{{Cite book|title=Critical Essays on Chicano Studies|last1=Lerate|first1=Jesús|last2=Ángeles Toda Iglesia|first2=María|publisher=Peter Lang AG|year=2007|isbn=9783039112814|page=26|chapter=Entrevista con Ana Castillo}}</ref> The aim of Xicanisma is not to replace [[patriarchy]] with [[matriarchy]], but to create "a nonmaterialistic and nonexploitive society in which feminine principles of nurturing and community prevail"; where the feminine is reinserted into our consciousness [[Coloniality of gender|rather than subordinated by colonization]].<ref name="Acampora-Cotten-2007">{{Cite book |title=Unmaking race, remaking soul: transformative aesthetics and the practice of freedom |date=2007 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |first1=Christa |last1=Davis Acampora|first2=Trystan T. |last2=Cotten |isbn=9780791471616 |location=Albany, NY |pages=42–43 |oclc=72699085}}</ref><ref name="Aviles-2018">{{Cite book |last=Aviles |first=E. |title=Contemporary U.S. Latinx literature in Spanish : straddling identities |date=2018 |others=Michele Shaul, Kathryn Quinn-Sánchez, Amrita Das |isbn=9783030025984 |location=Cham, Switzerland |pages=30–31 |oclc=1076485572}}</ref> The ''X'' reflects the ''Sh'' sound in [[Mesoamerican languages]] (such as ''[[Tlaxcala]]'', which is pronounced ''Tlash-KAH-lah''),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adams |first=Richard E. W. |title=Prehistoric Mesoamerica |date=2005 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-3702-9 |edition=3rd |location=Norman |page=433 |oclc=58975830 |quote=Sixteenth-century Spanish was different from modern Spanish and had an x used to represent the sh sound. Thus, Tlaxcala is Tlash-KAH-lah and Texcoco is Tesh-KOH-koh.}}</ref> and so marked this sound with a letter X.<ref name="Baca-2008" /> More than a letter, the ''X'' in Xicanisma is also a symbol to represent being at a literal [[Intersection (road)|crossroads]] or otherwise embodying [[hybridity]].<ref name="Acampora-Cotten-2007" /><ref name="Aviles-2018" />
[[File:Xicano (5720815588).jpg|left|thumb|219x219px|A man with ''Xicano'' on his shirt.]]
''Xicanisma'' acknowledges Indigenous survival after [[European colonization of the Americas|hundreds of years of colonization]] and the need to reclaim one's Indigenous roots while also being "committed to the struggle for liberation of all oppressed people", wrote Francesca A. López.<ref name="López-2017" /> Activists like [[Guillermo Gómez-Peña]], issued "a call for a return to the Amerindian roots of most Latinos as well as a call for a strategic alliance to give agency to Native American groups."<ref name="Velasco-2002" /> This can include one's [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous roots from Mexico]] "as well as those with roots centered in Central and South America," wrote Francisco Rios.<ref name="Rios-2013">{{Cite journal|last=Rios|first=Francisco|date=Spring 2013|title=From Chicano/a to Xicana/o: Critical Activist Teaching Revisited|url= |journal=Multicultural Education|volume=20|pages=59–61|id={{ProQuest|1495448383}} {{Gale|A411196911}} }}</ref> Castillo argued that this shift in language was important because "language is the vehicle by which we perceive ourselves in relation to the world".<ref name="Aviles-2018" />
[[File:Luis J Rodriguez NBCC Awards (cropped).jpg|thumb|187x187px|[[Luis J. Rodriguez]] refers to ''[[Xicanx]]'' as important for [[gender non-conforming]] Mexican Americans.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2020 |title=Author Luis J. Rodriguez "From Our Land to Our Land" |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2020-02-05/luis-rodriguez-from-our-land-to-our-land |website=Los Angeles Times |access-date=2020-10-20 |archive-date=2020-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020034551/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2020-02-05/luis-rodriguez-from-our-land-to-our-land |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Among a minority of Mexican Americans, the term ''[[Xicanx]]'' may be used to refer to [[gender non-conformity]]. [[Luis J. Rodriguez]] states that "even though most US Mexicans may not use this term," that it can be important for gender non-conforming [[Mexican Americans]].<ref name="Rodriguez-2020" /> ''Xicanx'' may destabilize aspects of the [[coloniality of gender]] in Mexican American communities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=DiPietro|first=Pedro J.|title=Theories of the Flesh: Latinx and Latin American Feminisms, Transformation, and Resistance|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780190062996|page=226|chapter=Hallucinating Knowledge: (Extra)ordinary Consciousness, More-Than-Human Perception, and Other Decolonizing Remedios with Latina and Xicana Feminist Theories}}</ref><ref>Zepeda, Susy. "Decolonizing Xicana/x Studies." ''Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies'' 45, no. 1 (2020).</ref><ref>Luna, Jennie, and Gabriel S. Estrada. "Trans* lating the Genderqueer-X through Caxcan, Nahua, and Xicanx Indígena Knowledge." ''Decolonizing Latinx Masculinities'' (2020): 251.</ref> Artist Roy Martinez states that it is not "bound to the feminine or masculine aspects" and that it may be "inclusive to anyone who identifies with it".<ref name="Calderón-Douglass-2016">{{Cite web|title=Meet the Artist Bringing Queer and Chicano Culture Together in a Glorious NSFW Mashup|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/lambe-culo-brings-queer-and-chicano-culture-together-with-nsfw-internet-art-456/|last=Calderón-Douglass|first=Barbara|date=16 March 2016|website=Vice|access-date=26 May 2020|archive-date=19 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919150152/https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/8gkpk4/lambe-culo-brings-queer-and-chicano-culture-together-with-nsfw-internet-art-456|url-status=live}}</ref> Some prefer the -e suffix ''Xicane'' in order to be more in-line with Spanish-speaking language constructs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harbaugh |first=Stacy |title=Non-binary Xicane Benji Ramirez challenges out Alder Patrick Heck for District 2 seat |url=https://ourliveswisconsin.com/article/non-binary-xicane-benji-ramirez-challenges-out-alder-patrick-heck-for-district-2-seat/ |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=Our Lives |date=March 2021 |archive-date=2023-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113212421/https://ourliveswisconsin.com/article/non-binary-xicane-benji-ramirez-challenges-out-alder-patrick-heck-for-district-2-seat/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Distinction from other terms ==
=== ''Mexican American'' ===
[[File:Mexican and negro cotton pickers inside plantation store, Knowlton Plantation, Perthshire, Miss. Delta. This transient labor is contracted for and brought in trucks from Texas each season. October 1939.jpg|left|thumb|181x181px|Mexican and Black [[cotton picker]]s inside a [[Company store|plantation store]] (1939). In the 1930s, the term ''Mexican American'' was promoted to attempt to define Mexicans "as a [[White Americans|white ethnic group]] that had little in common with [[African Americans]]."<ref name="Muñoz-2007" />]]
In the 1930s, "community leaders promoted the term ''Mexican American'' to convey an assimilationist ideology stressing white identity," as noted by legal scholar [[Ian Haney López]].<ref name="López-2009" /> Lisa Y. Ramos argues that "this phenomenon demonstrates why no Black-Brown civil rights effort emerged prior to the 1960s."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ramos|first=Lisa Y.|title=The Struggle in Black and Brown: African American and Mexican American Relations During the Civil Rights Era|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2012|isbn=9780803262744|pages=19–20|chapter=Not Similar Enough: Mexican American and African American Civil Rights Struggles in the 1940s}}</ref> Chicano youth rejected the previous generation's racial aspirations to assimilate into [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] society and developed a "[[Pachuco]] culture that fashioned itself neither as Mexican nor American."<ref name="López-2009" />

In the Chicano Movement, possibilities for [[Black–brown unity]] arose: "Chicanos defined themselves as proud members of a brown race, thereby rejecting, not only the previous generation's assimilationist orientation, but their racial pretensions as well."<ref name="López-2009" /> Chicano leaders collaborated with [[Black Power movement]] leaders and activists.<ref name="Mantler-2013">{{Cite book|last=Mantler|first=Gordon K.|title=Power to the Poor: Black-Brown Coalition and the Fight for Economic Justice, 1960-1974|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2013|isbn=9781469608068|pages=65–89}}</ref><ref name="MartinezHoSang-2013">{{Cite book|last=Martinez HoSang|first=Daniel|title=Black and Brown in Los Angeles: Beyond Conflict and Coalition|publisher=University of California Press|year=2013|pages=120–123|chapter=Changing Valence of White Racial Innocence}}</ref> ''Mexican Americans'' insisted that Mexicans were white, while ''Chicanos'' embraced being non-white and the development of ''brown pride''.<ref name="López-2009" />

''Mexican American'' continued to be used by a more assimilationist faction who wanted to define Mexican Americans "as a [[White Americans|white ethnic group]] that had little in common with [[African Americans]]."<ref name="Muñoz-2007" /> Carlos Muñoz argues that the desire to separate themselves from [[African-American culture|Blackness]] and political struggle was rooted in an attempt to minimize "the existence of [[racism]] toward their own people, [believing] they could "deflect" [[anti-Mexican sentiment]] in society" through affiliating with the [[Mainstream culture|mainstream]] American culture.<ref name="Muñoz-2007">{{Cite book|last=Muñoz|first=Carlos|title=Youth, Identity, Power: The Chicano Movement|publisher=Verso|year=2007|isbn=9781844671427|page=64|quote=They did not reject their Mexican origins, but, like the generation of the 1930s, emphasized the American part of their Mexican American identity... They promoted the image of Mexican Americans as a white ethnic group that had little in common with African Americans. They believed that by minimizing the existence of racism toward their people, they could 'deflect' anti-Mexican sentiment in society.}}</ref>

=== ''Hispanic'' ===
Etymologically deriving from the Spanish word "[[Hispanophone|Hispano]]", referring to the Latin word [[Hispania]], which was used for the Iberian Peninsula under the Roman Republic, the term Hispanic is an [[Anglicized]] translation of the Spanish word "Hispano". Hispano is commonly used in the Spanish speaking world when referring to "Hispanohablantes" (Spanish speakers), "[[Hispanic America|Hispanoamerica]]" (Spanish-America) and "Hispanos" when referring to the greater social imaginary held by many people across the Americas who descend from Spanish families. The term [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Hispano]] is commonly used in the U.S. states of New Mexico, Texas, and Colorado, as well as used in Mexico and other Spanish-American countries when referring to the greater Spanish-speaking world, often referred to as "Latin America".

[[File:CHCcirca1984.JPG|thumb|205x205px|[[Congressional Hispanic Caucus]] (1984). The Caucus played a key role in promoting the term ''Hispanic'' among Mexican Americans, partly motivated by a goal to separate themselves from how the [[Congressional Black Caucus|Black Caucus]] was viewed.<ref name="Gomez-1992" />]]
Following the decline of the [[Chicano Movement]], ''Hispanic'' was first defined by the U.S. [[Office of Management and Budget|Federal Office of Management and Budget]]'s (OMB) Directive No. 15 in 1977 as "a person of [[Mexicans|Mexican]], [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]], [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]], [[Cubans|Cuban]], [[Central America|Central]] or [[South America]] or other [[Spanish culture]] or origin, regardless of [[Race (human categorization)|race]]."<ref name="Martinez-2020" /> The term was promoted by [[Mexican Americans|Mexican American]] political elites to encourage [[cultural assimilation]] into the [[Mainstream culture|mainstream]] culture and move away from ''[[Chicanismo]]''. The rise of Hispanic identity paralleled the emerging era of political and cultural [[conservatism]] in the United States during the 1980s.<ref name="Martinez-2020" /><ref name="Gomez-1992" />

Key members of the Mexican American political elite, all of whom were middle-aged men, helped popularize the term ''Hispanic'' among Mexican Americans. The term was picked up by electronic and print media. [[Laura E. Gómez]] conducted a series of interviews with these elites and found that one of the main reasons ''Hispanic'' was promoted was to move away from ''Chicano'': "The Chicano label reflected the more radical political agenda of Mexican-Americans in the 1960s and 1970s, and the politicians who call themselves Hispanic today are the harbingers of a more conservative, more accommodationist politics."<ref name="Gomez-1992" />

Gómez found that some of these elites promoted ''Hispanic'' to appeal to [[White Americans|white American]] sensibilities, particularly in regard to separating themselves from [[Black people|Black]] political consciousness. Gómez records:<ref name="Gomez-1992" />{{blockquote|Another respondent agreed with this position, contrasting his white colleagues' perceptions of the [[Congressional Hispanic Caucus]] with their perception of the [[Congressional Black Caucus]]. 'We certainly haven't been militant like the Black Caucus. We're seen as a power bloc—an ethnic power bloc striving to deal with mainstream issues.'<ref name="Gomez-1992" />}}In 1980, ''Hispanic'' was first made available as a self-identification on [[U.S. census]] forms. While ''Chicano'' also appeared on the 1980 U.S. census, it was only permitted to be selected as a subcategory underneath ''Spanish/Hispanic descent'', which erased the possibility of [[Afro-Chicano]]s, Chicanos of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous descent]], and other Chicanos of color. ''Chicano'' did not appear on any subsequent census forms and ''Hispanic'' has remained.<ref name="Stephen-2007" /> Since then, ''Hispanic'' has widely been used by politicians and the media. For this reason, many Chicanos reject the term ''Hispanic''.<ref name="Montoya-2016-1">{{Cite book|title=Chicano Movement For Beginners|last=Montoya|first=Maceo|publisher=For Beginners|year=2016|isbn=9781939994646|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chicanomovementf0000mont/page/3 3–5]|url=https://archive.org/details/chicanomovementf0000mont/page/3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Guerra Tezcatlipoca |first=Leo |date=22 November 1993 |title=We're Chicanos – Not Latinos or Hispanics |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-11-22-me-59558-story.html |access-date=26 June 2020 |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-date=27 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627025157/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-11-22-me-59558-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Other terms ===
Instead of or in addition to identifying as Chicano or any of its variations, some may prefer:
* [[Latino (demonym)|Latino/a]], also anglicized as "Latin." Some US Latinos use Latin as a gender neutral alternative.
* Latin American (especially if immigrant).
* Mexican; ''{{lang|es|mexicano/mexicana}}''
* "[[Brown race|Brown]]"
* [[Mestizo]]; [insert racial identity {{var|X}}] ''{{lang|es|mestizo}}'' (e.g. ''{{lang|es|blanco mestizo}}''); ''{{lang|es|pardo}}''.
* ''{{lang|es|californiano}}'' (or ''{{lang|es|californio}}'') / ''{{lang|es|californiana}}''; ''{{lang|es|[[nuevomexicano]]/nuevomexicana}}''; ''{{lang|es|[[tejano]]/tejana}}''.
* Part/member of ''{{lang|es|[[la Raza]]}}''. (Internal identifier, Spanish for "the Race")
* American, solely.

== Identity ==
[[File:Chicano Time Trip, panorama.jpg|thumb|270x270px|"Chicano Time Trip," mural by [[East Los Streetscapers]] (1977)]]
Chicano and Chicana identity reflects elements of ethnic, political, cultural and Indigenous [[hybridity]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hebebrand|first=Christina M.|title=Native American and Chicano/a Literature of the American Southwest: Intersections of Indigenous Literatures|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2004|isbn=9781135933470|page=96}}</ref> These qualities of what constitutes Chicano identity may be expressed by Chicanos differently. Armando Rendón wrote in the ''Chicano Manifesto'' (1971), "I am Chicano. What it means to me may be different than what it means to you." [[Benjamin Alire Sáenz]] wrote "There is no such thing as the Chicano voice: there are only Chicano and Chicana ''voices''."<ref name="Montoya-2016-1" /> The identity can be somewhat ambiguous (e.g. in the 1991 [[Culture Clash (performance troupe)|Culture Clash]] play ''A Bowl of Beings'', in response to [[Che Guevara]]'s demand for a definition of "Chicano", an "armchair activist" cries out, "I still don't know!").<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Mariscal|first=George|title=Brown-eyed Children of the Sun: Lessons from the Chicano Movement, 1965-1975|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2005|isbn=9780826338051|page=296}}</ref>

Many Chicanos understand themselves as being "neither from here, nor from there", as neither from the United States or Mexico.<ref name="Bruce-Novoa 19902">{{cite book|title=Retro/Space: Collected Essays on Chicano Literature: Theory and History|last=Bruce-Novoa|first=Juan|date=1990|publisher=Arte Público Press|location=Houston, Texas}}</ref> Juan Bruce-Novoa wrote in 1990: "A Chicano lives in the space between the hyphen in [[Mexican-American]]."<ref name="Bruce-Novoa 19902" /> Being Chicano/a may represent the struggle of being institutionally [[acculturated]] to assimilate into the Anglo-dominated society of the United States, yet maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latin-American cultured U.S.-born Mexican child.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199666317.001.0001/acref-9780199666317-e-4513&gt;.|title=Chicano – Oxford Reference|last1=Butterfield|first1=Jeremy|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780199666317.001.0001|access-date=2016-04-15|year=2016|isbn=9780199666317|editor1-last=Butterfield|editor1-first=Jeremy}}</ref> Rafael Pérez-Torres wrote, "one can no longer assert the wholeness of a Chicano subject ... It is illusory to deny the nomadic quality of the Chicano community, a community in flux that yet survives and, through survival, affirms itself."<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62">{{Cite book|last=Pérez-Torres|first=Rafael|title=Movements in Chicano Poetry: Against Myths, Against Margins|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780521478038|pages=61–68}}</ref>

