View source for Chinese Buddhism

{{Short description|Form of Buddhism native to China and practiced around the world}}
{{About|the Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism|all Buddhist branches practiced in China|Buddhism in China}}
{{cleanup lang|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Chinese Buddhism
| t = 漢傳佛教
| poj = Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu
| j = {{tonesup|Hon3-cyun4 Fat6-gaau3}}
| p = Hànchuán Fójiào
| w = {{tonesup|Han4-ch‘uan2 Fo2-chiao4}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|.|ch|uan|2|-|f|o|2|.|j|iao|4}}
| y = Honchyùhn Fahtgaau
| bpmf = ㄏㄢˋ ㄔㄨㄢˊ ㄈㄛˊ ㄐㄧㄠˋ
| s = 汉传佛教
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|h|on|3|.|c|yun|4|-|f|at|6|.|g|aau|3}}
}}

{{Buddhism and China}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|total_width=400
|header=Institutions of Chinese Buddhism
|image1=Zhuhai Jintai Temple inner court view and monks.jpg
|caption1=[[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] at Jintai Temple in [[Zhuhai]], [[Guangdong]]
|image2=无锡灵山大佛梵宫 - panoramio.jpg
|caption2=Interior of the [[Grand Buddha at Ling Shan|Ling Shan Brahma Palace]] in [[Wuxi]], [[Jiangsu]]
|image3=居士林94458.jpg
|caption3=A Buddhist [[house church (China)|house assembly]]
}}

'''Chinese Buddhism''' or '''Han Buddhism''' ({{lang-zh|s=汉传佛教|t=漢傳佛教|first=t}}) is a Chinese form of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] and is the largest institutionalized religion in [[mainland China]].<ref name=":3">Cook, Sarah (2017). ''[https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-02/FH_ChinasSprit2016_FULL_FINAL_140pages.pdf The Battle for China's Spirit: Religious Revival, Repression, and Resistance under Xi Jinping.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225759/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-02/FH_ChinasSprit2016_FULL_FINAL_140pages.pdf |date=2021-08-08 }}'' Freedom House Report. Rowman & Littlefield.</ref> {{As of|2017}}, there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in the [[China|People's Republic of China]].<ref name=":3" /> It is also a major religion in [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]], and [[Malaysia]], as well as among the [[Chinese diaspora]].<ref name=":8" />

Buddhism was first introduced to China during the [[Han dynasty]] (206&nbsp;[[BCE]]{{snd}}220&nbsp;CE). It was promoted by multiple [[Emperor of China|emperors]], especially during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907&nbsp;CE), which helped it spread across the country.<ref name="pewresearch">{{cite news |date=2023-09-21 |title=Six facts about Buddhism in China |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/09/21/6-facts-about-buddhism-in-china |work=Pew Research Center. |access-date=2023-09-21}}</ref> The translation of a large body of [[Indian Buddhist]] scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations (along with [[Taoist]] and [[Confucian]] works) into a [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the [[East Asian cultural sphere]], including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including [[Tiantai]], [[Huayan]], [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]], [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], and [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism|Esoteric Buddhism]].

From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by pre-existing [[Chinese religions]] and [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]], especially Confucianism and Taoism, but also [[Chinese folk religion]]. The Chinese Buddhist canon<ref name="Inner Asian Buddhism p. 299">Jiang Wu, "The Chinese Buddhist Canon" in ''The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism'', p.&nbsp;299, Wiley-Blackwell (2014).</ref> also draws from those traditions and their rituals.