=== Ethnic identity ===
[[File:ChicanoManTattoo.jpg|alt=|thumb|212x212px|A man in [[San Antonio, Texas]], with an arm tattoo of the word ''Chicano''. Photo by Jesse Acosta.]]
''Chicano'' is a way for Mexican Americans to assert ethnic solidarity and ''Brown Pride.'' Boxer [[Rodolfo Gonzales]] was one of the first to reclaim the term in this way. This ''Brown Pride'' movement established itself alongside the [[Black is beautiful|''Black is Beautiful'']] movement.<ref name="Stephen-2007">{{Cite book|title=Transborder Lives: Indigenous Oaxacans in Mexico, California, and Oregon|last=Stephen|first=Lynn|publisher=Duke University Press Books|year=2007|isbn=9780822339908|pages=223–225}}</ref><ref>Moore, J. W.; Cuéllar, A. B. (1970). ''Mexican Americans''. Ethnic Groups in American Life series. Englewood, Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 149. {{ISBN|9780135794906}}.</ref> Chicano identity emerged as a symbol of pride in having a non-white and non-European image of oneself.<ref name="Salazar-1970" /> It challenged the [[U.S. census]] designation "Whites with Spanish Surnames" that was used in the 1950s.<ref name="Stephen-2007" /> Chicanos asserted ethnic pride at a time when Mexican assimilation into American culture was being promoted by the U.S. government. [[Ian Haney López]] argues that this was to "serve Anglo self-interest", who claimed Mexicans were white to try to deny [[racism]] against them.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice|url=https://archive.org/details/racismontrialchi00hane|url-access=limited|last=Haney López|first=Ian F.|publisher=Belknap Press|year=2004|isbn=9780674016293|page=[https://archive.org/details/racismontrialchi00hane/page/n94 82]}}</ref>
[[File:Map of the languages of Mexico.png|left|thumb|175x175px|Chicanos may be of [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico#Population genetics|Indigenous descent from different Indigenous peoples of Mexico]].<ref name="Arteaga-1997" /> 2014 map showing languages with over 100,000 speakers.]]
[[Alfred Arteaga]] argues that Chicano as an ethnic identity is born out of the [[European colonization of the Americas]]. He states that Chicano arose as hybrid ethnicity or race amidst colonial violence.<ref name="Arteaga-1997" /> This hybridity extends beyond a previously generalized "Aztec" ancestry, since the [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico]] are a diverse group of nations and peoples.<ref name="Arteaga-1997" /> A 2011 study found that 85 to 90% of maternal [[mtDNA]] lineages in Mexican Americans are Indigenous.<ref name="Merriwether-1997">{{Cite journal |last1=Merriwether |first1=D. A. |last2=Huston |first2=S. |last3=Iyengar |first3=S. |last4=Hamman |first4=R. |last5=Norris |first5=J. M. |last6=Shetterly |first6=S. M. |last7=Kamboh |first7=M. I. |last8=Ferrell |first8=R. E. |date=February 1997 |title=Mitochondrial versus nuclear admixture estimates demonstrate a past history of directional mating |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=153–159 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199702)102:2<153::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-# |issn=0002-9483 |pmid=9066897|hdl=2027.42/37680 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Chicano ethnic identity may involve more than just Indigenous and Spanish ancestry. It may also include African ancestry (as a result of Spanish slavery or runaway slaves from Anglo-Americans).<ref name="Arteaga-1997" /> Arteaga concluded that "the physical manifestation of the Chicano, is itself a product of hybridity."<ref name="Arteaga-1997">{{Cite book|title=Chicano Poetics: Heterotexts and Hybridities|last=Arteaga|first=Alfred|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=9780521574921|page=11}}</ref>[[File:Mi Gente.jpg|thumb|"Mi Gente" at [[Coronado Bridge]]|233x233px]]Robert Quintana Hopkins argues that [[Afro-Chicano]]s are sometimes erased from the ethnic identity "because so many people uncritically apply the '[[One-drop rule|one drop rule]]' in the U.S. [which] ignores the complexity of racial hybridity."<ref>{{Cite web|title=AfroChicano Press|url=http://www.afrochicanopress.com/interview|last=Quintana Hopkins|first=Robert|date=2009|website=AfroChicano Press|access-date=2020-06-01|archive-date=2020-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726014949/http://www.afrochicanopress.com/interview|url-status=live}}</ref> Black and Chicano communities have engaged in close political movements and struggles for liberation, yet there have also been tensions between Black and Chicano communities.<ref name="Johnson-2002" /> This has been attributed to [[racial capitalism]] and [[Anti-Blackness in the U.S.|anti-Blackness]] in Chicano communities.<ref name="Johnson-2002">{{Cite book|last=Johnson|first=Gaye T. M.|title=Decolonial Voices: Chicana and Chicano Cultural Studies in the 21st Century|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2002|isbn=9780253108814|pages=316–317|chapter=A Sifting of Centuries: Afro-Chicano Interaction and Popular Musical Culture in California, 1960-2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gosin |first=Monika |title=The Racial Politics of Division: Interethnic Struggles for Legitimacy in Multicultural Miami |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=15 June 2019 |isbn=9781501738265 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Afro-Chicano rapper Choosey stated "there's a stigma that Black and Mexican cultures don't get along, but I wanted to show the beauty in being a product of both."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Premiere: Choosey And Exile ft. Aloe Blacc Yearn For A California Style Ride On "Low Low"|url=https://www.vibe.com/2019/02/premiere-choosey-and-exile-ft-aloe-blacc-4-low-low|last=Rosario|first=Richy|date=14 February 2019|website=Vibe|access-date=1 June 2020|archive-date=30 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630023836/https://www.vibe.com/2019/02/premiere-choosey-and-exile-ft-aloe-blacc-4-low-low|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Political identity ===
{{See also|Chicano nationalism|Chicana feminism}}
[[File:Youth from the Florencia barrio of South Central Los Angeles arrive at Belvedere Park for La Marcha Por La Justicia, on January 31, 1971.jpg|thumb|Youth from the Florencia ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' of [[South-central Los Angeles|South Central Los Angeles]] arrive at Belvedere Park for La Marcha Por La Justicia (1971)|left|222x222px]]
Chicano political identity developed from a reverence of [[Pachuco]] resistance in the 1940s. [[Luis Valdez]] wrote that "Pachuco determination and pride grew through the 1950s and gave impetus to the Chicano Movement of the 1960s ... By then the political consciousness stirred by the 1943 [[Zoot Suit Riots]] had developed into a movement that would soon issue the Chicano Manifesto—a detailed platform of political activism."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Zoot-Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation|last=Mazón|first=Mauricio|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1989|isbn=9780292798038|page=[https://archive.org/details/zootsuitriotspsy0000mazo/page/118 118]|url=https://archive.org/details/zootsuitriotspsy0000mazo/page/118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Chicano Timespace: The Poetry and Politics of Ricardo Sánchez|last=López|first=Miguel R.|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780890969625|page=[https://archive.org/details/chicanotimespace00lope/page/113 113]|url=https://archive.org/details/chicanotimespace00lope/page/113}}</ref> By the 1960s, the Pachuco figure "emerged as an icon of resistance in Chicano cultural production."<ref name="Ramírez-2009" /> The [[Pachucas|Pachuca]] was not regarded with the same status.<ref name="Ramírez-2009" /> Catherine Ramírez credits this to the Pachuca being interpreted as a symbol of "dissident femininity, female masculinity, and, in some instances, lesbian sexuality".<ref name="Ramírez-2009">{{Cite book|title=The Woman in the Zoot Suit: Gender, Nationalism, and the Cultural Politics of Memory|last=Ramírez|first=Catherine S.|publisher=Duke University Press Books|year=2009|isbn=9780822343035|pages=109–111}}</ref>
[[File:Four Brown Berets leaders, Fred Lopez, David Sanchez , Carlos Montes and Ralph Ramirez in Los Angeles, Calif., 1968 (cropped).jpg|thumb|212x212px|[[Brown Berets]] leaders in 1968.]]
The political identity was founded on the principle that the U.S. nation-state had impoverished and exploited the Chicano people and communities. Alberto Varon argued that this brand of Chicano nationalism focused on the [[machismo]] subject in its calls for political resistance.<ref name="Varon-2018" /> Chicano [[machismo]] was both a unifying and fracturing force. [[Cherríe Moraga]] argued that it fostered [[homophobia]] and [[sexism]], which became obstacles to the Movement.<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" /> As the Chicano political consciousness developed, Chicanas, including Chicana [[lesbian]]s of color brought attention to "[[reproductive rights]], especially sterilization abuse [<nowiki/>[[sterilization of Latinas]]], [[battered women]]'s shelters, [[rape crisis center]]s, [and] [[welfare spending|welfare]] advocacy."<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" /> Chicana texts like ''Essays on La Mujer'' (1977), ''Mexican Women in the United States'' (1980), and ''[[This Bridge Called My Back]]'' (1981) have been relatively ignored even in [[Chicana/o studies|Chicano Studies]].<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" /> Sonia Saldívar-Hull argued that even when Chicanas have challenged [[sexism]], their identities have been invalidated.<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000">{{Cite book|last=Saldívar-Hull|first=Sonia|title=Feminism on the Border: Chicana Gender Politics and Literature|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|isbn=9780520207332|pages=29–34}}</ref>[[File:1994 No On 187 March Kings Canyon Rd Fresno.jpg|thumb|258x258px|[[Brown Berets|Brown Beret]] in [[Fresno, California|Fresno]] for No on [[1994 California Proposition 187|Prop 187]] (1994)]]
Chicano political activist groups like the [[Brown Berets]] (1967–1972; 1992–Present) gained support in their protests of educational inequalities and demanding an end to [[police brutality]].<ref name="Meier-2003" /> They collaborated with the [[Black Panther Party|Black Panthers]] and [[Young Lords]], which were founded in 1966 and 1968 respectively. Membership in the Brown Berets was estimated to have reached five thousand in over 80 chapters (mostly centered in California and Texas).<ref name="Meier-2003" /> The Brown Berets helped organize the [[Chicano Blowouts]] of 1968 and the national [[Chicano Moratorium]], which protested the high rate of Chicano casualties in the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="Meier-2003" /> Police harassment, infiltration by federal [[agents provocateurs]] via [[COINTELPRO]], and internal disputes led to the decline and disbandment of the Berets in 1972.<ref name="Meier-2003" /> Sánchez, then a professor at [[East Los Angeles College]], revived the Brown Berets in 1992 prompted by the high number of Chicano homicides in [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], hoping to replace the gang life with the Brown Berets.<ref name="Meier-2003">{{Cite book|title=The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia|last1=Meier|first1=Matt S.|last2=Gutiérrez|first2=Margo|publisher=Greenwood|year=2003|isbn=9780313316432|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericane0000meie/page/55 55–56]|url=https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericane0000meie/page/55}}</ref>

[[Reies Tijerina]], who was a vocal claimant to the rights of Latin Americans and Mexican Americans and a major figure of the early [[Chicano Movement]], wrote: "The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano.' They use it to divide us. We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America."<ref>{{cite book|title=They Called Me King Tiger: My Struggle for the Land and Our Rights|last1=Tijerina|first1=Reies|last2=Gutiérrez|first2=José Ángel|date=2000|publisher=Art Público Press|isbn=9781558853027|location=Houston, TX|author-link=Reies Tijerina|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/theycalledmeking0000tije}}</ref>

=== Cultural identity ===
[[File:Fiestas Patrias Parade, South Park, Seattle, 2015 - 367 - lowriders (21565007376).jpg|left|thumb|222x222px|[[Lowrider|Lowriding]] is a part of Chicano culture. The 1964 [[Chevrolet Impala]] has been described as "the automobile of choice among Chicano lowriders."<ref name="auto"/>]]
''Chicano'' represents a cultural identity that is neither fully "American" or "Mexican." Chicano culture embodies the "in-between" nature of [[cultural hybridity]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chicano Professionals: Culture, Conflict, and Identity|last=Renteria|first=Tamis Hoover|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=9780815330936|pages=67–68}}</ref> Central aspects of Chicano culture include [[Lowrider|lowriding]], [[Chicano rap|hip hop]], [[Chicano rock|rock]], [[graffiti art]], theater, [[Chicano murals|muralism]], visual art, literature, poetry, and more. Mexican American celebrities, artists, and actors/actresses help bring Chicano culture to light and contribute to the growing influence it has on American pop culture. In modern-day America you can now find Chicanos in all types of professions and trades.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shaping a New Century {{!}} Mexican {{!}} Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/mexican/shaping-a-new-century/ |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212055943/https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/mexican/shaping-a-new-century/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Notable subcultures include the [[Cholo (subculture)|Cholo]], [[Pachucas|Pachuca]], [[Pachuco]], and [[Pinto (subculture)|Pinto]] subcultures. Chicano culture has had international influence in the form of lowrider car clubs in [[Brazil]] and [[England]], music and youth culture in [[Japan]], [[Māori people|Māori]] youth enhancing [[lowrider bicycle]]s and taking on cholo style, and intellectuals in [[France]] "embracing the deterritorializing qualities of Chicano [[subjectivity]]."<ref name="Perez-Torres-2018">{{Cite book |last=Perez-Torres |first=Rafael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LElnDwAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of Chicana/o Studies |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=9781317536697 |chapter=The embodied epistemology of Chicana/o mestizaje |format=E-book}}</ref>

As early as the 1930s, the precursors to Chicano cultural identity were developing in [[Los Angeles|Los Angeles, California]] and the [[Southwestern United States]]. Former [[zoot suit]]er Salvador "El Chava" reflects on how racism and poverty forged a hostile social environment for Chicanos which led to the development of gangs: "we had to protect ourselves".<ref name="Bojórquez-2019">{{Cite book|title=Chicano and Chicana Art: A Critical Anthology|last=Bojórquez|first=Charles "Chaz"|publisher=Duke University Press Books|year=2019|isbn=9781478003007|chapter=Graffiti is Art: Any Drawn Line That Speaks About Identity, Dignity, and Unity... That Line Is Art}}</ref> ''[[Barrioization|Barrios]]'' and ''[[Colonia (United States)|colonias]]'' (rural ''barrios'') emerged throughout [[southern California]] and elsewhere in neglected districts of cities and outlying areas with little infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Barrio Gangs: Street Life and Identity in Southern California|last=Diego Vigil|first=James|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1988|isbn=9780292711198|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780292711198/page/16 16–17]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780292711198/page/16}}</ref> Alienation from public institutions made some Chicano youth susceptible to [[gang]] channels, who became drawn to their rigid hierarchical structure and assigned social roles in a world of government-sanctioned disorder.<ref name="DiegoVigil-1988">{{Cite book|title=Barrio Gangs: Street Life and Identity in Southern California|last=Diego Vigil|first=James|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1988|isbn=9780292711198|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780292711198/page/150 150]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780292711198/page/150}}</ref>
[[File:Zoot Suit, Mexican "drape style".png|thumb|290x290px|Mexican American man in a drape style zoot suit.]]
[[Pachuco]] culture, which probably originated in the El Paso-Juarez area,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Cordova |first=Ruben C. |date=November 13, 2021 |title=Adan Hernandez Paints the Black of Night, Part I: The Birth of Chicano Noir |url=https://glasstire.com/2021/11/13/adan-hernandez-paints-the-black-of-night-part-i-the-birth-of-chicano-noir/ |access-date=March 18, 2023 |website=Glasstire |archive-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318185404/https://glasstire.com/2021/11/13/adan-hernandez-paints-the-black-of-night-part-i-the-birth-of-chicano-noir/ |url-status=live }}</ref> spread to the borderland areas of [[California]] and [[Texas]] as ''Pachuquismo'', which would eventually evolve into ''[[Chicanismo]]''. Chicano zoot suiters on the west coast were influenced by Black zoot suiters in the jazz and swing music scene on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]].<ref name="FranciscoJackson-2009" /> Chicano zoot suiters developed a unique cultural identity, as noted by [[Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez]], "with their hair done in big [[Pompadour (hairstyle)|pompadours]], and "draped" in tailor-made suits, they were swinging to their own styles. They spoke ''[[Caló (Chicano)|Cálo]]'', their own language, a cool jive of half-English, half-Spanish rhythms. [...] Out of the zootsuiter experience came [[lowrider]] cars and culture, clothes, music, tag names, and, again, its own [[graffiti]] language."<ref name="Bojórquez-2019" /> San Antonio–based Chicano artist Adan Hernandez regarded pachucos as "the coolest thing to behold in fashion, manner, and speech."<ref name=":0" /> As described by artist Carlos Jackson, "Pachuco culture remains a prominent theme in Chicano art because the contemporary urban ''[[Cholo#United States|cholo]]'' culture" is seen as its heir.<ref name="FranciscoJackson-2009">{{Cite book|last=Francisco Jackson|first=Carlos|title=Chicana and Chicano Art: ProtestArte|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2009|isbn=9780816526475|page=135}}</ref>
[[File:Lowrider Chicago SuperShow 2010 - 4908052982.jpg|left|thumb|222x222px|Family photo with [[lowrider bicycle]]s at the Chicago SuperShow (2010)]]
Many aspects of Chicano culture like [[Lowrider|lowriding]] cars and [[Lowrider bicycle|bicycles]] have been stigmatized and policed by Anglo Americans who perceive Chicanos as "juvenile delinquents or gang members" for their embrace of nonwhite style and cultures, much as they did Pachucos.<ref name="Kun-2013" /> These negative societal perceptions of Chicanos were amplified by media outlets such as the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''.<ref name="Kun-2013" /> Luis Alvarez remarks how negative portrayals in the media served as a tool to advocate for increased policing of Black and Brown male bodies in particular: "Popular discourse characterizing nonwhite youth as animal-like, hypersexual, and criminal marked their bodies as "other" and, when coming from city officials and the press, served to help construct for the public a social meaning of African Americans and Mexican American youth [as, in their minds, justifiably [[criminalize]]d]."<ref name="Kun-2013">{{Cite book|title=Black and Brown in Los Angeles: Beyond Conflict and Coalition|last1=Kun|first1=Josh|last2=Pulido|first2=Laura|publisher=University of California Press|year=2013|isbn=9780520275607|pages=180–181}}</ref>[[File:Industrial Fest at Encore.jpg|thumb|212x212px|Performer at Industrial Fest in [[Austin, Texas]] (2010)]]
Chicano [[rave culture]] in [[southern California]] provided a space for Chicanos to partially escape [[criminalization]] in the 1990s. Artist and archivist [[Guadalupe Rosales]] states that "a lot of teenagers were being criminalized or profiled as criminals or gangsters, so the party scene gave access for people to escape that".<ref name="Manatakis-2018">{{Cite news|last=Manatakis|first=Lexi|date=19 September 2018|title=California's 1990s Chicano rave revolution as told through archived photos|work=DAZED|url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/art-photography/article/41422/1/californias-90s-chicano-rave-revolution-archive-guadalupe-rosales-aperture|access-date=26 June 2020|archive-date=27 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627080444/https://www.dazeddigital.com/art-photography/article/41422/1/californias-90s-chicano-rave-revolution-archive-guadalupe-rosales-aperture|url-status=live}}</ref> Numerous party crews, such as Aztek Nation, organized events and parties would frequently take place in neighborhood backyards, particularly in [[East Los Angeles, California|East]] and [[South Los Angeles]], the surrounding valleys, and [[Orange County, California|Orange County]].<ref name="Bahloul-2019">{{Cite news|last=Bahloul|first=Maria|date=17 January 2019|title=These Photos Tell the Forgotten Story of LA's Latinx Rave Scene in the 90s|work=Vice|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/map-pointz-guadalupe-rosales-la-latin-rave-scene-90s-interview-2019/|access-date=26 June 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806014954/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/xwjejz/map-pointz-guadalupe-rosales-la-latin-rave-scene-90s-interview-2019|url-status=live}}</ref> By 1995, it was estimated that over 500 party crews were in existence. They laid the foundations for "an influential but oft-overlooked Latin dance subculture that offered community for Chicano ravers, [[queer]] folk, and other marginalized youth."<ref name="Bahloul-2019" /> Ravers used map points techniques to derail [[police raid]]s. Rosales states that a shift occurred around the late 1990s and increasing violence affected the Chicano party scene.<ref name="Manatakis-2018" />

=== Indigenous identity ===
[[File:Dia de los Muertos is a celebration of life DVIDS782602.jpg|thumb|212x212px|[[Day of the Dead|Día de los Muertos]] in [[El Paso, Texas|Lincoln Park, El Paso]] (2012). A 2011 study found that 85 to 90% of [[maternal]] [[mtDNA]] lineages in Mexican Americans are Indigenous.<ref name="Merriwether-1997" />]]
{{Seealso|Indigenismo in the United States}}

Chicano identity functions as a way to reclaim one's [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous American]], and often [[Indigenous Mexican]], ancestry—to form an identity distinct from European identity, despite some Chicanos being of partial European descent—as a way to resist and subvert colonial domination.<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62"/> Rather than part of [[European Americans|European American]] culture, [[Alicia Gaspar de Alba|Alicia Gasper de Alba]] referred to ''Chicanismo'' as an "''alter-Native'' culture, an Other American culture Indigenous to the land base now known as the West and Southwest of the United States."<ref name="GasperDeAlba-2002">{{Cite book|last=Gasper De Alba|first=Alicia|title=Velvet Barrios: Popular Culture and Chicana/o Sexualities|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2002|isbn=9781403960979|page=xxi}}</ref> While influenced by [[Settler|settler-imposed systems]] and structures, Alba refers to Chicano culture as "not immigrant but native, not foreign but colonized, not alien but different from the overarching hegemony of [[White Americans|white America]]."<ref name="GasperDeAlba-2002" />

The [[Plan Espiritual de Aztlán]] (1969) drew from [[Frantz Fanon]]'s ''[[The Wretched of the Earth]]'' (1961). In ''Wretched'', Fanon stated: "the past existence of an [[Aztec Civilization|Aztec civilization]] does not change anything very much in the diet of the Mexican peasant today", elaborating that "this passionate search for a national culture which existed before the colonial era finds its legitimate reason in the anxiety shared by native intellectuals to shrink away from that of [[Western culture]] in which they all risk being swamped ... the native intellectuals, since they could not stand wonderstruck before the history of today's barbarity, decided to go back further and to delve deeper down; and, let us make no mistake, it was with the greatest delight that they discovered that there was nothing to be ashamed of in the past, but rather dignity, glory, and solemnity."<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62" />
[[File:Aztlan codex boturini.jpg|left|thumb|197x197px|The first page of the likely [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] [[Codex Boturini]], depicting the [[Mexica]]'s migration from [[Aztlán]].]]
The [[Chicano Movement]] adopted this perspective through the notion of [[Aztlán]]—a mythic Aztec homeland which Chicanos used as a way to connect themselves to a precolonial past, before the time of the {{" '}}gringo' invasion of our lands."<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62" /> Chicano scholars have described how this functioned as a way for Chicanos to reclaim a diverse or imprecise Indigenous past; while recognizing how Aztlán promoted divisive forms of [[Chicano nationalism]] that "did little to shake the walls and bring down the structures of power as its rhetoric so firmly proclaimed".<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62" /> As stated by Chicano historian [[Juan Gómez-Quiñones]], the Plan Espiritual de Aztlán was "stripped of what radical element it possessed by stressing its alleged romantic idealism, reducing the concept of Aztlán to a psychological ploy ... all of which became possible because of the Plan's incomplete analysis which, in turn, allowed it ... to degenerate into [[reformism]]."<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62" />