== History ==
{{Further|History of Chinese Buddhism}}{{Anchor | Origin | Transmission | Transmission of Buddhism to Korea }}
{{see also|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Indianization}}
[[File:Buddhist_Expansion.svg|thumb|260px|[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Buddhist expansion in Asia]]: [[Mahayana Buddhism]] first entered the Chinese Empire ([[Han dynasty#Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics|Han dynasty]]) through the [[Silk Road]] during the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan Era]]. The overland and maritime Silk Roads were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".<ref name=":13">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Maritime Buddhism |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=[[Oxford]] |url=https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638 |access-date=30 May 2021 |date=20 December 2018 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638 |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219153342/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638 |archive-date=19 February 2019 |author-last=Acri |author-first=Andrea |doi-access=free |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]
[[File:白马寺-White Horse Temple.jpg|thumb|260px|[[White Horse Temple]] in [[Luoyang]], one of the earliest [[Buddhist temples in China|Chinese Buddhist temples]]]]
[[file:中國山西五台山世界遺產535.jpg|thumb|260px|Buddhist temple at [[Mount Wutai|Wutaishan]]]]
[[File:Sogdian_whirl_with_large_pipa.jpg|thumb|260px|Buddhist art from the [[Mogao Caves]] at [[Dunhuang]] ([[Gansu]]). Dunhuang was a thriving center of Buddhism between 500 and 1000&nbsp;CE.]]
[[File:2016-05-21 Luoyang Longmen Grottoes anagoria 10.JPG|thumb|260px|Statues at [[Longmen Grottoes]], [[Luoyang]]]]

=== The establishment of Buddhism in China ===
Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to [[China]] during the [[Han dynasty]], and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the [[common era]].<ref>{{cite book |date=2010 |publisher={{lang|zh|华语教学出版社.}} Sinolingua. |isbn=978-7-80200-985-1 |page=64 |script-title=zh:中国文化科目认证指南 |quote={{lang|zh|公元1世纪———传入中国内地，与汉文化交融，形成汉传佛教。}}}}</ref><ref name=":8">Poceski, Mario. "Chinese Buddhism" in ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions'' (pp.&nbsp;197–218) edited Randall L. Nadeau. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.</ref><ref name="Chinese Buddhism p. 14">{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=14}}</ref> Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian [[Silk Road]] and the [[Maritime transport|maritime]] routes.<ref>{{harvnb|Maspero |1981 |pp=401–405}}</ref> Initially, Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=15}}</ref> The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions.<ref>{{harvnb|Maspero |1981 |p=409}}</ref> There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by the [[Confucian]] elites.<ref name=":8" /> Centuries after [[History of Buddhism in India|Buddhism originated in India]], [[Mahayana]] Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in the 1st century CE via [[Tibet]].{{citation needed|date=September 2025|reason=old, error generating citation (ref name="camb1") undefined}}

One of the first tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of [[Buddhist texts]] into Chinese were those of the 2nd-century [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[An Shigao]] (Chinese: {{lang|zh|安世高}}), who worked in the capital of [[Luoyang]]. His work was followed by the extensive [[Mahayana]] translations of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] monk [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakṣema]] ({{lang|zh|支婁迦讖}}, active {{Circa|164}}–186 CE), as well as the work of [[Dharmarakṣa]] (3rd century).<ref>Williams, Paul. ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations''. 2008. p.&nbsp;30</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=18}}</ref> During this early period, the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school was influential in establishing Buddhism in China.<ref>Warder, A.&nbsp;K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. pp.&nbsp;280–281</ref> This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's [[Vinaya]] (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools.

The arrival of the [[Kucha]]n scholar [[Kumārajīva]] (334–413&nbsp;CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=22}}</ref> The high-quality translations produced by his disciples had a significant impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the [[Madhyamaka]] school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called [[Sanlun]] (the Three Treatise school).<ref name=":0">Mair, Victor H.; Sanping Chen, Wood, Frances (2013). ''Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization'', #28, Kumarajiva. Thames & Hudson.</ref> His work also established an Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy.<ref name=":6">Fan Muyou. ''A Reexamination of the Influence of Kumārajīva's Thought on His Translation of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa''. The Eastern Buddhist 47/1: 57-80. 2018. The Eastern Buddhist Society.</ref>