While acknowledging its romanticized and exclusionary foundations, Chicano scholars like Rafael Pérez-Torres state that Aztlán opened a [[subjectivity]] which stressed a connection to Indigenous peoples and cultures at a critical historical moment in which ''Mexican-Americans'' and Mexicans were "under pressure to [[Cultural assimilation|assimilate]] particular standards—of beauty, of identity, of aspiration. In a Mexican context, the pressure was to urbanize and Europeanize ... "Mexican-Americans" were expected to accept anti-indigenous discourses as their own."<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62" /> As Pérez-Torres concludes, Aztlán allowed "for another way of aligning one's interests and concerns with community and with history ... though hazy as to the precise means in which agency would emerge, Aztlán valorized a [[Chicanismo]] that rewove into the present previously devalued lines of descent."<ref name="Pérez-Torres 1995 61–62" /> Romanticized notions of ''Aztlán'' have declined among some Chicanos, who argue for a need to reconstruct the place of Indigeneity in relation to Chicano identity.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 June 2019|title='Chicano' and the fight for identity|url=https://www.sfexaminer.com/national-news/chicano-and-the-fight-for-identity/|access-date=1 August 2019|website=San Francisco Examiner|archive-date=1 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801100809/https://www.sfexaminer.com/national-news/chicano-and-the-fight-for-identity/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=3 April 2019|title=At L.A. Meeting, Mexican American Student Group MEChA Considers Name Change Amid Generational Divisions|url=https://ktla.com/2019/04/03/at-l-a-meeting-mexican-american-student-group-mecha-considers-name-change-amid-generational-divisions/|access-date=1 August 2019|website=KTLA 5|archive-date=1 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801100806/https://ktla.com/2019/04/03/at-l-a-meeting-mexican-american-student-group-mecha-considers-name-change-amid-generational-divisions/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:2019 San Francisco Carnaval Grand Parade 131 (49490820491).jpg|thumb|197x197px|Xiuhcoatl Danza Azteca at the [[San Francisco]] Carnaval Grand Parade in [[Mission District, San Francisco|Mission District]]]]
[[Danza Azteca]] grew popular in the U.S. with the rise of the Chicano Movement, which inspired some "Latinos to embrace their ethnic heritage and question the Eurocentric norms forced upon them."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nittle|first=Nadra|date=25 August 2020|title=For Danza Azteca Groups, Dancing is Prayer and Protest in Motion|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/southland-sessions/for-danza-azteca-groups-dancing-is-prayer-and-protest-in-motion|website=KCET|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=10 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110141521/https://www.kcet.org/shows/southland-sessions/for-danza-azteca-groups-dancing-is-prayer-and-protest-in-motion|url-status=live}}</ref> The use of pre-contact Aztec cultural elements has been critiqued by some Chicanos who stress a need to represent the diversity of Indigenous ancestry among Chicanos.<ref name="Arteaga-1997" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Beltran|first=Cristina|title=The Trouble with Unity: Latino Politics and the Creation of Identity|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780195375916|pages=26–27}}</ref> [[Patrisia Gonzales]] portrays Chicanos as descendants of the [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico]] who have been displaced by colonial violence, positioning them as "[[Detribalization|detribalized]] Indigenous peoples and communities."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Red Medicine: Traditional Indigenous Rites of Birthing and Healing|last=Gonzales|first=Patrisia|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2012|isbn=9780816529568|page=xxv}}</ref> [[Roberto Cintli Rodríguez]] describes Chicanos as "[[De-Indigenization|de-Indigenized]]," which he remarks occurred "in part due to religious indoctrination and a violent uprooting from the land", detaching millions of people from [[Maize|maíz]]-based cultures throughout the greater [[Mesoamerica]]n region.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Our Sacred Maíz Is Our Mother : Indigeneity and Belonging in the Americas|last=Rodríguez|first=Roberto Cintli|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2014|isbn=9780816530618|page=202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Our Sacred Maíz Is Our Mother: Indigeneity and Belonging in the Americas|last=Rodríguez|first=Roberto Cintli|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2014|isbn=9780816530618|pages=8–9}}</ref> Rodríguez asks how and why "peoples who are clearly red or brown and undeniably Indigenous to this continent have allowed ourselves, historically, to be framed by bureaucrats and the courts, by politicians, scholars, and the media as alien, illegal, and less than human."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Our Sacred Maíz Is Our Mother: Indigeneity and Belonging in the Americas|last=Rodríguez|first=Roberto Cintli|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2014|isbn=9780816530618|pages=xx-xxi}}</ref>
[[File:NVTV - Roberto Tinoco Duran -The Jaguar Poet- (Purépecha-Chícaño).webm|thumb|212x212px|Roberto Tinoco Durán, a [[Purépecha]]-Chícaño poet, interviewed on Native Voice TV (2017).]]
[[Gloria E. Anzaldúa]] has addressed Chicano's [[detribalization]]: "In the case of Chicanos, being 'Mexican' is not a tribe. So in a sense Chicanos and Mexicans are 'detribalized'. We don't have tribal affiliations but neither do we have to carry ID cards establishing tribal affiliation."<ref name="Anzaldúa-2009" /> Anzaldúa recognized that "Chicanos, [[Person of color|people of color]], and 'whites{{'"}} have often chosen "to ignore the struggles of Native people even when it's right in our ''caras'' (faces)," expressing disdain for this "willful ignorance".<ref name="Anzaldúa-2009" /> She concluded that "though both "detribalized urban mixed bloods" and Chicanos are recovering and reclaiming, this society is killing off urban mixed bloods through [[cultural genocide]], by not allowing them equal opportunities for better jobs, schooling, and health care."<ref name="Anzaldúa-2009">{{Cite book|title=The Gloria Anzaldúa Reader|url=https://archive.org/details/gloriaanzaldarea00glor|url-access=limited|last=Anzaldúa|first=Gloria|publisher=Duke University Press Books|year=2009|isbn=9780822345640|pages=[https://archive.org/details/gloriaanzaldarea00glor/page/n300 289]–290}}</ref> Inés Hernández-Ávila argued that Chicanos should recognize and reconnect with their roots "respectfully and humbly" while also validating "those peoples who still maintain their identity as original peoples of this continent" in order to create radical change capable of "transforming our world, our universe, and our lives".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Velvet Barrios: Popular Culture and Chicana/o Sexualities|last=Estrada|first=Gabriel E.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2002|isbn=9781403960979|page=55|chapter=The "Macho" Body as Social Malinche}}</ref>

== Political aspects ==

=== Anti-imperialism and international solidarity ===
{{See also|Anti-imperialism|Third World Liberation Front|Chicano Moratorium}}
[[File:Cuban rebel soldiers in the Habana Hilton foyer, January, 1959.jpg|alt=|thumb|268x268px|The [[Cuban Revolution]] was an inspirational event to many Chicanos as a challenge to [[American imperialism]].<ref name="Garcia-2014" />]]
During [[World War II]], Chicano youth were targeted by white [[Military personnel|servicemen]], who despised their "cool, measured indifference to the war, as well as an increasingly defiant posture toward whites in general".<ref name="McWilliams-1990" /> Historian [[Robin Kelley]] states that this "annoyed white servicemen to no end".<ref name="Kelley-1996" /> During the [[Zoot Suit Riots]] (1943), white rage erupted in [[Los Angeles]], which "became the site of racist attacks on [[Black people|Black]] and Chicano youth, during which white soldiers engaged in what amounted to a ritualized stripping of the zoot."<ref name="Kelley-1996">{{Cite book|last=Kelley|first=Robin|title=Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, And The Black Working Class|publisher=Free Press|year=1996|isbn=9781439105047|page=172}}</ref><ref name="McWilliams-1990">{{cite book|last1=McWilliams|first1=Carey|title=North from Mexico: The Spanish-speaking People of the United States|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1990|isbn=9780313266317|series=Contributions in American History|author-link=Carey McWilliams (journalist)}}{{page needed|date=September 2012}}</ref> Zoot suits were a symbol of collective resistance among Chicano and Black youth against city [[Racial segregation|segregation]] and fighting in the war. Many Chicano and Black zoot-suiters engaged in [[draft evasion]] because they felt it was hypocritical for them to be expected to "fight for democracy" abroad yet face racism and oppression daily in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Michael James|title=Tell Tchaikovsky the News: Rock "n" Roll, the Labor Question, and the Musicians' Union, 1942–1968|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780822378839|page=60}}</ref>

This galvanized Chicano youth to focus on [[anti-war activism]], "especially influenced by the [[Third World]] movements of liberation in [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and [[Latin America]]." Historian Mario T. García reflects that "these anti-colonial and anti-Western movements for [[Wars of national liberation|national liberation]] and self-awareness touched a historical nerve among Chicanos as they began to learn that they shared some similarities with these [[Third World]] struggles."<ref name="Garcia-2014" /> Chicano poet [[Alurista]] argued that "Chicanos cannot be truly free until they recognize that the struggle in the United States is intricately bound with the anti-imperialist struggle in other countries."<ref>{{Cite book|last=López|first=Marissa K.|title=Chicano Nations: The Hemispheric Origins of Mexican American Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/chicanonationshe00lope|url-access=limited|publisher=NYU Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814752623|page=[https://archive.org/details/chicanonationshe00lope/page/n213 203]}}</ref> The [[Cuban Revolution]] (1953–1959) led by [[Fidel Castro]] and [[Che Guevara]] was particularly influential to Chicanos, as noted by García, who notes that Chicanos viewed the revolution as "a nationalist revolt against '[[American imperialism|Yankee imperialism]]' and [[Neocolonialism|neo-colonialism]]."<ref name="Garcia-2014">{{Cite book|last=Garcia|first=Mario T.|title=The Chicano Movement: Perspectives from the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2014|isbn=9781135053666|page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chomsky|first=Aviva|title=A History of the Cuban Revolution|publisher=Wiley|year=2010|isbn=9781444329568|page=94}}</ref>
[[File:General Emiliano Zapata.jpg|thumb|247x247px|[[Emiliano Zapata]] was a historical icon to some Chicanos.]]
In the 1960s, the [[Chicano Movement]] brought "attention and commitment to local struggles with an analysis and understanding of international struggles".<ref name="Mariscal-2014">{{Cite book|last=Mariscal|first=Jorge|title=Foreword: The Chicano Movement|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2014|isbn=9781135053666|pages=xiv–xv}}</ref> Chicano youth organized with Black, [[Latin Americans|Latin American]], and [[Filipinos|Filipino]] activists to form the [[Third World Liberation Front]] (TWLF), which fought for the creation of a [[Third world college|Third World college]].<ref name="Romo-2019" /> During the [[Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968]], Chicano artists created posters to express solidarity.<ref name="Romo-2019" /> Chicano poster artist Rupert García referred to the place of artists in the movement: "I was critical of the police, of capitalist exploitation. I did posters of Che, of [[Emiliano Zapata|Zapata]], of other Third World leaders. As artists, we climbed down from the [[ivory tower]]."<ref name="Jackson-2009">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Carlos Francisco|title=Chicana and Chicano Art: ProtestArte|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2009|isbn=9780816526475|pages=65–66}}</ref> Learning from [[Cuba]]n poster makers of the [[Cuban Revolution|post-revolutionary]] period, Chicano artists "incorporated international struggles for freedom and self-determination, such as those of [[Angola]], [[Chile]], and [[South Africa]]", while also promoting the struggles of [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous people]] and other civil rights movements through [[Black-brown unity]].<ref name="Romo-2019">{{Cite book|last=Romo|first=Tere|title=Chicano and Chicana Art: A Critical Anthology|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003403|chapter=To Seize the Moment: The Chicano Poster, Politics, and Protest 1965-1972}}</ref> Chicanas organized with [[women of color]] activists to create the [[Third World Women's Alliance]] (1968–1980), representing "visions of liberation in third world solidarity that inspired political projects among racially and economically marginalized communities" against U.S. capitalism and imperialism.<ref name="Blackwell-2016" />
[[File:El Gallo Chicano-Moratorium Article.jpg|left|thumb|296x296px|Local coverage of the [[Chicano Moratorium]]]]
The [[Chicano Moratorium]] (1969–1971) against the [[Vietnam War]] was one of the largest demonstrations of Mexican-Americans in history,<ref name="Oropeza-2005">{{Cite book|last=Oropeza|first=Lorena|title=Raza Si, Guerra No: Chicano Protest and Patriotism During the Viet Nam War Era|publisher=University of California Press|year=2005|isbn=9780520937994|pages=145–160}}</ref> drawing over 30,000 supporters in [[East Los Angeles, California|East L.A]]. [[Draft evasion in the Vietnam War|Draft evasion]] was a form of resistance for Chicano anti-war activists such as [[Rosalio Muñoz]], Ernesto Vigil, and Salomon Baldengro. They faced a [[felony]] charge—a minimum of five years prison time, $10,000, or both.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Series 1: Publications, 1962–2001 {{!}} Special Collections & Archives|url=https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/archival_objects/197899|access-date=2019-12-11|website=archives.colorado.edu|archive-date=2019-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211214243/https://archives.colorado.edu/repositories/2/archival_objects/197899|url-status=live}}</ref> In response, Munoz wrote "I declare my independence of the [[Selective Service System]]. I accuse the government of the United States of America of genocide against the Mexican people. Specifically, I accuse the draft, the entire social, political, and economic system of the United States of America, of creating a funnel which shoots Mexican youth into Vietnam to be killed and to kill innocent men, women, and children...."<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Oropeza|first=Lorena|url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/3312228|title=La batalla está aquí! : Chicanos oppose the war in Vietnam /|date=1996|archive-date=2019-12-11|access-date=2020-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211214238/https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/3312228|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Rodolfo Gonzales|Rodolfo Corky Gonzales]] expressed a similar stance: "My feelings and emotions are aroused by the complete disregard of our present society for the rights, dignity, and lives of not only people of other nations but of our own unfortunate young men who die for an abstract cause in a war that cannot be honestly justified by any of our present leaders."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-07-20|title="Peace is Dignity": How Denver Activist Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales Viewed the Vietnam War|url=https://history.denverlibrary.org/news/peace-dignity-how-denver-activist-rodolpho-corky-gonzales-viewed-vietnam-war|access-date=2019-12-11|website=Denver Public Library History|language=en|archive-date=2019-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211214249/https://history.denverlibrary.org/news/peace-dignity-how-denver-activist-rodolpho-corky-gonzales-viewed-vietnam-war|url-status=live}}</ref>

Anthologies such as [[This Bridge Called My Back|''This Bridge Called My Back'': ''Writings by Radical Women of Color'']] (1981) were produced in the late 1970s and early 80s by writers who identified as lesbians of color, including [[Cherríe Moraga]], [[Pat Parker]], [[Toni Cade Bambara]], [[Chrystos]] (self-identified claim of Menominee ancestry), [[Audre Lorde]], [[Gloria E. Anzaldúa]], [[Cheryl Clarke]], [[Jewelle Gomez]], [[Kitty Tsui]], and [[Hattie Gossett]], who developed a poetics of liberation. [[Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press]] and [[Third Woman Press]], founded in 1979 by Chicana feminist [[Norma Alarcón]], provided sites for the production of women of color and Chicana literatures and critical essays. While [[First World|first world]] feminists focused "on the [[Liberalism|liberal]] agenda of political rights", Third World feminists "linked their agenda for women's rights with economic and cultural rights" and unified together "under the banner of Third World solidarity".<ref name="Blackwell-2016" /> Maylei Blackwell identifies that this internationalist critique of capitalism and imperialism forged by women of color has yet to be fully historicized and is "usually dropped out of the false historical narrative".<ref name="Blackwell-2016">{{Cite book|last=Blackwell|first=Maylei|title=¡Chicana Power! Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2016|isbn=9781477312667|pages=23, 156–159, 193}}</ref>

In the 1980s and 90s, [[Central America]]n activists influenced Chicano leaders. The [[Mexican American Legislative Caucus]] (MALC) supported the [[Esquipulas Peace Agreement]] in 1987, standing in opposition to [[Contras|Contra]] aid. Al Luna criticized [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] and American involvement while defending [[Nicaragua]]'s [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]]-led government: "President Reagan cannot credibly make public speeches for peace in Central America while at the same time advocating for a three-fold increase in funding to the Contras."<ref name="González-2010">{{Cite book|last=González|first=Antonio|title=Chicano Politics and Society in the Late Twentieth Century|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292778634|pages=160–69}}</ref> The Southwest Voter Research Initiative (SVRI), launched by Chicano leader [[Willie Velasquez|Willie Velásquez]], intended to educate Chicano youth about Central and Latin American political issues. In 1988, "there was no significant urban center in the Southwest where Chicano leaders and activists had not become involved in lobbying or organizing to change U.S. policy in Nicaragua."<ref name="González-2010" /> In the early 1990s, [[Cherríe Moraga]] urged Chicano activists to recognize that "the Anglo invasion of Latin America [had] extended well beyond the Mexican/American border" while [[Gloria E. Anzaldúa]] positioned Central America as the primary target of a [[US intervention in Latin America|U.S. interventionism]] that had murdered and displaced thousands. However, Chicano solidarity narratives of Central Americans in the 1990s tended to center themselves, stereotype Central Americans, and filter their struggles "through Chicana/o struggles, histories, and imaginaries."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rodríguez|first=Ana Patricia|title=Dividing the Isthmus: Central American Transnational Histories, Literatures, and Cultures|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2009|isbn=9780292774582|pages=151–154}}</ref>
[[File:March Against Prop 187 in Fresno California 1994 (35357476831).jpg|thumb|222x222px|March against [[1994 California Proposition 187|Proposition 187]] in [[Fresno, California]] (1994)]]
Chicano activists organized against the [[Gulf War]] (1990–91). [[Raul Ruiz (journalist)|Raul Ruiz]] of the Chicano Mexican Committee against the Gulf War stated that U.S. intervention was "to support U.S. oil interests in the region."<ref name="Ruiz-2015">{{Cite book|last=Ruiz|first=Raul|title=The Chicano Generation: Testimonios of the Movement|publisher=University of California Press|year=2015|isbn=9780520961364|page=109}}</ref> Ruiz expressed, "we were the only Chicano group against the war. We did a lot of protesting in L.A. even though it was difficult because of the strong support for the war and the anti-Arab reaction that followed ... we experienced [[Racism|racist]] attacks [but] we held our ground."<ref name="Ruiz-2015" /> The end of the Gulf War, along with the [[Rodney King Riots]], were crucial in inspiring a new wave of Chicano political activism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mora-Ninci|first=Carlos|title=The Chicano/a Student Movement in Southern California in the 1990s|publisher=University of California, Los Angeles|year=1999|page=360}}</ref> In 1994, one of the largest demonstrations of Mexican Americans in the history of the United States occurred when 70,000 people, largely Chicanos and [[Latinos]], marched in Los Angeles and other cities to protest [[1994 California Proposition 187|Proposition 187]], which aimed to cut educational and [[Welfare spending|welfare benefits]] for undocumented immigrants.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oropeza|first=Lorena|title=Raza Si, Guerra No: Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam War Era|publisher=University of California Press|year=2005|isbn=9780520937994|pages=183–184}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sanchez|first=Leonel|date=3 January 1995|title=Proposition 187 Led Young Chicanos to Action|work=San Diego Union-Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Denkmann|first=Libby|date=11 November 2019|title=After Prop 187 Came The Fall Of California's Once-Mighty GOP, And The Rise Of Latino Political Power|url=https://laist.com/2019/11/11/prop-187-political-impact-california-latino-participation-power-surges-republican-party-fading.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218054635/https://laist.com/2019/11/11/prop-187-political-impact-california-latino-participation-power-surges-republican-party-fading.php|archive-date=18 December 2019|website=LAist}}</ref>

In 2004, Mujeres against Militarism and the Raza Unida Coalition sponsored a [[Day of the Dead]] vigil against militarism within the Latino community, addressing the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]] (2001–) and the [[Iraq War]] (2003–2011) They held photos of the dead and chanted "[[no blood for oil]]." The procession ended with a five-hour vigil at [[Tia Chucha's Centro Cultural]]. They condemned "the [[Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps|Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps]] (JROTC) and other military recruitment programs that concentrate heavily in Latino and African American communities, noting that JROTC is rarely found in upper-income Anglo communities."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marchi|first=Regina M|title=Day of the Dead in the USA: The Migration and Transformation of a Cultural Phenomenon|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780813548579|page=80}}</ref> Rubén Funkahuatl Guevara organized a [[benefit concert]] for Latin@s Against the War in Iraq and ''Mexamérica por la Paz'' at [[Self Help Graphics & Art|Self-Help Graphics]] against the Iraq War. Although the events were well-attended, Guevara stated that "the Feds know how to manipulate fear to reach their ends: world military dominance and maintaining a foothold in an oil-rich region were their real goals."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guevara|first=Rubén Funkahuatl|title=Confessions of a Radical Chicano Doo-Wop Singer|publisher=University of California Press|year=2018|isbn=9780520969667|pages=236–237}}</ref>

=== Labor organizing against capitalist exploitation ===
{{See also|United Farm Workers}}
[[File:BraceroProgram.jpg|thumb|230x230px|left|The U.S.-government-funded [[Bracero program]] (1942–1964) was lobbied for by grower associations in an effort to destroy local organizing efforts and depress the wages of domestic Mexican and Chicano farmworkers.<ref name="Menchaca-1995-1">{{Cite book|last=Menchaca|first=Martha|title=The Mexican Outsiders: A Community History of Marginalization and Discrimination in California|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1995|isbn=9780292751743|pages=89–92}}</ref>]]
Chicano and Mexican labor organizers played an active role in notable [[labor strike]]s since the early 20th century including the [[1903 Oxnard strike]], [[Pacific Electric Railway strike of 1903]], [[1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles]], [[Cantaloupe strike of 1928]], [[California agricultural strikes of 1933|California agricultural strikes]] (1931–1941), and the [[Ventura County, California|Ventura County]] agricultural strike of 1941,<ref name="Menchaca-1995">{{Cite book|last=Menchaca|first=Martha|title=The Mexican Outsiders: A Community History of Marginalization and Discrimination in California|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1995|isbn=9780292751743|pages=83–104}}</ref> endured [[mass deportation]]s as a form of [[strikebreaking]] in the [[Bisbee Deportation]] of 1917 and [[Mexican Repatriation]] (1929–1936), and experienced tensions with one another during the [[Bracero program]] (1942–1964).<ref name="Menchaca-1995-1" /> Although organizing laborers were harassed, sabotaged, and repressed, sometimes through warlike tactics from [[Capitalist class|capitalist]] owners<ref name="Mize-2010">{{Cite book|last1=Mize|first1=Ronald|title=Consuming Mexican Labor: From the Bracero Program to NAFTA|last2=Swords|first2=Alicia|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2010|isbn=9781442604094|pages=51–52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=González|first=Gilbert G.|title=Mexican Consuls and Labor Organizing: Imperial Politics in the American Southwest|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1999|isbn=9780292728233|page=131}}</ref> who engaged in coervice labor relations and collaborated with and received support from local police and community organizations, Chicano and Mexican workers, particularly in agriculture, have been engaged in widespread [[unionization]] activities since the 1930s.<ref name="Rosales-1997">{{Cite book|last=Rosales|first=F. Arturo|title=Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement|publisher=Arte Público Press|year=1997|isbn=9781558852013|pages=117–120}}</ref><ref name="Acuña-2007">{{Cite book|last=Acuña|first=Rodolfo|title=Corridors of Migration: The Odyssey of Mexican Laborers, 1600-1933|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2007|isbn=9780816526369|pages=239–242}}</ref>

Prior to unionization, agricultural workers, many of whom were [[undocumented alien]]s, worked in dismal conditions. Historian F. Arturo Rosales recorded a Federal Project Writer of the period, who stated: "It is sad, yet true, commentary that to the average landowner and grower in California the Mexican was to be placed in much the same category with ranch cattle, with this exception–the cattle were for the most part provided with comparatively better food and water and immeasurably better living accommodations."<ref name="Rosales-1997" /> Growers used cheap Mexican labor to reap bigger profits and, until the 1930s, perceived Mexicans as docile and compliant with their subjugated status because they "did not organize troublesome labor unions, and it was held that he was not educated to the level of unionism".<ref name="Rosales-1997" /> As one grower described, "We want the Mexican because we can treat them as we cannot treat any other living man ... We can control them by keeping them at night behind bolted gates, within a [[stockade]] eight feet high, surrounded by barbed wire ... We can make them work under armed guards in the fields."<ref name="Rosales-1997" />
[[File:Corcoran,_San_Joaquin_Valley_California._Company_housing_for_Mexican_cotton_pickers_on_large_ranch._-_NARA_-_521720.jpg|thumb|228x228px|Company housing for Mexican cotton pickers on a large ranch in [[Corcoran, California]] (1940)]]
Unionization efforts were initiated by the Confederación de Uniones Obreras (Federation of Labor Unions) in [[Los Angeles]], with twenty-one chapters quickly extending throughout [[southern California]], and La Unión de Trabajadores del Valle Imperial ([[Imperial Valley]] Workers' Union). The latter organized the [[Cantaloupe strike of 1928]], in which workers demanded better working conditions and higher wages, but "the growers refused to budge and, as became a pattern, local authorities sided with the farmers and through harassment broke the strike".<ref name="Rosales-1997" /> [[Communism|Communist]]-led organizations such as the [[Cannery and Agricultural Workers' Industrial Union]] (CAWIU) supported Mexican workers, renting spaces for cotton pickers during the [[California agricultural strikes of 1933|cotton strikes of 1933]] after they were thrown out of [[Company town|company housing]] by growers.<ref name="Acuña-2007" /> Capitalist owners used "[[red-baiting]]" techniques to discredit the strikes through associating them with communists. Chicana and Mexican working women showed the greatest tendency to organize, particularly in the Los Angeles garment industry with the [[International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union]], led by [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Rose Pesotta]].<ref name="Rosales-1997" />

During [[World War II]], the government-funded [[Bracero program]] (1942–1964) hindered unionization efforts.<ref name="Rosales-1997" /> In response to the California agricultural strikes and the 1941 Ventura County strike of Chicano and Mexican, as well as [[Filipinos|Filipino]], lemon pickers/packers, growers organized the Ventura County Citrus Growers Committee (VCCGC) and launched a [[Lobbying|lobbying campaign]] to pressure the U.S. government to pass laws to prohibit labor organizing. VCCGC joined with other grower associations, forming a powerful lobbying bloc in [[United States Congress|Congress]], and worked to legislate for (1) a Mexican guest workers program, which would become the Bracero program, (2) laws prohibiting strike activity, and (3) [[military deferment]]s for pickers. Their lobbying efforts were successful: unionization among farmworkers was made illegal, farmworkers were excluded from [[minimum wage]] laws, and the usage of [[Child labour|child labor]] by growers was ignored. In formerly active areas, such as [[Santa Paula, California|Santa Paula]], union activity stopped for over thirty years as a result.<ref name="Menchaca-1995" />
[[File:San Jose Chicano Rights Marches California003.jpg|alt=|thumb|227x227px|Chicano demonstrators marching for farmworkers with [[United Farm Workers Union]] signs|left]]
When [[World War II]] ended, the Bracero program continued. Legal anthropologist [[Martha Menchaca]] states that this was "regardless of the fact that massive quantities of crops were no longer needed for the war effort ... after the war, the braceros were used for the benefit of the large-scale growers and not for the nation's interest." The program was extended for an indefinite period in 1951.<ref name="Menchaca-1995" /> In the mid-1940s, labor organizer [[Ernesto Galarza]] founded the National Farm Workers Union (NFWU) in opposition to the Bracero Program, organizing a large-scale 1947 strike against the [[DiGiorgio Corporation|Di Giorgio Fruit Company]] in [[Arvin, California]]. Hundreds of Mexican, Filipino, and white workers walked out and demanded higher wages. The strike was broken by the usual tactics, with law enforcement on the side of the owners, evicting strikers and bringing in undocumented workers as strikebreakers. The NFWU folded, but served as a precursor to the [[United Farm Workers Union]] led by [[César Chávez]].<ref name="Rosales-1997" /> By the 1950s, opposition to the Bracero program had grown considerably, as unions, churches, and Mexican-American political activists raised awareness about the effects it had on American labor standards. On December 31, 1964, the U.S. government conceded and terminated the program.<ref name="Menchaca-1995" />

Following the closure of the Bracero program, domestic farmworkers began to organize again because "growers could not longer maintain the [[peon]]age system" with the end of imported laborers from Mexico.<ref name="Menchaca-1995" /> Labor organizing formed part of the [[Chicano Movement]] via the struggle of farmworkers against depressed wages and working conditions. César Chávez began organizing Chicano farmworkers in the early 1960s, first through the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) and then merging the association with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), an organization of mainly Filipino workers, to form the [[United Farm Workers]]. The labor organizing of Chávez was central to the expansion of unionization throughout the United States and inspired the [[Farm Labor Organizing Committee]] (FLOC), under the leadership of [[Baldemar Velasquez|Baldemar Velásquez]], which continues today.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gutiérrez|first=José Angel|title=Cesar Chavez|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9780313364884|page=59|chapter=The First and Last of the Chicano Leaders}}</ref> Farmworkers collaborated with local Chicano organizations, such as in [[Santa Paula, California]], where farmworkers attended [[Brown Berets]] meetings in the 1970s and Chicano youth organized to improve working conditions and initiate an urban renewal project on the eastside of the city.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Menchaca|first=Martha|title=The Mexican Outsiders: A Community History of Marginalization and Discrimination in California|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1995|isbn=9780292751743|pages=154–155}}</ref>
[[File:Administrator Gina McCarthy and United Farm Workers President Arturo Rodriguez (21737756924).jpg|thumb|[[United Farm Workers]] president Arturo Rodriguez (2015)]]
Although Mexican and Chicano workers, organizers, and activists organized for decades to improve working conditions and increase wages, some scholars characterize these gains as minimal. As described by Ronald Mize and Alicia Swords, "piecemeal gains in the interests of workers have had very little impact on the capitalist agricultural labor process, so picking grapes, strawberries, and oranges in 1948 is not so different from picking those same crops in 2008."<ref name="Mize-2010" /> U.S. agriculture today remains totally reliant on Mexican labor, with Mexican-born individuals now constituting about 90% of the labor force.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wells|first=Barbara|title=Daughters and Granddaughters of Farmworkers: Emerging from the Long Shadow of Farm Labor|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2013|isbn=9780813570341|chapter=The Structure of Agriculture and the Organization of Farm Labor}}</ref>

=== Struggles in the education system ===
{{See also|Chicano studies|Chicano Blowouts}}
[[File:Sylvia Mendez.jpg|left|thumb|222x222px|[[Mendez v. Westminster]] (1947) overturned ''[[de jure]]'' segregation. Prior, most Mexican students were only allowed to attend designated "Mexican schools" that taught manual labor skills rather than academic education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gonzales |first=Leticia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNKXEAAAQBAJ |title=The untold story of Sylvia Mendez: school desegregation pioneer |date=2023 |isbn=9781669005049 |publisher=[[Capstone Publishers]] |location=North Mankato, Minnesota |page=4 |oclc=1336005572|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>]]
Chicanos often endure struggles in the U.S. education system, such as being erased in [[curriculum]]s and devalued as students.<ref name="López-2009-1" /><ref name="Coffey-2016" /> Some Chicanos identify schools as colonial institutions that exercise control over colonized students by teaching Chicanos to idolize the American culture and develop a negative [[self-image]] of themselves and their [[worldview]]s.<ref name="López-2009-1" /><ref name="Coffey-2016" /> [[School segregation in the United States|School segregation]] between Mexican and white students was not legally ended until the late 1940s.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013">{{Cite book |last=Gonzalez |first=Gilbert G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KjA6Ngt3TQYC |via=[[Google Books]] |title=Chicano education in the era of segregation |date=2013 |isbn=9781574415162 |location=Denton, Texas |publisher=[[University of North Texas Press]] |pages=177–179, 200–202 |oclc=843881943}}</ref> In [[Orange County, California]], 80% of Mexican students could only attend schools that taught Mexican children manual education, or [[gardening]], [[bootmaking]], [[blacksmithing]], and [[carpentry]] for Mexican boys and sewing and homemaking for Mexican girls.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013" /> White schools taught academic preparation.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013" /> When [[Sylvia Mendez]] was told to attend a Mexican school, her parents brought suit against the court in [[Mendez v. Westminster|Mendez vs. Westminster]] (1947) and won.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013" />

Although legal segregation had been successfully challenged, ''[[de facto]]'' or segregation-in-practice continued in many areas.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013" /> Schools with primarily Mexican American enrollment were still treated as "Mexican schools" much as before the legal overturning of segregation.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013" /> Mexican American students were still treated poorly in schools.<ref name="Gonzalez-2013" /> Continued bias in the education system motivated Chicanos to protest and use [[direct action]], such as [[walkout]]s, in the 1960s.<ref name="López-2009-1">{{Cite book|last=López|first=Antonio Reyes|title=Breaching the Colonial Contract: Anti-Colonialism in the US and Canada|publisher=Springer Netherlands|year=2009|isbn=9781402099441|pages=91–104|chapter=Walking Out of Colonialism One Classroom at a Time: Student Walkouts and Colonial/Modern Disciplinary in El Paso, Texas}}</ref><ref name="Coffey-2016">{{Cite book|last1=Coffey|first1=Jerica|title="White" Washing American Education: The New Culture Wars in Ethnic Studies|last2=Espiritu|first2=Ron|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2016|isbn=9781440832567|page=232|chapter=Common Struggle: High School Ethnic Studies Approaches to Building Solidarity between Black and Brown Youth}}</ref> On March 5, 1968, the [[Chicano Blowouts]] at [[East Los Angeles, California|East Los Angeles]] High School occurred as a response to the racist treatment of Chicano students, an unresponsive school board, and a high dropout rate. It became known as "the first major mass protest against racism undertaken by Mexican-Americans in the history of the United States."<ref name="Suderburg-2000" /> [[File:Sal-Castro.png|255x255px|thumb|[[Sal Castro]] (1933–2013) inspired the [[East L.A. walkouts]].]]

[[Sal Castro]], a Chicano social science teacher at the school was arrested and fired for inspiring the walkouts. It was led by [[Harry Gamboa Jr.]] who was named "one of the hundred most dangerous and violent subversives in the United States" for organizing the student walkouts. The day prior, FBI director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] sent out a memo to law enforcement to place top priority on "political intelligence work to prevent the development of nationalist movements in minority communities".<ref name="Suderburg-2000" /> Chicana activist [[Alicia Escalante]] protested Castro's dismissal: "We in the Movement will at least be able to hold our heads up and say that we haven't submitted to the gringo or to the pressures of the system. We are brown and we are proud. I am at least raising my children to be proud of their heritage, to demand their rights, and as they become parents they too will pass this on until justice is done."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bermudez|first=Rosie C.|title=The Chicano Movement: Perspectives from the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2014|isbn=9781135053666|pages=100–101|chapter=Alicia Escalante, The Chicana Welfare Rights Organization, and the Chicano Movement}}</ref>

In 1969, [[Plan de Santa Bárbara]] was drafted as a 155-page document that outlined the foundation of [[Chicana/o studies|Chicano Studies]] programs in higher education. It called for students, faculty, employees and the community to come together as "central and decisive designers and administrators of these programs".<ref name="plan">[https://livinghistory.as.ucsb.edu/2012/04/04/el-plan-de-santa-barbara/ El Plan de Santa Barbara; a Chicano Plan for Higher Education]'', 1 February 2013, La Causa Publications. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209063527/https://livinghistory.as.ucsb.edu/2012/04/04/el-plan-de-santa-barbara/|date=9 February 2018}}''</ref> Chicano students and activists asserted that universities should exist to serve the community.<ref name="Jackson-2009" /> However, by the mid-1970s, much of the radicalism of earlier Chicano studies became deflated by the education system, aimed to alter Chicano Studies programs from within.<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> Mario García argued that one "encountered a deradicalization of the radicals".<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> Some opportunistic faculty avoided their political responsibilities to the community. University administrators co-opted oppositional forces within Chicano Studies programs and encouraged tendencies that led "to the loss of autonomy of Chicano Studies programs."<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> At the same time, "a domesticated Chicano Studies provided the university with the facade of being tolerant, liberal, and progressive."<ref name="Soldatenko-2012">{{Cite book|last=Soldatenko|first=Michael|title=Chicano Studies: The Genesis of a Discipline|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2012|isbn=9780816599530|pages=94–130}}</ref>
[[File:L.A. teachers strike ‘Stand and Deliver'.png|thumb|200x200px|Los Angeles Teacher's Strike (1989)|left]]
Some Chicanos argued that the solution was to create "publishing outlets that would challenge Anglo control of academic print culture with its rules on [[peer review]] and thereby publish alternative research," arguing that a Chicano space in the colonial academy could "avoid colonization in higher education".<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> In an attempt to establish educational autonomy, they worked with institutions like the [[Ford Foundation]], but found that "these organizations presented a paradox".<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> [[Rodolfo Acuña]] argued that such institutions "quickly became content to only acquire funding for research and thereby determine the success or failure of faculty".<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> Chicano Studies became "much closer [to] the mainstream than its practitioners wanted to acknowledge."<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" /> Others argued that Chicano Studies at [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] shifted from its earlier interests in serving the Chicano community to gaining status within the colonial institution through a focus on academic publishing, which alienated it from the community.<ref name="Soldatenko-2012" />[[File:In_Lak'ech.jpg|thumb|Readings of ''[[In Lak'ech]]'' ("you are the other me") were banned in [[Tucson Unified School District|Tucson schools]] along with the [[Mexican American Studies Department Programs, Tucson Unified School District|Mexican American Studies Programs]] in 2012.|181x181px]]In 2012, the [[Mexican American Studies Department Programs, Tucson Unified School District|Mexican American Studies Department Programs]] (MAS) in [[Tucson Unified School District]] were banned after a campaign led by Anglo-American politician [[Tom Horne]] accused it of working to "promote the overthrow of the U.S. government, promote resentment toward a race or class of people, are designed primarily for pupils of a particular ethnic group or advocate ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals."<ref name="Planas-2015" /> Classes on Latino literature, American history/Mexican-American perspectives, Chicano art, and an American government/social justice education project course were banned. Readings of [[In Lak'ech]] from [[Luis Valdez]]'s poem ''[[Pensamiento Serpentino]]'' were also banned.<ref name="Planas-2015">{{Cite web|last=Planas|first=Roque|date=13 January 2015|title=Arizona Education Officials Say It's Illegal To Recite This Poem In School|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/in-laketch_n_6464604|website=Huffington Post|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=19 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019162110/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/in-laketch_n_6464604|url-status=live}}</ref>

Seven books, including [[Paulo Freire|Paulo Friere]]'s ''[[Pedagogy of the Oppressed]]'' and works covering [[Chicano history]] and [[critical race theory]], were banned, taken from students, and stored away.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The dismantling of Mexican-American studies in Tucson schools|url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/01/22/us/how-tucson-schools-changed-after-mexican-american-studies-ban/index.html|last=Siek|first=Stephanie|date=22 January 2012|website=CNN|access-date=21 May 2020|archive-date=4 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204003845/https://www.cnn.com/2012/01/22/us/how-tucson-schools-changed-after-mexican-american-studies-ban/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ban was overturned in 2017 by Judge [[A. Wallace Tashima]], who ruled that it was unconstitutional and motivated by racism by depriving Chicano students of knowledge, thereby violating their [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] right.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Astor|first1=Maggie|date=2017-08-23|title=Tucson's Mexican Studies Program Was a Victim of "Racial Animus," Judge Says|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/23/us/arizona-mexican-american-ruling.html?module=ArrowsNav&contentCollection=U.S.&action=keypress&region=FixedLeft&pgtype=article|access-date=3 October 2017|archive-date=2017-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003225107/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/23/us/arizona-mexican-american-ruling.html?module=ArrowsNav&contentCollection=U.S.&action=keypress&region=FixedLeft&pgtype=article|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Xicanx#Organizations|Xicanx Institute for Teaching & Organizing]] (XITO) emerged to carry on the legacy of the MAS programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fernández|first=Anita E.|date=2019|title=Decolonizing Professional Development: A Re-Humanizing Approach|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1237646|journal=Equity & Excellence in Education|volume=52|issue=2–3|pages=185–196|doi=10.1080/10665684.2019.1649610|s2cid=203059084|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Chicanos continue to support the institution of Chicano studies programs. In 2021, students at [[Southwestern College (California)|Southwestern College]], the closest college to the [[Mexico–United States border|Mexico-United States Border]] urged for the creation of a Chicanx Studies Program to service the predominately Latino student body.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Villareal-Gerardo|first1=Xiomara|last2=Ortega|first2=Bianca Huntley|date=24 February 2021|title=Students decry lack of Chicano Studies Program at America's border college|url=https://www.theswcsun.com/students-decry-lack-of-chicano-studies-program-at-americas-border-college/|website=The Sun|access-date=24 March 2021|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305140528/http://www.theswcsun.com/students-decry-lack-of-chicano-studies-program-at-americas-border-college/|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

=== Rejection of borders ===
[[File:El Paso Disinfection station and Mexicans Waiting to be de-loused at the international bridge.jpg|thumb|Mexican laborers to be stripped and doused in chemicals at the border in [[El Paso, Texas]]. This treatment led to the [[1917 Bath Riots]].<ref name="Urbina-2014" />]]
The Chicano concept of ''sin fronteras'' rejects the idea of borders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=García |first=Mario T. |title=Memories of Chicano History: The Life and Narrative of Bert Corona |publisher=University of California Press |year=1994 |isbn=9780520201521 |page=313}}</ref> Some argued that the 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] transformed the [[Rio Grande]] region from a rich cultural center to a rigid border poorly enforced by the United States government.<ref name="Castro" /> At the end of the [[Mexican–American War|Mexican-American War]], 80,000 Spanish-Mexican-Indian people were forced into sudden U.S. habitation.<ref name="Castro">{{Cite book |last=Castro, Rafaela G. |title=Chicano Folklore |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9780195146394 |location=New York}}</ref> Some Chicanos identified with the idea of [[Aztlán]] as a result, which celebrated a time preceding land division and rejected the "immigrant/foreigner" categorization by Anglo society.<ref name="Hurtado">{{Cite book |last1=Hurtado, Aida |title=Chicana/o Identity in a Changing U.S. Society |last2=Gurin, Patricia |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=9780816522057 |location=Tucson |pages=10–91 |oclc=54074051}}</ref> Chicano activists have called for unionism between both Mexicans and Chicanos on both sides of the border.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cinco de Mayo: An open challenge to Chicano Nationalists |url=http://www.nacionalistas.org/2012/02/cinco-de-mayo-open-challenge-to-chicano.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203105243/http://www.nacionalistas.org/2012/02/cinco-de-mayo-open-challenge-to-chicano.html |archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref>