By the 460s, Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its [[Buddhist symbolism|iconography]] and art were widely recognized.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Frankopan |first=Peter |title=The Silk Roads: A New History of the World |date=March 2017 |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |isbn=978-1-101-94633-6 |edition=First Vintage Books |series= |location=New York |page=32 |author-link=Peter Frankopan}}</ref> The [[Dunhuang caves|Dunhuang]] and [[Yungang Grottoes|Yungang]] cave complexes are great examples of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=76}}</ref>

Another important translator was [[Paramartha|Paramārtha]] ({{Lang|zh|Zhēndì}}, 499–569 CE), who, along with his Chinese disciples, translated numerous works on [[Abhidharma]], [[Yogachara]] philosophy, and other Mahayana texts.<ref name=":2">Radich, Michael. ''[https://philpapers.org/rec/RADTDO-2 The Doctrine of *Amalavijnana in Paramartha (499–569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 CE]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126213733/https://philpapers.org/rec/RADTDO-2 |date=2022-11-26 }} ''Zinbun'' 41:45–174 (2009). Copy&nbsp;BIBT<sub>E</sub>X</ref><ref name=":1">Keng Ching and Michael Radich. [https://www.academia.edu/39730891/Keng_Ching_and_Michael_Radich_Param%C4%81rtha_Brills_Encyclopedia_of_Buddhism_Volume_II_Lives_edited_by_Jonathan_A_Silk_editor_in_chief_Richard_Bowring_Vincent_Eltschinger_and_Michael_Radich_752_758_Leiden_Brill_2019 "Paramārtha". ''Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Volume II: Lives''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126205948/https://www.academia.edu/39730891/Keng_Ching_and_Michael_Radich_Param%C4%81rtha_Brills_Encyclopedia_of_Buddhism_Volume_II_Lives_edited_by_Jonathan_A_Silk_editor_in_chief_Richard_Bowring_Vincent_Eltschinger_and_Michael_Radich_752_758_Leiden_Brill_2019 |date=2022-11-26 }}, edited by Jonathan A. Silk (editor-in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger, and Michael Radich, 752-758. Leiden, Brill, 2019.</ref> The work of other sixth-century translators such as [[Bodhiruci]] and Ratnamati also contributed to the establishment of a new [[East Asian Yogācāra|Chinese Yogacara school]], also known as the Consciousness-Only school ({{Lang-zh|c=唯識宗|p=wéishí-zōng}}).{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}

=== The development of a Chinese Buddhism ===
[[File:南禅寺大殿正面.jpg|thumb|The Great Buddha Hall of [[Nanchan Temple]] at [[Mount Wutai]], Shanxi. Originally built in the [[Tang dynasty]], it is [[List of oldest extant buildings|the oldest surviving timber architecture]] in China.]]

The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:

* The [[Tiantai]] school, mainly founded by the efforts of master [[Zhiyi]] (538–597 CE) and based on the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' and the works of Zhiyi.
* The [[Huayan]] (''[[Avatamsaka Sutra]]'') school, based on the works of Chinese masters such as [[Dushun]] (557–640), [[Zhiyan]] (602–668), and [[Fazang]] (643–712).
* The [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land tradition]], based on the [[The Venerable|veneration]] of [[Amitabha]] and the works of Buddhist monks such as [[Tanluan]] (476–542), [[Daochuo]] (562–645), and [[Shandao]] (613–681).
* [[Chan Buddhism]], based on the teachings of various Chan masters such as [[Bodhidharma]], [[Dazu Huike]] (487–593), [[Sengcan]] (d. 606), [[Dayi Daoxin]] (580–651), and [[Daman Hongren]] (601–674).

During the [[Tang dynasty]], the monk [[Xuanzang]] (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a group of translators responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 81.</ref> His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia.