In the early 20th century, the border crossing had become a site of [[dehumanization]] for Mexicans.<ref name="Urbina-2014" /> Protests in 1910 arose along the Santa Fe Bridge from abuses committed against Mexican workers while crossing the border.<ref name="Urbina-2014" /> The [[1917 Bath riots]] erupted after Mexicans crossing the border were required to strip naked and be disinfected with chemical agents like [[gasoline]], [[kerosene]], [[sulfuric acid]], and [[Zyklon B]], the latter of which was the fumigation of choice and would later notoriously be used in the gas chambers of [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="Urbina-2014">{{Cite book |last=Urbina |first=Martin Guevara |title=Twenty-First Century Dynamics of Multiculturalism: Beyond Post-Racial America |publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher |year=2014 |isbn=9780398080990 |page=64}}</ref> Chemical dousing continued into the 1950s.<ref name="Urbina-2014" /> During the early 20th century, Chicanos used ''[[corrido]]s'' "to counter Anglocentric hegemony."<ref name="Saldívar-1997" /> [[Ramón Saldívar|Ramón Saldivar]] stated that "''corridos'' served the symbolic function of empirical events and for creating counterfactual worlds of lived experience (functioning as a substitute for fiction writing)."<ref name="Saldívar-1997">{{Cite book |last=Saldívar |first=José David |title=Border Matters: Remapping American Cultural Studies |publisher=University of California Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780520206823 |pages=39–40}}</ref>[[File:US-Mexico border deaths monument.jpg|thumb|260x260px|A monument at the [[San Diego–Tijuana|Tijuana–San Diego]] border for people who have died attempting to cross the [[US-Mexican border|U.S.-Mexican border]]. Each coffin shows a year and the number who died.<ref name="García 2010 16–17">{{Cite book |last=García |first=Mario T. |title=Border Culture |publisher=Greenwood |year=2010 |isbn=9780313358203 |pages=16–17 |chapter=La Frontera: The Border as Symbol and Reality in Mexican-American Thought}}</ref>]]Newspaper ''Sin Fronteras'' (1976–1979) openly rejected the [[Mexico–United States border|Mexico-United States border]]. The newspaper considered it "to be only an artificial creation that in time would be destroyed by the struggles of Mexicans on both sides of the border" and recognized that "Yankee political, economic, and cultural colonialism victimized all Mexicans, whether in the U.S. or in Mexico." Similarly, the General Brotherhood of Workers (CASA), important to the development of young Chicano intellectuals and activists, identified that, as "victims of oppression, ''Mexicanos'' could achieve liberation and self-determination only by engaging in a borderless struggle to defeat American international capitalism."<ref name="García 2010 16–17" />

Chicana theorist [[Gloria E. Anzaldúa]] notably emphasized the border as a "1,950 mile-long wound that does not heal". In referring to the border as a wound, writer Catherine Leen suggests that Anzaldúa recognizes "the trauma and indeed physical violence very often associated with crossing the border from Mexico to the US, but also underlies the fact that the cyclical nature of this immigration means that this process will continue and find little resolution."<ref name="Leen-2006">{{Cite book |last=Leen |first=Catherine |title=Borders and Borderlands in Contemporary Culture |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Press |year=2006 |isbn=9781443802680 |pages=56–57 |chapter='Una herida que no cicatriza': The Border as Interethnic Space in Mexican, American, and Chicano Cinema}}</ref><ref name="Heide-2002">{{Cite book |last=Heide |first=Markus |title=Learning from Fossils: Transcultural Space in Luis Alberto Urrea's In Search of Snow |publisher=Rodopi |year=2002 |isbn=9789042014992 |page=115}}</ref> Anzaldúa writes that ''la frontera'' signals "the coming together of two self-consistent but habitually incompatible frames of reference [which] cause ''un choque'', a cultural collision" because "the U.S.-Mexican border ''es una herida abierta'' where the [[Third World]] grates against the first and bleeds."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muthyala |first=John |title=Reworlding America: Myth, History, and Narrative |publisher=Ohio University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780821416754 |page=99}}</ref> Chicano and Mexican artists and filmmakers continue to address "the contentious issues of exploitation, exclusion, and conflict at the border and attempt to overturn border stereotypes" through their work.<ref name="Leen-2006" /> [[Luis Alberto Urrea]] writes "the border runs down the middle of me. I have a barbed wire fence neatly bisecting my heart."<ref name="Heide-2002" />

== Sociological aspects ==

=== Criminalization ===
{{See also|Cholo (subculture)#Criminalization|Pinto (subculture)|Gringo justice}}
[[File:Lynching of Francisco Arias and José Chamales.jpg|thumb|221x221px|Francisco Arias and José Chamales were [[Lynching|lynched]] in [[Santa Cruz, California]] in 1877.<ref name="Mirandé-2019">{{Cite book |last=Mirandé |first=Alfredo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8U2wDwAAQBAJ |title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=9781000022964 |chapter=Introduction |format=E-book |archive-date=2023-11-20 |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120032432/https://books.google.com/books?id=8U2wDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The 19th-century and early-20th-century image of the Mexican in the U.S. was "that of the greasy Mexican bandit or ''bandito,''" who was perceived as criminal because of [[Mestizo]] ancestry and "Indian blood."<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1">{{Cite book |last=Mirandé |first=Alfredo |title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=9780367276065 |pages=1–20}}</ref> This rhetoric fueled [[anti-Mexican sentiment]] among whites, which led to [[Lynching in the United States#Other ethnicities|many lynchings of Mexicans in the period]] as an act of racist violence.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> One of the largest massacres of Mexicans was known as ''[[La Matanza (1910–1920)|La Matanza]]'' in [[Texas]], where hundreds of Mexicans were lynched by white mobs.<ref name="Villanueva-2018">{{Cite book |author=Villanueva, Nicholas |title=The lynching of Mexicans in the Texas borderlands |date=August 2018 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=9780826360304 |oclc=1032029983}}</ref> Many whites viewed Mexicans as inherently criminal, which they connected to their Indigenous ancestry.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> White historian [[Walter Prescott Webb|Walter P. Webb]] wrote in 1935, "there is a cruel streak in the Mexican nature ... this cruelty may be a heritage from the Spanish and of the Inquisition; it may, and doubtless should be, attributed partly to Indian blood."<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> [[File:Victims of the Zoot Suit Riots.jpg|left|thumb|195x195px|The portrayal of Chicano men as violent criminals in U.S. media fueled the [[Zoot Suit Riots]]. Although attacks were initiated by U.S. servicemen, hundreds of Chicanos were arrested.<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007" />]]The "greasy bandito" [[stereotype]] of the [[old West]] evolved into images of "crazed Zoot-Suiters and pachuco killers in the 1940s, to contemporary ''[[Cholo (subculture)|cholos]]'', gangsters, and gang members."<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> [[Pachuco]]s were portrayed as violent criminals in American [[mainstream media]], which fueled the [[Zoot Suit Riots]]; initiated by off-duty policemen conducting a vigilante-hunt, the riots targeted Chicano youth who wore the [[zoot suit]] as a symbol of empowerment.<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007" /> On-duty police supported the violence against Chicano zoot suiters; they "escorted the servicemen to safety and arrested their Chicano victims."<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007" /> Arrest rates of Chicano youth rose during these decades, fueled by the "criminal" image portrayed in the media, by politicians, and by the police.<ref name="PerezMcCluskey-2007">{{Cite book|last1=Perez McCluskey|first1=Cynthia|title=Latinos in a Changing Society|last2=Villaruel|first2=Francisco A.|publisher=Praegar Publishers|year=2007|isbn=9780275962333|pages=186–187|chapter=Policing the Latino Community}}</ref> Not aspiring to assimilate in [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] society, Chicano youth were criminalized for their defiance to [[cultural assimilation]]: "When many of the same youth began wearing what the larger society considered outlandish clothing, sporting distinctive hairstyles, speaking in their own language ([[Caló (Chicano)|''Caló'']]), and dripping with attitude, law enforcement redoubled their efforts to rid [them from] the streets."<ref name="SànchezWalsh-2003">{{Cite book |last=Sànchez Walsh |first=Arlene |title=Latino Pentecostal Identity: Evangelical Faith, Self, and Society |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9780231508964 |pages=95–97}}</ref>
In the 1970s and subsequent decades, there was a wave of police killings of Chicanos. One of the most prominent cases was Luis "Tato" Rivera, who was a 20-year-old Chicano shot in the back by officer Craig Short in 1975. 2,000 Chicano demonstrators showed up to the city hall of [[National City, California]] in protest. Short was indicted for [[manslaughter]] by district attorney Ed Miller and was acquitted of all charges. Short was later appointed acting [[chief of police]] of National City in 2003.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> Another high-profile case was the murder of [[Ricardo Falcón]], a student at the [[University of Colorado]] and leader of the United Latin American Students (UMAS), by Perry Brunson, a member of the far-right [[American Independent Party]], at a gas station. Bruson was tried for manslaughter and was "acquitted by an all-White jury".<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> Falcón became a [[martyr]] for the Chicano Movement as police violence increased in the subsequent decades.<ref name="Mirandé-2019-1" /> Similar cases led sociologist [[Alfredo Mirandé]] to refer to the U.S. criminal justice system as ''[[gringo justice]]'', because "it reflected one standard for Anglos and another for Chicanos."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mirandé|first=Alfredo|title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=9780367276065|page=47}}</ref>
[[File:Cacos 13, Cholos Neza.jpg|thumb|222x222px|''[[Cholo (subculture)|Cholo]]'' youth adopt a particular style of dress that has been attached with deviancy by authorities.<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" />]]
The criminalization of Chicano youth in the ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' remains [[Omnipresence|omnipresent]]. Chicano youth who adopt a ''cholo'' or ''chola'' identity endure hyper-criminalization in what has been described by [[Victor Rios]] as the [[youth control complex]].<ref name="Rios-2007">{{Cite book|last=Rios|first=Victor M.|title=Racializing Justice, Disenfranchising Lives: The Racism, Criminal Justice, and Law Reader|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|year=2007|isbn=9780230607347|editor-last=Steinberg|editor-first=I.|pages=17–21|chapter=The Hypercriminalization of Black and Latino Male Youth in the Era of Mass Incarceration|editor-last2=Middlemass|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Marable|editor-first3=M.}}</ref> While older residents initially "embraced the idea of a ''chola'' or ''cholo'' as a larger subculture not necessarily associated with crime and violence (but rather with a youthful temporary identity), law enforcement agents, ignorant or disdainful of ''barrio'' life, labeled youth who wore clean white tennis shoes, shaved their heads, or long socks, as deviant."<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019">{{Cite book|last=Plascencia-Castillo|first=José S.|title=Gringo Injustice: Insider Perspectives on Police, Gangs, and Law|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=9780367276065|pages=154–169}}</ref> Community members were convinced by the police of cholo criminality, which led to criminalization and surveillance "reminiscent of the criminalization of Chicana and Chicano youth during the Zoot-Suit era in the 1940s."<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" />

Sociologist José S. Plascencia-Castillo refers to the ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' as a [[panopticon]] that leads to intense self-regulation, as Cholo youth are both scrutinized by law enforcement to "stay in their side of town" and by the community who in some cases "call the police to have the youngsters removed from the premises".<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" /> The intense governance of Chicano youth, especially of cholo identity, has deep implications on youth experience, affecting their physical and mental health as well as their outlook on the future. Some youth feel they "can either comply with the demands of authority figures, and become obedient and compliant, and suffer the accompanying loss of identity and self-esteem, or, adopt a resistant stance and contest [[social invisibility]] to command respect in the public sphere."<ref name="Plascencia-Castillo-2019" />

=== Gender and sexuality ===

==== Chicanas ====
[[File:Las Chicanas Poster.jpg|thumb|222x222px|"What is the role of the Chicana in the movement? The men ... only think of her when they need some typing done or when their stomachs growl."]]
Chicanas often confront objectification in Anglo society, being perceived as "exotic", "lascivious", and "hot" at a very young age while also facing denigration as "barefoot", "pregnant", "dark", and "low-class".<ref name="Felsted-2013" /> These perceptions in society create numerous negative sociological and psychological effects, such as excessive dieting and [[eating disorder]]s. Social media may enhance these [[stereotype]]s of Chicana women and girls.<ref name="Felsted-2013">{{Cite thesis|type=Master's thesis|last=Felsted|first=Kaitlin|date=2013-12-13|title=How Social Media Affect the Social Identity of Mexican Americans|url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/3828|publisher=Brigham Young University|archive-date=2019-11-07|access-date=2019-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107022728/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/3828/|url-status=live}}</ref> Numerous studies have found that Chicanas experience elevated levels of stress as a result of sexual expectations by society, as well as their parents and families.<ref name="Flores-2013c" />

Although many Chicana youth desire open conversation of these gender roles and sexuality, as well as mental health, these issues are often not discussed openly in Chicano families, which perpetuates unsafe and destructive practices.<ref name="Flores-2013c" /> While young Chicanas are objectified, middle-aged Chicanas discuss feelings of being invisible, saying they feel trapped in balancing family obligations to their parents and children while attempting to create a space for their own sexual desires.<ref name="Flores-2013c" /> The expectation that Chicanas should be "protected" by Chicanos may also constrict the agency and mobility of Chicanas.<ref name="Flores-2013c">{{Cite book|last=Flores|first=Yvette G.|title=Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente y Corazón|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2013|isbn=9780816529742|pages=103–104}}</ref>

Chicanas are often relegated to a secondary and [[subordinate]] status in families.<ref name="Almaguer-1993" /> [[Cherríe Moraga|Cherrie Moraga]] argues that this issue of [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] ideology in Chicano and Latino communities runs deep, as the great majority of Chicano and Latino men believe in and uphold [[Misogyny|male supremacy]].<ref name="Almaguer-1993" /> Moraga argues that this ideology is not only upheld by men in Chicano families, but also by mothers in their relationship to their children: "the daughter must constantly earn the mother's love, prove her fidelity to her. The son—he gets her love for free."<ref name="Almaguer-1993" />

==== Chicanos ====
Chicanos develop their manhood within a context of [[marginalization]] in white society.<ref name="Flores-2013d" /> Some argue that "Mexican men and their Chicano brothers suffer from an [[inferiority complex]] due to the conquest and genocide inflicted upon their Indigenous ancestors," which leaves Chicano men feeling trapped between identifying with the so-called "superior" European and the so-called "inferior" Indigenous sense of self.<ref name="Flores-2013d" /> This conflict may manifest itself in the form of [[hypermasculinity]] or [[machismo]], in which a "quest for power and control over others in order to feel better" about oneself is undertaken.<ref name="Flores-2013d" /> This may result in men developing abusive behaviors, the development of an impenetrable "cold" persona, [[alcohol abuse]], and other destructive and self-isolating behaviors.<ref name="Flores-2013d">{{Cite book|last=Flores|first=Yvette G.|title=Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente y Corazón|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2013|isbn=9780816529742|page=79}}</ref>

The lack of discussion of what it means to be a Chicano man between Chicano male youth and their fathers or their mothers creates a search for identity that often leads to self-destructive behaviors.<ref name="Flores-2013e" /> Chicano male youth tend to learn about sex from their peers as well as older male family members who perpetuate the idea that as men they have "a right to engage in sexual activity without commitment".<ref name="Flores-2013e" /> The looming threat of being labeled a ''joto'' (gay) for not engaging in sexual activity also conditions many Chicanos to "use" women for their own sexual desires.<ref name="Flores-2013e">{{Cite book|last=Flores|first=Yvette G.|title=Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente y Corazón|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2013|isbn=9780816529742|page=107}}</ref> Gabriel S. Estrada argues that the [[criminalization]] of Chicanos proliferates further [[homophobia]] among Chicano boys and men who may adopt [[hypermasculine]] personas to escape such association.<ref name="Estrada-2002">{{Cite book |last=Estrada |first=Gabriel S. |title=Velvet Barrios: Popular Culture & Chicana/o Sexualities |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2002 |isbn=9781403960979 |page=43}}</ref>

==== Heteronormativity ====
[[Heteronormative]] gender roles are typically enforced in Chicano families.<ref name="Almaguer-1993" /> Any deviation from gender and sexual conformity, such as [[effeminacy]] in Chicanos or [[lesbianism]] in Chicanas, is commonly perceived as a weakening or attack of ''la familia''.<ref name="Almaguer-1993">{{Cite book|last=Almaguer|first=Tomás|title=The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=9780415905190|page=266|chapter=Chicano Men: A Cartography of Homosexual Identity and Behavior}}</ref> However, Chicano men who retain a masculine or machismo performance are afforded some mobility to discreetly engage in homosexual behaviors, as long as it remains on the fringes.<ref name="Almaguer-1993" />

[[Queer]] Chicana/os may seek refuge in their families, if possible, because it is difficult for them to find spaces where they feel safe in the dominant and hostile white gay culture.<ref name="Rodríguez-2012" /> Chicano machismo, religious traditionalism, and [[homophobia]] creates challenges for them to feel accepted by their families.<ref name="Rodríguez-2012">{{Cite book|last=Rodríguez|first=Richard T.|title=The Routledge Queer Studies Reader|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=9780415564113|chapter=Making Queer Familia}}</ref> Gabriel S. Estrada argues that upholding "[[Judeo-Christian]] mandates against homosexuality that are not native to [<nowiki/>[[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous Mexico]]]," exiles queer Chicana/o youth.<ref name="Estrada-2002" />

=== Mental health ===
[[File:Blue Race.jpg|thumb|256x256px|"Blue Race", Chicano Park]]
Chicanos may seek out both Western [[Biomedicine|biomedical]] healthcare and Indigenous health practices when dealing with trauma or illness. The effects of colonization are proven to produce psychological distress among Indigenous communities. [[Transgenerational trauma|Intergenerational trauma]], along with racism and institutionalized systems of oppression, have been shown to adversely impact the mental health of Chicanos and Latinos. Mexican Americans are three times more likely than European Americans to live in poverty.<ref name="Flores-2013a">{{Cite book|last=Flores|first=Yvette G.|title=Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente y Corazón|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2013|isbn=9780816529742|pages=1–8}}</ref> Chicano adolescent youth experience high rates of [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Anxiety disorder|anxiety]]. Chicana adolescents have higher rates of depression and [[suicidal ideation]] than their European-American and African-American peers. Chicano adolescents experience high rates of [[homicide]], and [[suicide]]. Chicanos ages ten to seventeen are at a greater risk for mood and anxiety disorders than their European-American and African-American peers. Scholars have determined that the reasons for this are unclear due to the scarcity of studies on Chicano youth, but that intergenerational trauma, acculturative stress, and family factors are believed to contribute.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Flores|first=Yvette G.|title=Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente Y Corazón|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2013|isbn=9780816599950|pages=33–34}}</ref>

Among Mexican immigrants who have lived in the United States for less than thirteen years, lower rates of mental health disorders were found in comparison to Mexican-Americans and Chicanos born in the United States. Scholar Yvette G. Flores concludes that these studies demonstrate that "factors associated with living in the United States are related to an increased risk of mental disorders." Risk factors for negative mental health include historical and contemporary trauma stemming from colonization, marginalization, discrimination, and devaluation. The disconnection of Chicanos from their Indigeneity has been cited as a cause of trauma and negative mental health:<ref name="Flores-2013a" />{{blockquote|Loss of language, cultural rituals, and spiritual practices creates shame and despair. The loss of culture and language often goes unmourned, because it is silenced and denied by those who occupy, conquer, or dominate. Such losses and their psychological and spiritual impact are passed down across generations, resulting in depression, disconnection, and spiritual distress in subsequent generations, which are manifestations of historical or intergenerational trauma.<ref name="Flores-2013b">{{Cite book|last=Flores|first=Yvette G.|title=Chicana and Chicano Mental Health: Alma, Mente y Corazón|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2013|isbn=9780816529742|pages=8–9}}</ref>}}Psychological distress may emerge from Chicanos being "[[Othering|othered]]" in society since childhood and is linked to psychiatric disorders and symptoms which are culturally bound—''susto'' (fright), ''nervios'' (nerves), ''mal de ojo'' (evil eye), and ''ataque de nervios'' (an attack of nerves resembling a [[panic attack]]).<ref name="Flores-2013b" /> Manuel X. Zamarripa discusses how mental health and spirituality are often seen as disconnected subjects in Western perspectives. Zamarripa states "in our community, spirituality is key for many of us in our overall wellbeing and in restoring and giving balance to our lives". For Chicanos, Zamarripa recognizes that identity, community, and spirituality are three core aspects which are essential to maintaining good mental health.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Zamarripa|first=Manuel X.|date=23 October 2017|title=Chicana, Chicano Spirituality & Mental Health, Dr. Manuel X. Zamarripa|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcEMOsFgXyk| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211103/LcEMOsFgXyk| archive-date=2021-11-03 | url-status=live|access-date=14 October 2020|website=Institute of Chicana/o Psychology, YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Spirituality ===
{{See also|Spiritual activism|Indigenous Knowledge}}[[File:Strength willpower and Love.jpg|left|thumb|256x256px|[[Chicana art]] has been cited as central to creating a new spirituality for Chicanos that rejects coloniality.<ref name="Pérez-2007">{{Cite book|last=Pérez|first=Laura E.|title=Chicana Art: The Politics of Spiritual and Aesthetic Altarities|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780822338680|pages=4–10}}</ref>]]
Chicano spirituality has been described as a process of engaging in a journey to unite one's [[consciousness]] for the purposes of cultural unity and [[social justice]]. It brings together many elements and is therefore hybrid in nature. Scholar Regina M Marchi states that Chicano spirituality "emphasizes elements of struggle, process, and politics, with the goal of creating a unity of consciousness to aid social development and political action".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marchi|first=Regina M.|title=Day of the Dead in the USA: The Migration and Transformation of a Cultural Phenomenon|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780813548579|pages=41–42}}</ref> Lara Medina and Martha R. Gonzales explain that "reclaiming and reconstructing our spirituality based on non-Western epistemologies is central to our process of [[decolonization]], particularly in these most troubling times of incessant [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]], [[heteronormative]] [[patriarchy]], [[misogyny]], [[racial injustice]], global [[Capitalism|capitalist]] greed, and disastrous [[Global Climate Change|global climate change]]."<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Medina|first1=Lara|title=Voices from the Ancestors: Xicanx and Latinx Spiritual Expressions and Healing Practices|last2=Gonzales|first2=Martha R.|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2019|isbn=9780816539567|pages=5–6}}</ref> As a result, some scholars state that Chicano spirituality must involve a study of Indigenous Ways of Knowing (IWOK).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Medina|first=Lara|title=Religion in Today's World: Global Issues, Sociological Perspectives|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9781317796640|editor-last=Wilcox|editor-first=Melissa M.|page=246|chapter=Nepantla Spirituality: Negotiating Multiple Religious Identities among U.S. Latinas}}</ref> The ''Circulo de Hombres'' group in [[San Diego, California]] spiritually heals Chicano, Latino, and Indigenous men "by exposing them to Indigenous-based frameworks, men of this cultural group heal and rehumanize themselves through Maya-Nahua Indigenous-based concepts and teachings", helping them process [[intergenerational trauma]] and [[dehumanization]] that has resulted from [[colonization]]. A study on the group reported that reconnecting with Indigenous worldviews was overwhelmingly successful in helping Chicano, Latino, and Indigenous men heal.<ref name="Caporale-2020">{{Cite thesis|last=Caporale|first=Juvenal|date=2020|title=The Circle, Indigeneity, and Healing: Rehumanizing Chicano, Mexican, and Indigenous Men|url=https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/641709|type=PhD dissertation|publisher=University of Arizona|pages=9–10|hdl=10150/641709|archive-date=2020-11-30|access-date=2020-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130111749/https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/641709|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tello|first=Jerry|date=21 September 2016|title=Círculo de Hombres 2013|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbW_nRpx6q4| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211103/ZbW_nRpx6q4| archive-date=2021-11-03 | url-status=live|access-date=14 October 2020|website=National Compadres Network}}{{cbignore}}</ref> As stated by Jesus Mendoza, "our bodies remember our indigenous roots and demand that we open our mind, hearts, and souls to our reality".<ref name="Mendoza-2018" />