The Tang era was a period of significant development for Buddhism in China.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Living in the Chinese Cosmos {{!}} Asia for Educators |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/buddhism.htm |access-date=2022-12-01 |website=afe.easia.columbia.edu |archive-date=2021-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416094904/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/buddhism.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> During this time, a [[Sinicization|sinicized]] Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. The religion was popular with all social classes and was influential on Chinese culture,<ref name=":8" /> having more followers than Taoism.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=65 |oclc=123079516 |author-link=Amy Chua}}</ref> Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets such as [[Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)|Wang Wei]] (701–761) and [[Bo Juyi]] (772–846). Artistic complexes from this period, such as the [[Longmen Grottoes]], also attest to the artistic expression of Chinese Buddhism during this era.<ref name=":8" />

A well-known proponent of the religion during the Tang era was Empress [[Wu Zetian]] ({{Reign|690|705}}), who is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Michael |title=The Arts of China |publisher=University of California Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-520-25569-2 |location=Berkeley |page=138}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-43519-6 |location=Cambridge |pages=116–117}}</ref> She also depicted herself as a [[bodhisattva]].<ref>Rothschild, N, Henry (2015). Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers. Columbia UP. p. 221.</ref>

The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of [[Subhakarasimha]], [[Vajrabodhi]], and [[Amoghavajra]], and their establishment of [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]] from 716 to 720, during the reign of [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang]]. This Chinese form of [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] now became popular with the elites, and by the time of [[Emperor Daizong of Tang]] ({{Reign|762|779}}), its influence among the upper classes was significant.

The [[Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution]] (841–845) under [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang]] greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution was the Chinese state's need for taxes and wealth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Graeber |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/debtfirst5000yea00grae/page/265 |title=Debt: The First 5000 Years |publisher=Melville House |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-933633-86-2 |location=Brooklyn, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/debtfirst5000yea00grae/page/265 265–266]}}</ref>

[[File:TheWoodenTowerOfYing1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pagoda of Fogong Temple]] at [[Ying County]], Shanxi, constructed 1056–1195 during the [[Liao dynasty]]]]

The [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]] (907–960/979), an era of political upheaval and civil war, negatively impacted the religion. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.

The [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture.<ref name=":8" /> During this era, [[Chan Buddhism]] grew to become the most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and an organized system of temple rank and administration.<ref>Yampolski, Philip (2003), "Zen. A Historical Sketch", in Takeuchi Yoshinori (ed.), Buddhist Spirituality. Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</ref> It was during this time that the  [[Five Houses of Chan]] developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the [[koan]] collections of the [[Linji school]], such as the ''[[Blue Cliff Record]]'' (1125) and ''[[The Gateless Gate]]'' (1228).<ref>McRae, John (2003), ''Seeing Through Zen'', The University Press Group Ltd</ref>

Likewise, during this time, the works of [[Hongzhi Zhengjue]] (1091–1157) developed the meditation method of ''[[silent illumination]]''.<ref>Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), ''Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China, World Wisdom Books'', pp.&nbsp;256–257. {{ISBN|978-0-941532-89-1}}</ref> Both of these traditions of Chan practice were influential (and remain so) on East Asian [[Zen|Zen Buddhism]] (including [[Japanese Zen]], [[Korean Seon]], and Vietnamese [[Thiền]]).

The [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368) patronized [[Tibetan Buddhism]]; thus, during this period, there was a steady growth of this tradition in China.<ref name="Nan Huaijin 1997. p. 99">{{harvnb|Nan Huai-Chin|1998|p=99}}</ref> A common perception was that this patronage of [[lama]]s caused corrupt forms of [[tantra]] to become widespread.<ref name="Nan Huaijin 1997. p. 99" /> When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the [[Ming dynasty]] was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as being an unorthodox path.<ref name="Nan Huaijin 1997. p. 99" />