Chicano [[spirituality]] is a way for Chicanos to listen, reclaim, and survive while disrupting [[coloniality]]. While historically [[Catholicism]] was the primary way for Chicanos to express their spirituality, this is changing rapidly. According to a Pew Research Center report in 2015, "the primary role of Catholicism as a conduit to spirituality has declined and some Chicanos have changed their affiliation to other Christian religions and many more have stopped attending church altogether." Increasingly, Chicanos are considering themselves spiritual rather than religious or part of an [[organized religion]]. A study on spirituality and Chicano men in 2020 found that many Chicanos indicated the benefits of spirituality through connecting with Indigenous spiritual beliefs and worldviews instead of Christian or Catholic organized religion in their lives.<ref name="Caporale-2020" /> Dr. Lara Medina defines spirituality as (1) Knowledge of oneself—one's gifts and one's challenges, (2) Co-creation or a relationship with communities (others), and (3) A relationship with sacred sources of life and death '[[Great Spirit|the Great Mystery]]' or [[Creator deity|Creator]]. Jesus Mendoza writes that, for Chicanos, "spirituality is our connection to the earth, our pre-Hispanic history, our ancestors, the mixture of pre-Hispanic religion with Christianity ... a return to a non-Western worldview that understands all life as sacred."<ref name="Mendoza-2018">{{Cite journal|last=Mendoza|first=Jesus|date=2018|title=Chicana/o Spirituality: An Expression of Identity|url=https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/parent/1g05ff07j/file_sets/ht24wn04f|journal=California State University, Northridge|pages=1–115|via=California State University|archive-date=2020-10-17|access-date=2020-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017163957/https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/parent/1g05ff07j/file_sets/ht24wn04f|url-status=live}}</ref> In her writing on [[Gloria Anzaldua]]'s idea of ''[[spiritual activism]]'', [[AnaLouise Keating]] states that spirituality is distinct from organized religion and [[New Age]] thinking. Leela Fernandes defines spirituality as follows:{{blockquote|When I speak of spirituality, at the most basic level I am referring to an understanding of the self as encompassing body and mind, as well as spirit. I am also referring to a transcendent sense of interconnection that moves beyond the knowable, visible material world. This sense of interconnection has been described variously as divinity, the sacred, spirit, or simply the universe. My understanding is also grounded in a form of lived spirituality, which is directly accessible to all and which does not need to be mediated by religious experts, institutions or theological texts; this is what is often referred to as the mystical side of spirituality... Spirituality can be as much about practices of compassion, love, ethics, and truth defined in nonreligious terms as it can be related to the mystical reinterpretations of existing religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Keating|first=AnaLouise|title=EntreMundos/AmongWorlds: New Perspectives on Gloria E. Anzaldúa|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2016|isbn=9781403977137|pages=252–253}}</ref>}}
[[File:Gloria Anzaldua.jpg|thumb|238x238px|[[Gloria Anzaldua|Gloria E. Anzaldúa]]'s concept of [[spiritual activism]] calls upon using spirituality to create [[social change]].<ref name="Keating-2008">{{Cite journal|last=Keating|first=AnaLouise|date=2008|title="I'm a Citizen of the Universe": Gloria Anzaldúa's Spiritual Activism as Catalyst for Social Change|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20459180|journal=Feminist Studies|volume=34|issue=1/2|pages=53–54|jstor=20459180|archive-date=2022-11-22|access-date=2020-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122124726/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20459180|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[David Carrasco]] states that [[Mesoamerican]] spiritual or religious beliefs have historically always been evolving in response to the conditions of the world around them: "These ritual and mythic traditions were not mere repetitions of ancient ways. New rituals and mythic stories were produced to respond to ecological, social, and economic changes and crises." This was represented through the art of the [[Olmecs]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], and [[Mexica]]. European colonizers sought and worked to destroy Mesoamerican worldviews regarding spirituality and replace these with a Christian model. The colonizers used [[syncreticism]] in art and culture, exemplified through practices such as the idea presented in the [[Testerian]] Codices that "Jesus ate tortillas with his disciples at the last supper" or the creation of the [[Virgen de Guadalupe]] (mirroring the Christian Mary) in order to force Christianity into [[Mesoamerican cosmology]].<ref name="Mendoza-2018" />

Chicanos can create new spiritual traditions by recognizing this history or "by observing the past and creating a new reality". Gloria Anzaldua states that this can be achieved through [[Nepantla|nepantla spirituality]] or a space where, as stated by Jesus Mendoza, "all religious knowledge can coexist and create a new spirituality ... where no one is above the other ... a place where all is useful and none is rejected." Anzaldua and other scholars acknowledge that this is a difficult process that involves navigating many internal contradictions in order to find a path towards spiritual liberation. [[Cherrie Moraga]] calls for a deeper self-exploration of who Chicanos are in order to reach "a place of deeper inquiry into ourselves as a people ... possibly, we must turn our eyes away from racist America and take stock at the damages done to us. Possibly, the greatest risks yet to be taken are entre nosotros, where we write, paint, dance, and draw the wound for one another to build a stronger pueblo. The women artist seemed disposed to do this, their work often mediating the delicate area between cultural affirmation and criticism."<ref name="Mendoza-2018" /> Laura E. Pérez states in her study of Chicana art that "the artwork itself [is] altar-like, a site where the disembodied—divine, emotional, or social—[is] acknowledged, invoked, meditated upon, and released as a shared offering."<ref name="Pérez-2007" />

== Cultural aspects ==
[[File:Naftazteca Guillermo Gomez Pena.jpg|thumb|206x206px|Artist [[Guillermo Gómez-Peña]]|left]]
The diversity of Chicano cultural production is vast.<ref name="Gómez-Peña-2010" /> [[Guillermo Gómez-Peña]] wrote that the complexity and diversity of the Chicano community includes influences from [[Central America]]n, [[Caribbean]], [[African Americans|Africans]], and [[Asian Americans]] who have moved into Chicano communities as well as [[Queer of color critique|queer people of color]].<ref name="Gómez-Peña-2010" /> Many Chicano artists continue to question "conventional, static notions of ''Chicanismo''," while others conform to more conventional cultural traditions.<ref name="Gómez-Peña-2010">{{Cite book|last=Gómez-Peña|first=Guillermo|title=Borderless Borders|publisher=Temple University Press|year=2010|isbn=9781592138449|pages=135–136|chapter=1995-Terrneo Peligroso/Danger Zone}}</ref>

=== Film ===
{{Main|Chicano cinema|List of Chicano films}}
[[File:Sylvia_Morales,_Self_Portrait_(1998).png|thumb|203x203px|[[Sylvia Morales]] directed the short documentary film ''[[Chicana (film)|Chicana]]'' (1976)]]
Chicano film has been marginalized since its inception and was established in the 1960s. The generally marginal status of Chicanos in the [[film industry]] has meant that many Chicano films are not released with wide theatrical distribution.<ref name="Maciel-2022b">{{Cite book |last1=Maciel |first1=David R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IgOBEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22chicano+films%22&pg=PA104 |title=Chicano Renaissance: Contemporary Cultural Trends |last2=Ortiz |first2=Isidro D. |last3=Herrera-Sobek |first3=María |date=2022|publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=9780816550586 |pages=104–120 |language=en}}</ref> Chicano film emerged from the creation of political plays and documentaries. This included [[El Teatro Campesino]]'s ''[[I Am Joaquin (film)|Yo Soy Joaquín]]'' (1969), [[Luis Valdez]]'s ''[[El Corrido]]'' (1976), and [[Efraín Gutiérrez (director)|Efraín Gutiérrez]]'s ''[[Please, Don't Bury Me Alive!]]'' (1976), the latter of which is referred to as the first full-length Chicano film.<ref name="EnriquePérez-2009a">{{Cite book|title=Rethinking Chicana/o and Latina/o Popular Culture|last=Enrique Pérez|first=Daniel|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2009|isbn=9780230616066|pages=93–95}}</ref><ref name="Maciel-2022b"/>

[[Docudrama]]s then emerged like [[Esperanza Vasquez]]'s ''[[Agueda Martinez: Our People, Our Country|Agueda Martínez]]'' (1977), [[Jesús Salvador Treviño]]'s ''[[Raíces de sangre|Raíces de Sangre]]'' (1977), and [[Robert M. Young (director)|Robert M. Young]]'s ''[[Alambrista!|¡Alambrista!]]'' (1977).<ref name="EnriquePérez-2009a" /> Luis Valdez's [[Zoot Suit (film)|''Zoot Suit'']] (1981), Young's ''[[The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez]]'' (1982), [[Gregory Nava]]'s, ''[[My Family (1995 film)|My Family/Mi familia]]'' (1995) and [[Selena (film)|''Selena'']] (1997), and [[Josefina López]]'s ''[[Real Women Have Curves]]'' (2002).<ref name="EnriquePérez-2009a" /> Chicana/o films continue to be regarded as a small niche in the film industry that has yet to receive mainstream commercial success.<ref name="Maciel-2022b"/> However, Chicana/o films have been influential in shaping how Chicana/os see themselves.<ref name="Maciel-2022b" />

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Chicano literature|Chicana literature|Chicano poetry}}
[[File:Rudolfo_Anaya_(264693897).jpg|thumb|left|242x242px|[[Rudolfo Anaya]] (1937–2020) was one of the founders of Chicano literature.]]
[[Chicano literature]] tends to focus on challenging the [[dominant narrative]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hebebrand|first=Christina M.|title=Native American and Chicano/a Literature of the American Southwest: Intersections of Indigenous Literatures|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2004|isbn=9781135933470|page=4}}</ref> while embracing notions of [[hybridity]], including the use of [[Spanglish]], as well as the blending of genre forms, such as [[fiction]] and [[autobiography]].<ref name="Ell-2023">{{Cite web |title=Introduction to Chicano Literature |url=https://anaya.unm.edu/chicanoliterature |access-date=2023-01-25 |website=anaya.unm.edu |quote=Although "Chicano" and "Mexican-American" are often used interchangeably, the former indicates an added political sensibility; an asserted self-awareness of a cultural identity that cannot be separated from social and material struggles for equality and inclusion. |archive-date=2022-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202101534/https://anaya.unm.edu/chicanoliterature |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Trejo-1979">{{Cite web |last=Trejo |first=Arnulfo D. |date=1979 |title=As We See Ourselves in Chicano Literature |url=https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/read/194e052d-0fe6-402a-9149-a081e98ec011/section/e9247245-9a0f-4154-a16c-f7ba863e2a85 |access-date=2023-01-26 |website=University of Arizona Press |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126012723/https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/read/194e052d-0fe6-402a-9149-a081e98ec011/section/e9247245-9a0f-4154-a16c-f7ba863e2a85 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[José Antonio Villarreal]]'s ''Pocho'' (1959) is widely recognized as the first major Chicano novel.<ref name="Trejo-1979"/> Poet [[Alurista]] wrote that Chicano literature served an important role to push back against narratives by [[White Anglo-Saxon Protestants|white Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture]] that sought to "keep Mexicans in their place."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alurista |date=1981 |title=Cultural Nationalism and Xicano Literature during the Decade of 1965-1975 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/467145 |journal=MELUS |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=22–34 |doi=10.2307/467145 |jstor=467145 |issn=0163-755X |archive-date=2023-01-26 |access-date=2023-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126050004/https://www.jstor.org/stable/467145 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Lorna_Dee_Cervantes_(cropped).jpg|thumb|200x200px|[[Lorna Dee Cervantes]] (2017) is one of the most influential Chicana/o poets.]]
[[Rodolfo Gonzales|Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales]]'s [[I Am Joaquin|"Yo Soy Joaquin"]] is one of the first examples of explicitly [[Chicano poetry]]. Other early influential poems included "El Louie" by [[José Montoya]]<ref name="Villa-2017">{{Citation |last=Villa |first=Raúl |title="El Louie" by José Montoya: An Appreciation |date=2017-10-23 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405177603.ch16 |work=A Companion to Latina/o Studies |pages=180–184 |editor-last=Flores |editor-first=Juan |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781405177603.ch16 |isbn=9781405177603 |access-date=2023-01-25 |editor2-last=Rosaldo |editor2-first=Renato |archive-date=2023-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125062302/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405177603.ch16 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[Abelardo Delgado|Abelardo "Lalo" Delgado]]'s poem "Stupid America."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilb |first=Dagoberto |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gosiIVGQjMEC&dq=Abelardo+Delgado+stupid&pg=PA174 |title=Hecho en Tejas: An Anthology of Texas-Mexican Literature |date=2008 |publisher=UNM Press |isbn=9780826341266 |page=174 |language=en}}</ref> In 1967, Octavio Romano founded [[Quinto Sol|Tonatiuh-Quinto Sol Publications]], which was the first dedicated Chicano publication houses.<ref name="eleven">Lopez, Dennis. "Good-Bye Revolution?Hello Cultural Mystique: Quinto Sol Publications and Chicano LiteraryNationalism."  n.p., 2010. Web. 16 Nov. 2013.</ref> The novel ''Chicano'' (1970) by [[Richard Vasquez]], was the first novel about Mexican Americans to be released by a major publisher.<ref name="Trejo-1979"/> It was widely read in high schools and universities during the 1970s and is now recognized as a breakthrough novel.<ref name="Trejo-1979" />
[[File:Irene_Lora_Silva_2016.jpg|left|thumb|241x241px|[[Chicana feminism|Chicana feminist]] poet [[Ire'ne lara silva|ire'ne lora silva]] (2016)]]
[[Chicana feminist]] writers have tended to focus on themes of identity, questioning how identity is constructed, who constructs it, and for what purpose in a racist, classist, and patriarchal structure.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sanchez |first=Marta E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jam6EAAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]] |title=Contemporary Chicana Poetry: A Critical Approach to an Emerging Literature |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, California|isbn=9780520340886 }}</ref> Characters in books such as ''Victuum'' (1976) by Isabella Ríos, ''[[The House on Mango Street]]'' (1983) by [[Sandra Cisneros]], ''Loving in the War Years: lo que nunca pasó por sus labios'' (1983) by [[Cherríe Moraga]], ''The Last of the Menu Girls'' (1986) by [[Denise Chávez]], ''Margins'' (1992) by Terri de la Peña, and ''Gulf Dreams'' (1996) by [[Emma Pérez]] have also been read regarding how they intersect with themes of gender and sexuality.<ref name="Saldivar-1990">{{Cite book|title=Chicano Narrative: Dialectics of Difference|last=Saldivar|first=Ramon|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1990|isbn=9780299124748|page=[https://archive.org/details/chicanonarrative0000sald/page/175 175]|url=https://archive.org/details/chicanonarrative0000sald/page/175}}</ref> Catrióna Rueda Esquibel performs a [[queer reading]] of [[Chicana literature]] in ''With Her Machete in Her Hand'' (2006) to demonstrate how some of the intimate relationships between girls and women contributed to a discourse on [[homoeroticism]] and queer sexuality in Chicana/o literature.<ref name="EnriquePérez-2009b">{{Cite book|title=Rethinking Chicana/o and Latina/o Popular Culture|last=Enrique Pérez|first=Daniel|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2009|isbn=9780230616066|pages=65–66}}</ref>
[[File:Emma Perez Headshot.jpg|thumb|168x168px|Author and professor [[Emma Pérez]] (2018)]]
Chicano characters who were [[gay]] tended to be removed from the ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' and were typically portrayed with negative attributes, such as the character of "Joe Pete" in ''Pocho'' and the unnamed protagonist of [[John Rechy]]'s ''[[City of Night]]'' (1963).<ref name="EnriquePérez-2009b" /> Other characters in the Chicano canon may also be read as queer, including the unnamed protagonist of [[Tomás Rivera]]'s ''[[...y no se lo tragó la tierra]]'' (1971), and "Antonio Márez" in [[Rudolfo Anaya]]'s ''[[Bless Me, Ultima]]'' (1972).<ref name="EnriquePérez-2009b" /> [[Juan Bruce-Novoa]] wrote that homosexuality was "far from being ignored during the 1960s and 1970s," despite [[homophobia]] restricting representations: "our community is less sexually repressive than we might expect".<ref>{{cite book |title=Rethinking Chicana/o and Latina/o Popular Culture |last=Enrique Pérez |first=Daniel |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=9780230616066 |pages=90–91}}</ref>

=== Music ===
[[Lalo Guerrero]] has been lauded as the "father of Chicano music."<ref>Cordelia Chávez Candelaria, Peter J. Garcâia, Arturo J. Aldama, eds., ''Encyclopedia of Latino Popular Culture'', Vol. 1: A–L; Greenwood Publishing Group, (2004) p. 135.</ref> Beginning in the 1930s, he wrote songs in the [[big band]] and [[Swing (music)|swing]] genres and expanded into traditional genres of [[Music of Mexico|Mexican music]]. During the [[Farmworkers in the United States|farmworkers' rights campaign]], he wrote music in support of [[César Chávez]] and the [[United Farm Workers]]. Other notable musicians include [[Selena]], who sang a mixture of Mexican, [[Tejano music|Tejano]], and American popular music, and died in 1995 at the age of 23; [[Zack de la Rocha]], [[social activist]] and lead vocalist of [[Rage Against the Machine]]; and [[Los Lonely Boys]], a Texas-style country rock band.