During the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of Chinese traditions such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to the two dominant Chan schools: Linji and [[Caodong school|Caodong]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wu |first=Jiang |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195333572.001.0001/acprof-9780195333572 |title=Enlightenment in Dispute |date=2008-04-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533357-2 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195333572.003.0003 |access-date=2021-10-24 |archive-date=2018-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602203614/http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195333572.001.0001/acprof-9780195333572 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite thesis |title=The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming: On the Thought of Youxi Chuandeng (1554–1628) D81G0T8P |publisher=Columbia University |date=2011 |doi=10.7916/d81g0t8p |language=en |first=Yung-fen |last=Ma}}</ref><ref>Stanley Weinstein, "The Schools of Chinese Buddhism", in Kitagawa & Cummings (eds.), ''Buddhism and Asian History'' (New York: Macmillan 1987) pp.&nbsp;257–265.</ref> At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite [[Religious syncretism|syncretic]], drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of [[Hanshan Deqing]], one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism.<ref name="Keown, Damien 2003. p. 1042">Keown, Damien. ''A Dictionary of Buddhism''. 2003. p.&nbsp;104</ref> Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods.<ref name="Keown, Damien 2003. p. 1042" /> He also directed practitioners in the use of [[mantra]]s as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.<ref name="Keown, Damien 2003. p. 1042" />

=== Modernity ===
[[File:Aerial View of Fo Guang Shan.png|thumb|260px|An aerial view of [[Fo Guang Shan Monastery]] in [[Kaohsiung]], Taiwan]]
 
During the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to the [[Gelug|Gelug school]] of Tibetan Buddhism.<ref name="mullin358">Mullin 2001, p.&nbsp;358</ref> Chinese Buddhism suffered during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the [[Taiping Rebellion]] (December 1850{{snd}}August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|pp=240}}</ref> This era also saw the arrival of [[Christian mission]]aries to China, a right which had been granted to the [[Western powers]] after the [[Opium Wars]].<ref name="mullin358" />

During the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republican period]] (1912–1949), there were efforts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism in response to the challenges of modernity.<ref name="Huai">{{harvnb|Nan Huai-Chin |1998}}{{pages needed |date=May 2025}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> The most notable of these reformers were the [[Humanistic Buddhism|Humanistic Buddhists]], such as [[Taixu]] and [[Yin Shun]]. Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more worldly pursuits such as [[education]] and [[Charity (practice)|charitable]] work.<ref name=":8" /> There was also a revival of Chan by [[Hsu Yun]] and [[Sheng Yen]]<ref name="Huai" /> as well as a revival of Tiantai by Dixian and [[Tanxu]].<ref>Ji Zhe, Gareth Fisher, André Laliberté (2020). ''Buddhism after Mao: Negotiations, Continuities, and Reinventions'', pp.&nbsp;136–137. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>

==== People's Republic of China ====
[[File:辽阳广佑寺建筑.jpg|thumb|Guangyou Temple at [[Liaoyang]], Liaoning, rebuilt in 2002]]
{{Further|Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party}}

After the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]], many Buddhists and monastics joined the [[Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan|Republican exodus to Taiwan]]. In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including [[Fo Guang Shan]], [[Dharma Drum Mountain]], and [[Tzu Chi]].<ref name=":8" /> These organizations also became influential in [[Mainland China]] after the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until [[Mao Zedong]]'s death in 1976). [[Maoist]] propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of the [[Four Olds]], as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as [[counter-revolutionary]].<ref name="Dan Smyer 2007">Yu, Dan Smyer. "Delayed contention with the Chinese Marxist scapegoat complex: re-membering Tibetan Buddhism in the PRC". ''The Tibet Journal'', 32.1 (2007)</ref> Buddhist monks were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed, and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public display of their religion.<ref name="Dan Smyer 2007" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=murdoch edu |url=http://wwwistp.murdoch.edu.au/publications/e_public/Case%20Studies_Asia/tourchin/tourchin.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051225041328/http://wwwistp.murdoch.edu.au/publications/e_public/Case%20Studies_Asia/tourchin/tourchin.htm |archive-date=December 25, 2005}}</ref>