==== Chicano electro ====
[[File:DJ Tranzo.jpg|thumb|left|[[DJ Tranzo]] (2008)|215x215px]]
Chicano [[techno]] and [[electronic music]] artists [[DJ Rolando]], [[Santiago Salazar (musician)|Santiago Salazar]], [[DJ Tranzo]], and [[Esteban Adame]] have released music through independent labels like [[Underground Resistance]], Planet E, Krown Entertainment, and Rush Hour. In the 1990s, [[house music]] artists such as DJ Juanito (Johnny Loopz), Rudy "Rude Dog" Gonzalez, and Juan V. released numerous tracks through Los Angeles–based house labels Groove Daddy Records and Bust A Groove.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bust A Groove|url=https://www.discogs.com/label/13420-Bust-A-Groove|website=Discogs|access-date=2020-11-13|archive-date=2019-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105044418/https://www.discogs.com/label/13420-Bust-A-Groove|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Groove Daddy Records|url=https://www.discogs.com/label/13909-Groove-Daddy-Records|website=Discogs|access-date=2020-11-13|archive-date=2020-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213093038/https://www.discogs.com/label/13909-Groove-Daddy-Records|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[DJ Rolando]]'s [[techno]] track "Knights of the Jaguar," released on the UR label in 1999, became the most well-known Chicano techno track after charting at #43 in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 2000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wright-McLeod |first=Brian |title=The Encyclopedia of Native Music: More Than a Century of Recordings from Wax Cylinder to the Internet |publisher=University of Arizona Press |year=2018 |isbn=9780816538645 |page=93}}</ref> [[Mixmag]] commented: "after it was released, it spread like wildfire all over the world. It's one of those rare tracks that feels like it can play for an eternity without anyone batting an eyelash."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Holbrook|first=Cameron|date=29 July 2019|title=The 20 best US rave anthems of the '90s|url=https://mixmag.net/feature/20-best-us-rave-anthems-90s|website=Mixmag|access-date=28 April 2020|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919025424/https://mixmag.net/feature/20-best-us-rave-anthems-90s|url-status=live}}</ref> It's consistently placed on Best Songs lists.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 February 2013|title=What is the greatest dance track of all time?|url=http://www.mixmag.net/read/what-is-the-greatest-dance-track-of-all-time-features|access-date=26 June 2020|website=[[mixmag]]|archive-date=1 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501183234/http://mixmag.net/read/what-is-the-greatest-dance-track-of-all-time-features|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-09-27 |title=The 250 Best Songs of the 1990s |url=https://pitchfork.com/features/lists-and-guides/the-best-songs-of-the-1990s/ |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=Pitchfork |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927130919/https://pitchfork.com/features/lists-and-guides/the-best-songs-of-the-1990s/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The official video for the track features various portraits of Chicana/os in [[Detroit]] among several [[Chicano muralism|Chicano murals]], [[Lowrider|lowrider cars]] and [[lowrider bicycle]]s, and lifestyle.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Making Of DJ Rolando "Jaguar" Video | date=22 October 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MVngXIJpD-E |language=en |access-date=2023-01-15 |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115030613/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MVngXIJpD-E |url-status=live }}</ref>

Salazar and Adame are also affiliated with [[Underground Resistance]] and have collaborated with [[Nomadico]]. Salazar founded music labels Major People, Ican (as in ''Mex-Ican'', with Esteban Adame) and Historia y Violencia (with Juan Mendez a.k.a. [[Silent Servant]]) and released his debut album ''Chicanismo'' in 2015 to positive reviews.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Miner|first=Matt|date=3 June 2015|title=Santiago Salazar Makes Techno With a "Chicano Feel"|url=https://www.laweekly.com/santiago-salazar-makes-techno-with-a-chicano-feel/|website=LA Weekly|access-date=28 April 2020|archive-date=28 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628010623/https://www.laweekly.com/santiago-salazar-makes-techno-with-a-chicano-feel/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=McDermott|first=Matt|date=28 October 2015|title=Santiago Salazar: High-tech Chicano|url=https://www.residentadvisor.net/features/2596|website=Resident Advisor|access-date=28 April 2020|archive-date=26 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626022116/https://www.residentadvisor.net/features/2596|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nomadico's label Yaxteq, founded in 2015, has released tracks by veteran Los Angeles techno producer Xavier De Enciso and [[Hondurans|Honduran]] producer Ritmos.<ref>{{Cite web|title=about|url=https://yaxteq.com/biography/|website=Yaxteq|access-date=2020-11-13|archive-date=2020-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126230702/https://yaxteq.com/biography/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Chicano folk ====
A growing Tex-Mex polka band trend influenced by the ''{{lang|es|[[conjunto]]}}'' and ''{{lang|es|[[Norteño (music)|norteño]]}}'' music of Mexican immigrants, has in turn influenced much new Chicano [[folk music]], especially on large-market Spanish language radio stations and on television music video programs in the U.S. Some of these artists, like the band [[Quetzal (band)|Quetzal]], are known for the political content of political songs.

==== Chicano rap ====
{{Main|Chicano rap}}
[[File:Kid-Frost.jpg|thumb|232x232px|[[Frost (rapper)|Kid Frost]] (2008)]]
[[Hip hop]] culture, which is cited as having formed in the 1980s street culture of [[African Americans|African American]], [[West Indian]] (especially [[Jamaican Americans|Jamaican]]), and [[Puerto Ricans in the United States|Puerto Rican]] New York City [[The Bronx|Bronx]] youth and characterized by [[DJing]], [[rap music]], [[Graffiti in New York City|graffiti]], and [[breakdancing]], was adopted by many Chicano youth by the 1980s as its influence moved westward across the United States.<ref name="Tatum-2017">{{Cite book|last=Tatum|first=Charles M.|title=Chicano Popular Culture, Second Edition: Que Hable el Pueblo|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2017|isbn=9780816536528|pages=74–75}}</ref> Chicano artists were beginning to develop their own style of hip hop. Rappers such as [[Ice-T]] and [[Eazy-E]] shared their music and commercial insights with Chicano rappers in the late 1980s. Chicano rapper [[Frost (rapper)|Kid Frost]], who is often cited as "the godfather of Chicano rap" was highly influenced by Ice-T and was even cited as his protégé.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tatum|first=Charles M.|title=Lowriders in Chicano Culture: From Low to Slow to Show|url=https://archive.org/details/lowriderschicano00tatu|url-access=limited|publisher=Greenwood|year=2011|isbn=9780313381492|page=[https://archive.org/details/lowriderschicano00tatu/page/n142 128]}}</ref>[[File:Proper Dos Conejo Serio dont hate me because im Mexican.jpg|thumb|232x232px|Frank V. of [[Proper Dos]] & [[Conejo (rapper)|Conejo]] & Serio in 2012]] [[Chicano rap]] is a unique style of [[hip hop music]] which started with Kid Frost, who saw some mainstream exposure in the early 1990s. While [[Mellow Man Ace]] was the first mainstream rapper to use [[Spanglish]], Frost's song "La Raza" paved the way for its use in [[American hip hop]]. Chicano rap tends to discuss themes of importance to young urban Chicanos. Some of the most prominent Chicano artists include [[A.L.T.]], [[Lil Rob]], [[Psycho Realm]], [[Baby Bash]], Serio, [[Proper Dos]], [[Conejo (rapper)|Conejo]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-12-06 |title=Rapper Conejo extradited from Mexico on murder charges after 14 years on the lam |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/rapper-conejo-extradited-from-mexico-on-murder-charges-after-14-years-on-the-lam |access-date=2024-04-04 |website=Fox News |language=en-US}}</ref> [[A Lighter Shade of Brown]], and [[Funky Aztecs]]. Chicano rap artists with less mainstream exposure, yet with popular underground followings include Cali Life Style, Ese 40'z, Sleepy Loka, Ms. Sancha, Mac Rockelle, Sir Dyno.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alba |first=Alicia Gasper De |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wbAYDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22cali+life+style%22&pg=PA109 |title=Velvet Barrios: Popular Culture and Chicana/o Sexualities |date=2016|publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137042699 |page=109 |language=en}}</ref>

Chicano [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]] artists include [[Paula DeAnda]], [[Amanda Perez]], [[Frankie J]], and Victor Ivan Santos (early member of the [[Kumbia Kings]] and associated with Baby Bash).

==== Chicano jazz ====
Although [[Latin jazz]] is most popularly associated with artists from the Caribbean (particularly Cuba) and Brazil, young Mexican Americans have played a role in its development over the years, going back to the 1930s and early 1940s, the era of the [[zoot suit]], when young Mexican-American musicians in [[Los Angeles]] and [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], such as [[Jenni Rivera]], began to experiment with ''{{lang|es|[[Banda music|banda]]}}'', a [[jazz]]-like fusion genre that has grown recently in popularity among Mexican Americans

==== Chicano rock ====
{{Main|Chicano rock}}
[[File:New Romantic photo shoot.jpg|thumb|212x212px|[[Alice Bag]], [[Chicano punk|Chicana punk]] artist (1980s)]]
In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, a wave of Chicano pop music surfaced through innovative musicians [[Carlos Santana]], [[Johnny Rodriguez]], [[Ritchie Valens]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]]. [[Joan Baez]], who is also of Mexican-American descent, included Hispanic themes in some of her protest folk songs. Chicano rock is [[rock and roll|rock music]] performed by Chicano groups or music with themes derived from Chicano culture.

There are two undercurrents in Chicano rock. One is a devotion to the original [[rhythm and blues]] roots of Rock and roll including [[Ritchie Valens]], [[Sunny and the Sunglows]], and [[? and the Mysterians]]. Groups inspired by this include [[Sir Douglas Quintet]], [[Thee Midniters]], [[Los Lobos]], [[War (U.S. band)|War]], [[Tierra (group)|Tierra]], and [[El Chicano]], and, of course, the Chicano Blues Man himself, the late Randy Garribay. The second theme is the openness to Latin American sounds and influences. [[Trini Lopez]], [[Santana (band)|Santana]], [[Malo (band)|Malo]], [[Azteca (band)|Azteca]], Toro, [[Ozomatli]] and other Chicano [[Latin rock]] groups follow this approach. Chicano rock crossed paths of other Latin rock genres ([[Rock en español]]) by [[Cubans]], [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Ricans]], such as [[Joe Bataan]] and Ralphi Pagan and South America ([[Nueva canción]]). Rock band [[The Mars Volta]] combines elements of progressive rock with traditional Mexican folk music and Latin rhythms along with [[Cedric Bixler-Zavala]]'s [[Spanglish]] lyrics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.harpmagazine.com/articles/detail.cfm?article_id=6393 |title=HARP Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208094500/http://www.harpmagazine.com/articles/detail.cfm?article_id=6393 |archive-date=December 8, 2008 |url-status=usurped |access-date=October 13, 2008}}</ref>
[[File:Chicano Batman - Irving Plaza - Thursday 5th October 2017 ChicanoBIrvingP051017-2 (26233765019).jpg|thumb|212x212px|[[Chicano Batman]] is arguably the most recent popular Latin alternative band.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garcia|first=Peter J.|title=Decentering the Nation: Music, Mexicanidad, and Globalization|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498573184|page=201}}</ref>]]
[[Chicano punk]] is a branch of Chicano rock. There were many bands that emerged from the [[California punk]] scene, including [[The Zeros (American band)|The Zeros]], [[Bags (Los Angeles band)|Bags]], [[Los Illegals]], [[The Brat (punk band)|The Brat]], [[The Plugz]], [[Manic Hispanic]], and the [[Cruzados]]; as well as others from outside of California including [[Mydolls]] from Houston, Texas and [[Los Crudos]] from Chicago, Illinois. The rock band [[? and the Mysterians]], which was composed primarily of Mexican-American musicians, was the first band to be described as punk rock. The term was reportedly coined in 1971 by rock critic [[Dave Marsh]] in a review of their show for ''[[Creem]]'' magazine.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/13/punk.box/index.html|title=The revolution that saved rock|date=November 13, 2003|work=CNN.com|access-date=October 13, 2008|archive-date=October 31, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031202224/http://www.cnn.com/2003/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/13/punk.box/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Performance arts ===
[[File:Campesino Quicksilver Poster.jpg|left|thumb|194x194px|[[El Teatro Campesino]] poster (1966)]]
[[El Teatro Campesino]] (The Farmworkers' Theater) was founded by [[Luis Valdez]] and Agustin Lira in 1965 as the cultural wing of the [[United Farm Workers]] (UFW) as a result of the Great Delano Grape Strike in 1965.<ref name="Gàndara-2002">{{Cite book|last=Gàndara|first=Melinda|title=Mexico and the United States|publisher=Marshall Cavendish Corporation|year=2002|isbn=9780761474029|pages=157–159|chapter=Chicano Art}}</ref> All of the actors were farmworkers and involved in organizing for farmworkers' rights. Its first performances sought to recruit members for the UFW and dissuade [[strikebreaker]]s. Many early performances were not scripted and were rather conceived through the direction of Valdez and others through ''actos'', in which a scenario would be proposed for a scene and then dialogue would simply be [[Improvisation|improvised]].<ref name="Lucas-2015" />[[File:Luis Valdez Chicano Playwright (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Luis Valdez]] is considered to be the father of Chicano theater.<ref name="Lucas-2015">{{Cite book|last=Lucas|first=Ashley|title=Ethnic American Literature: An Encyclopedia for Students|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2015|isbn=9781610698818|pages=493–5|quote=Luis Valdez is a Chicano playwright, director, producer, and actor.}}</ref>|247x247px]]Chicano performance art continued with the work of Los Angeles' comedy troupe [[Culture Clash (performance troupe)|Culture Clash]], [[Guillermo Gómez-Peña]], and [[Nao Bustamante]], known internationally for her conceptual art pieces and as a participant in ''[[Work of Art: The Next Great Artist]]''. Chicano performance art became popular in the 1970s, blending humor and pathos for [[tragicomic]] effect. Groups such as [[Asco (art collective)|Asco]] and the [[Royal Chicano Air Force]] illustrated this aspect of performance art through their work.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Meier|first1=Matt S.|title=The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia|last2=Gutiérrez|first2=Margo|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=9780313316432|page=29}}</ref> Asco ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for ''naseau'' or ''disgust''), composed of [[Willie Herrón]], [[Gronk (artist)|Gronk]], [[Harry Gamboa Jr.]], and [[Patssi Valdez]], created performance pieces such as the ''Walking Mural'', walking down Whittier Boulevard dressed as "a multifaceted mural, a [[Christmas tree]], and the [[Virgin of Guadalupe]]. Asco continued its conceptual performance piece until 1987.<ref name="Gàndara-2002" />
[[File:Lpn2.jpg|left|thumb|192x192px|Two members of La Pocha Nostra in performance.]]
In the 1990s, San Diego–based artist cooperative of David Avalos, Louis Hock, and Elizabeth Sisco used their [[National Endowment for the Arts]] $5,000 fellowship subversively, deciding to circulate money back to the community: "handing 10-dollar bills to undocumented workers to spend as they please." Their piece Arte Reembolsa (Art Rebate) created controversy among the art establishment, with the documentation of the piece featuring "footage of U.S. House and Senate members questioning whether the project was, in fact, art."<ref name="Gàndara-2002" />

One of the most well-known performance art troupes is La Pocha Nostra, which has been covered in numerous articles for various performance art pieces.<ref name="PBSNewsHour-2019">{{Cite web |date=2019-09-13 |title='No homeland, no fear': A conversation with the radical art collective that imagines a borderless America |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/arts/no-homeland-no-fear-a-conversation-with-the-radical-art-collective-that-imagines-a-borderless-america |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us}}</ref> The troupe has been active since 1993 yet has remained relevant into the 2010s and 2020s due to its political commentary, including anti-corporate stances.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sayej |first=Nadja |date=2022-07-14 |title=Queering the Border |url=https://www.texasobserver.org/queering-border-guillermo-gomez-pena-100-ways/ |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=The Texas Observer |language=en-US}}</ref> The troupe regularly uses parody and humor in their performances to make complex commentary on various social issues.<ref name="PBSNewsHour-2019" /><ref>{{Cite web |title='100 Ways to Cross the Border' set to premiere at BAMcinemaFest |url=https://aldianews.com/en/culture/screen/two-cultures-between-borders |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=Al Día News |language=en |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115043001/https://aldianews.com/en/culture/screen/two-cultures-between-borders |url-status=dead }}</ref> Creating thought-provoking performances that challenge the audience to think differently is often their intention with each performance piece.<ref name="PBSNewsHour-2019" />

=== Visual arts ===
{{See also|Chicano art movement|Chicana art}}
[[File:Carlos Almaraz (1941–1989).png|thumb|201x201px|[[Carlos Almaraz]] (1979)]]
The Chicano visual art tradition, like the identity, is grounded in community empowerment and resisting assimilation and oppression.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gaspar de Alba|first=Alicia|title=Chicano Art Inside/Outside the Master's House: Cultural Politics and the CARA Exhibition|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292788985|chapter=A Theoretical Introduction: Alter-Native Ethnography, a lo rasquache}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Linn|first=Sarah|date=22 June 2017|title=Art as Resistance: Chicano Artists in the Time of Trump|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/art-as-resistance-chicano-artists-in-the-time-of-trump|website=KCET|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919184027/https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/art-as-resistance-chicano-artists-in-the-time-of-trump|url-status=live}}</ref> Prior to the introduction of spray cans, paint brushes were used by Chicano "shoeshine boys [who] marked their names on the walls with their daubers to stake out their spots on the sidewalk" in the early 20th century.<ref name="Bojórquez-2019" /> Pachuco graffiti culture in [[Los Angeles]] was already "in full bloom" by the 1930s and 1940s, pachucos developed their ''placa'', "a distinctive calligraphic writing style" which went on to influence contemporary [[Tagging (graffiti)|graffiti tagging]].<ref name="Vargas-2000">{{Cite book|last=Vargas|first=George|title=Chicano Renaissance: Contemporary Cultural Trends|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2000|isbn=9780816520213|pages=202–210}}</ref> [[Paño]], a form of ''[[Pinto (subculture)|pinto]] arte'' (a [[Caló (Chicano)|''caló'']] term for male [[prisoner]]) using pen and pencil, developed in the 1930s, first using [[bed sheet]]s and [[pillowcases]] as canvases.<ref name="Hoinskip1">Hoinski, Michael. "How Prison Art From Texas Captured the Art World's Attention." ''[[Texas Monthly]]''. Thursday February 13, 2014. [http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/how-prison-art-texas-captured-art-worlds-attention 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112043925/http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/how-prison-art-texas-captured-art-worlds-attention |date=2015-01-12 }}. Retrieved on March 3, 2014.</ref> Paño has been described as ''[[rasquachismo]]'', a Chicano worldview and artmaking method which makes the most from the least.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alejandro Sorell|first=Víctor|title=Encyclopedia of Latino Popular Culture: Volume 2|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2004|isbn=9780313332111|pages=630–633|chapter=Pinto Arte}}</ref>
[[File:Chaz Bojorquez sketches a tattoo.jpg|left|thumb|215x215px|[[Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez|Chaz Bojorquez]] (2011)]]
Graffiti artists, such as [[Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez]], developed an original style of graffiti art known as West Coast Cholo style influenced by Mexican murals and pachuco ''placas'' ([[Tagging (graffiti)|tags]] which indicate territorial boundaries) in the mid-20th century.<ref name="Tatum-2017" /> In the 1960s, Chicano graffiti artists from [[San Antonio]] to L.A. (especially in [[East LA]], [[Whittier, California|Whittier]], and [[Boyle Heights, Los Angeles|Boyle Heights]])<ref name="Alonso-1998">{{Cite journal|last=Alonso|first=Alex|date=14 February 1998|title=Urban Graffiti on the City Landscape|journal=Western Geography Graduate Conference|citeseerx=10.1.1.614.3042}}</ref> used the art form to challenge authority, tagging [[police car]]s, buildings, and subways as "a demonstration of their bravado and anger", understanding their work as "individual acts of pride or protest, gang declarations of territory or challenge, and weapons in a [[Class conflict|class war]]."<ref name="Vargas-2000" /><ref name="West-1988">{{Cite book|last=West|first=John O.|title=Mexican-American Folklore|publisher=August House|year=1988|isbn=9780874830590|pages=251–253}}</ref> Chicano graffiti artists wrote C/S as an abbreviation for ''con safos'' or the variant ''con safo'' (loosely meaning "don't touch this" and expressing a "the same to you" attitude)—a common expression among Chicanos on the [[Eastside Los Angeles|eastside]] of Los Angeles and throughout the Southwest.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Loza|first=Stephen Joseph|title=Barrio Rhythm: Mexican American Music in Los Angeles|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1993|isbn=9780252062889|page=112}}</ref><ref name="West-1988" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cordova |first=Ruben C. |title=Con Safo: The Chicano Art Group and the Politics of South Texas. |publisher=UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780895511218 |location=Los Angeles}}</ref>
[[File:Self-Help-Graphics.png|thumb|[[Self Help Graphics & Art|Self-Help Graphics]], [[East Los Angeles, California|East Los Angeles]]]]
The [[Chicano Movement]] and political identity had heavily influenced Chicano artists by the 1970s. Alongside the Black arts movement, this led to the development of institutions such as [[Self Help Graphics & Art|Self-Help Graphics]], [[Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions]], and [[Plaza de la Raza]]. Artists such as [[Harry Gamboa Jr.]], [[Gronk (artist)|Gronk]], and [[Judith Baca]] created art which "stood in opposition to the commercial galleries, museums, and civic institutional mainstream".<ref name="Schrank-2009">{{Cite book|last=Schrank|first=Sarah|title=Art and the City: Civic Imagination and Cultural Authority in Los Angeles|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2009|isbn=9780812241174|page=165}}</ref> This was exemplified with [[Asco (art collective)|Asco]]'s tagging of [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art|LACMA]] after "a curator refused to even entertain the idea of a Chicano art show within its walls" in 1972.<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> Chicano art collectives such as the [[Royal Chicano Air Force]], founded in 1970 by [[Ricardo Favela]], [[José Montoya]] and [[Esteban Villa]], supported the [[United Farm Workers]] movement through [[art activism]], using art to create and inspire social change. Favela believed that it was important to keep the culture alive through their artwork. Favela stated "I was dealing with art forms very foreign to me, always trying to do [[western art]], but there was always something lacking... it was very simple: it was just my Chicano heart wanting to do Chicano art."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Orozco|first=Donna|date=3 March 2021|title=Arts Visalia celebrates influential Chicano artist Ricardo Favela, a Dinuba native|url=https://www.visaliatimesdelta.com/story/entertainment/arts/2021/03/03/arts-visalia-celebrates-chicano-artist-ricardo-favela/6894589002/|website=Visalia Times Delta|quote=Favela went on to found the Royal Chicano Air Force (FCAF) with Montoya and Estefan Villa along with others at Sac State.|access-date=24 March 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224858/https://www.visaliatimesdelta.com/story/entertainment/arts/2021/03/03/arts-visalia-celebrates-chicano-artist-ricardo-favela/6894589002/|url-status=live}}</ref> Other Chicano visual art collectives included Con Safo in [[San Antonio]], which included Felipe Reyes, [[José Esquivel]], Roberto Ríos, Jesse Almazán, Jesse "Chista" Cantú, Jose Garza, [[Mel Casas]], Rudy Treviño, [[César Martínez (artist)|César Martínez]], [[Kathy Vargas]], [[Amado M. Peña Jr.|Amado Peña Jr.]], Robando Briseño, and [[Roberto Gonzalez (artist and musician)|Roberto Gonzalez]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cordova |first=Ruben Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XRDh9Gkn5NEC |title=Con Safo: The Chicano Art Group and the Politics of South Texas |date=2009 |publisher=UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center Press |isbn=9780895511218 |page=237 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Mujeres Muralistas]] in the [[Mission District, San Francisco]] included [[Patricia Rodriguez (artist)|Patricia Rodriguez]], [[Graciela Carrillo]], Consuelo Mendez, and [[Irene Pérez|Irene Perez]].<ref name="Cordova-1970">Cordova, Cary. "Hombres Y Mujeres Muralistas on a Mission: Painting Latino Identities in 1970s San Francisco." ''Latino Studies'' 4.4 (2006): 356-80. ''ProQuest.'' Web. 8 Nov. 2018.</ref>
[[File:MunozJaime.jpg|left|thumb|228x228px|Murals at [[Estrada Courts]]]]
Chicano [[mural]]ism, which began in the 1960s,<ref name="Gàndara-2002"/> became a state-sanctioned artform in the 1970s as an attempt by outsiders to "prevent gang violence and dissuade graffiti practices".<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> This led to the creation of murals at [[Estrada Courts]] and other sites throughout Chicano communities. In some instances, these murals were covered with the ''placas'' they were instituted by the state to prevent. Marcos Sanchez-Tranquilino states that "rather than vandalism, the tagging of one's own murals points toward a complex sense of wall ownership and a social tension created by the uncomfortable yet approving attentions of official cultural authority."<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> This created a division between established Chicano artists who celebrated inclusion and acceptance by the dominant culture and younger Chicano artists who "saw greater power in renegade muralism and ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' calligraphy than in state-sanctioned pieces."<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> Chicano poster art became prominent in the 1970s as a way to challenge political authority, with pieces such as Rupert García's ''Save Our Sister'' (1972), depicting [[Angela Davis]], and [[Yolanda M. López]]'s ''Who's the Illegal Alien, Pilgrim?'' (1978) addressing [[settler colonialism]].<ref name="Gàndara-2002"/>
[[File:Judith Baca.jpg|thumb|215x215px|[[Judy Baca]] (1988)]]
The oppositional current of Chicano art was bolstered in the 1980s by a rising [[hip hop]] culture.<ref name="Alonso-1998" /> The Olympic freeway murals, including [[Frank Romero]]'s ''Going to the Olympics'', created for the [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984 Olympic Games]] in Los Angeles became another site of contestation, as Chicano and other graffiti artists tagged the state-sanctioned public artwork. Government officials, muralists, and some residents were unable to understand the motivations for this, described it "as "mindless", "animalistic" vandalism perpetrated by "kids" who simply lack respect."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bloch|first=Stefano|date=21 August 2016|title=Why do Graffiti Writers Write on Murals? The Birth, Life, and Slow Death of Freeway Murals in Los Angeles|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research|volume=40|issue=2|pages=451–471|doi=10.1111/1468-2427.12345}}</ref> L.A. had developed a distinct graffiti culture by the 1990s and, with the rise of drugs and violence, Chicano [[youth culture]] gravitated towards graffiti to express themselves and to mark their territory amidst state-sanctioned disorder.<ref name="SprayPlanet-2020">{{Cite web|date=18 February 2020|title=From Buses to River Walls: Graffiti in 1980's to Early-90's Los Angeles|url=https://www.sprayplanet.com/blogs/news/from-buses-to-river-walls-graffiti-in-1980s-to-early-90s-los-angeles|website=SprayPlanet|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922233233/https://www.sprayplanet.com/blogs/news/from-buses-to-river-walls-graffiti-in-1980s-to-early-90s-los-angeles|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="DiegoVigil-1988" /> Following the [[Rodney King Riots|Rodney King riots]] and the murder of [[Killing of Latasha Harlins|Latasha Harlins]], which exemplified an explosion of racial tensions bubbling under in American society, racialized youth in L.A., "feeling forgotten, angry, or marginalized, [embraced] graffiti's expressive power [as] a tool to push back."<ref name="SprayPlanet-2020" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guanuna|first=Lucy|date=17 September 2015|title=Getting Up, Staying Up: History of Graffiti in the L.A. River|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/earth-focus/getting-up-staying-up-history-of-graffiti-in-the-la-river|website=KCET|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020210606/https://www.kcet.org/shows/earth-focus/getting-up-staying-up-history-of-graffiti-in-the-la-river|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Nao Bustamonte on Dale Radio.jpg|left|thumb|185x185px|[[Nao Bustamante|Nao Bustamonte]], artist and performer (2012)]]
Chicano art, although accepted into some institutional art spaces in shows like [[Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation]], was still largely excluded from many mainstream art institutions in the 1990s.<ref name="Vargas-2000" /> By the 2000s, attitudes towards graffiti by white [[Hipster (contemporary subculture)|hipster]] culture were changing, as it became known as "street art". In academic circles, "street art" was termed "post-graffiti". By the 2000s, where the [[Los Angeles Police Department|LAPD]] once deployed CRASH ([[Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums]]) units in traditionally Chicano neighborhoods like [[Echo Park, Los Angeles|Echo Park]] and "often brutalized suspected taggers and gang members", ''street art'' was now being mainstreamed by the white art world in those same neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bloch|first=Stefano|title=Routledge Handbook of Graffiti and Street Art|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2016|isbn=9781317645856|pages=440–451|chapter=Challenging the defense of graffiti, in defense of graffiti}}</ref>[[File:Alma Lopez.jpg|thumb|205x205px|[[Alma López]] (2020)]]Despite this shift, Chicano artists continued to challenge what was acceptable to both insiders and outsiders of their communities. Controversy surrounding Chicana artist [[Alma López]]'s "Our Lady" at the [[Museum of International Folk Art]] in 2001 erupted when "local demonstrators demanded the image be removed from the state-run museum".<ref name="Limón-2013" /> Previously, López's digital mural "Heaven" (2000), which depicted two Latina women embracing, had been vandalized.<ref name="Jones-2015">{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Kevin L.|date=22 June 2015|title=Mission District Gallery's Queer Cholo Mural Defaced Again|url=https://www.kqed.org/arts/10788224/mission-district-gallerys-queer-cholo-mural-defaced-again|website=KQED|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613194634/https://www.kqed.org/arts/10788224/mission-district-gallerys-queer-cholo-mural-defaced-again|url-status=live}}</ref> López received [[Homophobia|homophobic]] slurs, threats of physical violence, and over 800 [[hate mail]] inquiries for "Our Lady." [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] Archbishop [[Michael Sheehan (archbishop of Santa Fe)|Michael J Sheehan]] referred to the woman in López's piece as "a tart or a street woman". López stated that the response came from the conservative [[Catholic Church]], "which finds women's bodies inherently sinful, and thereby promot[es] hatred of women's bodies." The art was again protested in 2011.<ref name="Limón-2013">{{Cite web|last=Limón|first=Enrique|date=2 July 2013|title=Shame As It Ever Was: Twelve years after "Our Lady" controversy, artist Alma López looks back|url=https://www.sfreporter.com/arts/artsvalve/2013/07/02/shame-as-it-ever-was/|website=Santa Fe Reporter|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611210008/https://www.sfreporter.com/arts/artsvalve/2013/07/02/shame-as-it-ever-was/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:View_of_arch_symbol_Judy_Baca.jpg|left|thumb|194x194px|''[[Arch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice|The Arch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice]]'' by [[Judy Baca]] at [[San José State University]]]]
Manuel Paul's mural "Por Vida" (2015) at [[Galería de la Raza|Galeria de la Raza]] in [[Mission District, San Francisco]], which depicted queer and trans Chicanos, was targeted multiple times after its unveiling.<ref name="Jones-2015" /><ref name="Villarreal-2015">{{Cite web|last=Villarreal|first=Yezmin|date=18 June 2015|title=LGBT Latino Artists Threatened After San Francisco's Gay Cholo Chicano Mural Defaced|url=https://www.advocate.com/california/2015/06/18/lgbt-latino-artists-threatened-after-san-franciscos-gay-cholo-chicano-mural-de|website=Advocate|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613203818/https://www.advocate.com/california/2015/06/18/lgbt-latino-artists-threatened-after-san-franciscos-gay-cholo-chicano-mural-de|url-status=live}}</ref> Paul, a queer DJ and artist of the Maricón Collective, received online threats for the work. Ani Rivera, director of Galeria de la Raza, attributed the anger towards the mural to [[gentrification]], which has led "some people [to] associate LGBT people with non-Latino communities."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rivas|first=Jorge|date=17 June 2015|title=Gay cholo mural gets defaced in San Francisco after online threats|url=https://splinternews.com/gay-cholo-mural-gets-defaced-in-san-francisco-after-onl-1793848447|website=Splinter|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613203820/https://splinternews.com/gay-cholo-mural-gets-defaced-in-san-francisco-after-onl-1793848447|url-status=live}}</ref> The mural was meant to challenge "long-held assumptions regarding the traditional exclusivity of heterosexuality in lowrider culture".<ref name="Jones-2015" /> Some credited the negative response to the mural's direct challenging of [[machismo]] and [[heteronormativity]] in the community.<ref name="Villarreal-2015" />

[[Xandra Ibarra]]'s video art ''Spictacle II: La Tortillera'' (2004) was censored by [[San Antonio]]'s Department of Arts and Culture in 2020 from "XicanX: New Visions", a show which aimed to challenge "previous and existing surveys of Chicano and Latino identity-based exhibitions" through highlighting "the womxn, queer, immigrant, indigenous and activist artists who are at the forefront of the movement".<ref name="Rindfuss-2020">{{Cite web|last=Rindfuss|first=Bryan|date=22 February 2020|title=All You Need to Know About the "Obscene" Video Censored by San Antonio's Department of Arts and Culture — Including How to Watch It|url=https://www.sacurrent.com/ArtSlut/archives/2020/02/22/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-obscene-video-censored-by-san-antonios-department-of-arts-and-culture-including-how-to-watch-it|website=San Antonio Current|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=9 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509022019/https://www.sacurrent.com/ArtSlut/archives/2020/02/22/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-obscene-video-censored-by-san-antonios-department-of-arts-and-culture-including-how-to-watch-it|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ibarra stated "the video is designed to challenge normative ideals of Mexican womanhood and is in alignment with the historical lineage of LGBTQAI+ artists' strategies to intervene in homophobic and sexist violence."<ref name="Rindfuss-2020" />

=== International influence ===
[[File:Lowrider film Giveitup 51 japan.webm|thumb|222x222px|Japanese lowrider. Chicano cultural influence is strong in [[Japan]].<ref name="Chiarino-2022">{{Cite web |last=Chiarino |first=Paula |date=2022-05-18 |title=Lowriders, Rap and TikTok: Understanding Chicano Culture in Japan |url=https://www.tokyoweekender.com/2022/05/lowriders-chicano-culture-in-japan/ |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=Tokyo Weekender |language=ja}}</ref>]]
Chicano culture has become popular in some areas internationally, most prominently in [[Japan]], [[Brazil]], and [[Thailand]].<ref name="Perez-Torres-2018" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=AFP |first=French Press Agency- |date=2022-03-21 |title=Loud and proud: Bangkok's Chicano family |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/life/loud-and-proud-bangkoks-chicano-family/news |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115010904/https://www.dailysabah.com/life/loud-and-proud-bangkoks-chicano-family/news |url-status=live }}</ref> Chicano ideas such as Chicano hybridity and [[Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza|borderlands theory]] have found influence as well, such as in [[decoloniality]].<ref name="Perez-Torres-2018" /> In [[São Paulo]], Chicano cultural influence has formed the "Cho-Low" (combination of ''[[Cholo (subculture)|Cholo]]'' and [[Lowrider]]) subculture that has formed a sense of cultural pride among youth.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-13 |title=South American Cho-Low: Documenting Brazil's Lowrider Culture |url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/south-american-cho-low-documenting-brazils-lowrider-culture |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=KCET |language=en |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115010911/https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/south-american-cho-low-documenting-brazils-lowrider-culture |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bevins |first=Vincent |date=2016-06-25 |title=On the Ground: While no one was looking, East L.A. got transplanted to Brazil — lowriders, taco trucks and all |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-brazil-low-rider-snap-story.html |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115010911/https://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-brazil-low-rider-snap-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Chicano cultural influence is strong in [[Japan]], where Chicano culture took hold in the 1980s and continued to grow with contributions from Shin Miyata, Junichi Shimodaira, Miki Style, Night Tha Funksta, and MoNa (Sad Girl).<ref name="Inside Japan's Chicano Culture">{{cite web |title=Inside Japan's Chicano Culture |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8bMLcCxxAA&t=243s |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211103/r8bMLcCxxAA |archive-date=2021-11-03 |access-date=5 May 2019 |website=YouTube | date=20 February 2019 |publisher=New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Miyata owns a record label, Gold Barrio Records, that re-releases Chicano music.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Roman |first1=Gabriel |title=When East Los Meets Tokyo: Chicano Rap and Lowrider Culture in Japan |url=https://ocweekly.com/when-east-los-meets-tokyo-chicano-rap-and-lowrider-culture-in-japan-6573626/ |access-date=5 May 2019 |website=OC Weekly |date=7 July 2011 |archive-date=6 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506115138/https://ocweekly.com/when-east-los-meets-tokyo-chicano-rap-and-lowrider-culture-in-japan-6573626/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Chicano fashion and other cultural aspects have also been adopted in Japan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Japanese Women Are Dressing Like Chicanas {{!}} Style Out There {{!}} Refinery29 | date=16 March 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1LqF03UUdc |language=en |access-date=2019-12-09 |archive-date=2019-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918162438/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1LqF03UUdc |url-status=live }}</ref> There has been debate over whether this is [[cultural appropriation]], with most arguing that it is appreciation rather than appropriation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Dana |date=27 February 2017 |title=Japanese Chicano Culture Does Not Amount to Appropriation |url=http://thedailycougar.com/2017/02/27/chicano-japanese-appropriation/ |access-date=5 May 2019 |website=The Cougar |archive-date=6 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506123114/http://thedailycougar.com/2017/02/27/chicano-japanese-appropriation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ellison |first1=Louis |title=Chicano, A Film by Louis Ellison and Jacob Hodgkinson |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQ98vBeZuDk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211103/uQ98vBeZuDk |archive-date=2021-11-03 |access-date=5 May 2019 |website=YouTube |date=27 January 2017 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese Chicanas! Culture Appropriation or Culture Appreciation? |url=https://www.energy941.com/japanese-chicanas-culture-appropriation-or-culture-appreciation/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506123124/https://www.energy941.com/japanese-chicanas-culture-appropriation-or-culture-appreciation/ |archive-date=6 May 2019 |access-date=5 May 2019 |website=Energy 941 |publisher=Energy 94.1 FM}}</ref> In an interview asking why Chicano culture is popular in Japan, two long-time proponents of Chicano culture in Japan agreed that "it's not about Mexico or about America: it's an alluring quality unique to the hybrid nature of Chicano and imprinted in all its resulting art forms, from lowriders in the '80s to TikTok videos today, that people relate to and appreciate, not only in Japan but around the world."<ref name="Chiarino-2022" />

Most recently, Chicano culture has found influence in [[Thailand]] among [[Working class|working-class]] men and women that is called "Thaino" culture.<ref name="Dangprasith-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-03-19 |title='We're family:' meet Thailand's 'Chicano' community |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2022/03/19/2003775049 |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=www.taipeitimes.com |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115010905/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2022/03/19/2003775049 |url-status=live }}</ref> They state that they have disassociated the violence that [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] portrays of Chicanos from the Chicano people themselves.<ref name="Dangprasith-2022" /> They have adopted rules of no [[cocaine]] or [[amphetamines]], and only [[marijuana]], which is legal in Thailand.<ref name="easternstandardtimes-2023">{{Cite web |title=Thai Group, The Barbarian, Inspired by Chicano Culture {{!}} EST |url=https://www.easternstandardtimes.com/episode/leng-the-barbarian-a-thai-leader-inspired-by-chicano-culture |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=www.easternstandardtimes.com}}</ref> The leader of one group stated that he was inspired by how Chicanos created a culture out of defiance "to fight against people who were [[Racism|racist]] toward them" and that this inspired him, since he was born in a [[slum]] in Thailand.<ref name="easternstandardtimes-2023" /> He also stated "if you look closely at [Chicano] culture, you'll notice how gentle it is. You can see this in their Latin music, dances, clothes, and how they iron their clothes. It's both neat and gentle."<ref name="easternstandardtimes-2023" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Latino and Hispanic American}}
{{Wiktionary pipe|Chicano#Adjective|Chicano}}
* [[Pocho]]
* [[Caló (Chicano)|Caló]]
* [[Casta]]
* [[Chicana feminism]]
* [[Chicano Moratorium]]
* [[Chicano nationalism]]
* [[Chicano Park]]
* [[Indigenismo]]
**[[Indigenismo in Mexico]]
* [[La raza cósmica|Cosmic race]]
* [[Josefa Segovia]]
* [[Latino punk]]
* [[Mestizos in Mexico]]
* [[Mexican Americans]]
* [[Race (U.S. census)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Acuña, Rodolfo (2006). ''Occupied America: A History of Chicanos''. Longman.
* Blackwell, Maylei (2011). ''¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement''. Austin: [[University of Texas Press]].
* Chavez, John R. (1984). ''The Lost Land: A Chicano Image of the American Southwest''. Las Cruces: New Mexico State University Publications.
* Chavez, John R. (1997). "The Chicano Image and the Myth of Aztlan Rediscovered". Patrick Gerster and Nicholas Cords (eds.). ''Myth America: A Historical Anthology'', Volume II. St. James, New York: Brandywine Press.
* López-Calvo, Ignacio (2011). ''Latino Los Angeles in Film and Fiction: The Cultural Production of Social Anxiety''. [[University of Arizona Press]].
* Molina, Natalia (2006). ''Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1940''. Los Angeles: [[University of California Press]].
* Olivas, Michael A. (2006). ''Colored Men and Hombres Aquí: Hernandez V. Texas and the Emergence of Mexican American Lawyering''. Arte Público Press.
* Ontiveros, Randy J. (2014). ''In the Spirit of a New People: The Cultural Politics of the Chicano Movement''. [[New York University Press]].
* Oropeza, Lorena (2005). ''Raza Si, Guerra No: Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam War Era''. Los Angeles: [[University of California Press]]. {{ISBN|9780520241954}}.
* Oropeza, Lorena (2019). ''The King of Adobe: Reies López Tijerina, Lost Prophet of the Chicano Movement''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN|9781469653297}}.
* Riviera, Gregorio, and Tino Villanueva (eds.) (1986). ''IMAGINE: Literary Arts Journal''. Vol. 3, Nos. 1 & 2: Special Issue on Chicano Art. Boston: Imagine Publishers.
* Rosales, F. Arturo (1996). ''Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement''. Houston, Texas: Arte Publico Press.

==External links==
{{sister project links|d=Q1307911|wikt=Chicano|c=Category:Chicano|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|species=no}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721213311/http://www.library.ucsb.edu/speccoll/collections/cema/listguides.html#Chicano California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – In the Chicano/Latino Collections]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090422084217/http://www.library.ucsb.edu/speccoll/collections/cema/digitalChicanoArt.html California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – Digital Chicano Art]
* [https://www.chicano.ucla.edu Chicano Studies Research Center]
* [http://www.dubuddha.org/category/chicano_tattoo/ Chicano tattoo gallery]
* [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_28-639k35mm81 Education and the Mexican-American; Racism in America : past, present, future symposium] 1968-10-03, National Records and Archives Administration, [[American Archive of Public Broadcasting]]
* [https://elcentro.stanford.edu El Centro Chicano y Latino]
* [http://cemaweb.library.ucsb.edu/project_description.html ImaginArte – Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815030635/http://cemaweb.library.ucsb.edu/project_description.html |date=2011-08-15 }}
{{Chicano/Mexican-American}}
{{Hispanics/Latinos}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Chicano| ]]
[[Category:Mexican diaspora in the United States]]
[[Category:Culture of Latin America]]
[[Category:Mexican-American culture]]
[[Category:Hispanic and Latino American society]]
[[Category:Hispanic and Latino American history]]