During the normalization period ([[Boluan Fanzheng]], 1977 to the early 1980s) led by [[Deng Xiaoping]], a revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place.{{sfn|Lai|2003}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 30, 2010 |title=Religion-China: Buddhism Enjoys A Revival |url=https://www.ipsnews.net/2010/11/religion-china-buddhism-enjoys-a-revival/ |website=Inter Press Service |access-date=October 6, 2022 |archive-date=October 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006105033/https://www.ipsnews.net/2010/11/religion-china-buddhism-enjoys-a-revival/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Erica B. Mitchell (201), ''A Revival of Buddhism?'' |url=http://www.chinainst.org/en/articles/chinese-history-culture/a-revival-of-buddhism.php |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714113620/http://www.chinainst.org/en/articles/chinese-history-culture/a-revival-of-buddhism.php |archive-date=July 14, 2014}}</ref> This was a period that saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples such as the [[Guoqing Temple]] and [[Guanghua Temple (Putian)|Guanghua Temple]], as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks such as Zhenchan ({{lang|zh|真禪}}) and Mengcan ({{lang|zh|夢參}}), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as the United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Hammerstrom |first=Erik J. |title=The Huayan University Network: The Teaching and Practice of Avataṃsaka Buddhism in Twentieth-Century China |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-231-55075-8 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |oclc=1154101063}}</ref> Monks were now required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pei |first=Minxin |author-link=Minxin Pei |title=The Sentinel State: Surveillance and the Survival of Dictatorship in China |date=2023-12-31 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-29645-9 |doi=10.4159/9780674296459 |jstor=jj.10860939 |oclc=1419055794}}</ref>{{Rp|page=190}}

The [[Buddhist Association of China]] is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Sinicization of Buddhism and Its Competing Reinventions of Tradition |date=2021-05-28 |work=The Sinicization of Chinese Religions: From Above and Below |pages=64–85 |editor1-link=Richard Madsen (sociologist)  |editor-last=Madsen |editor-first=Richard |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |doi=10.1163/9789004465183_005 |isbn=978-90-04-46517-6|s2cid=242677252 }}</ref> It is directed by the [[United Front Work Department]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP).<ref name=":04">{{Cite news |last=Joske |first=Alex |author-link=Alex Joske |date=May 9, 2019 |title=Reorganizing the United Front Work Department: New Structures for a New Era of Diaspora and Religious Affairs Work |language=en-US |website=[[Jamestown Foundation]] |url=https://jamestown.org/program/reorganizing-the-united-front-work-department-new-structures-for-a-new-era-of-diaspora-and-religious-affairs-work/ |access-date=2019-11-18}}</ref> {{MahayanaBuddhism}}

== Teaching and practice ==
[[File:Praying monks and nuns in the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple of Singapore.jpg|thumb|Buddhist monastics and laypeople chanting sutras in the [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple]], Singapore]]
[[File:Mahavira Hall, Baoning Temple in Changsha 2022022507.jpg|thumb|Buddha statues at the Mahavira Hall of [[Baoning Temple (Changsha)|Baoning Temple]], Hunan, China]]
[[file:Tzu Chi Health Care For Our Foreign Friends in Taiwan and Fill The World with Love 20111009.jpg|thumb|Volunteers of the [[Tzu Chi Foundation]] at a health screening event for foreign workers in [[Taipei]]]]

=== Doctrine and texts ===
Chinese Buddhism is a [[sinicized]] form of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], which draws on the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] ({{zhi|c=大藏經|p=Dàzàngjīng|tr=Great Storage of Scriptures}})<ref name="Inner Asian Buddhism p. 299" /> as well as numerous Chinese traditions. It focuses on studying [[Mahayana sutras]] and treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', the ''[[Avatamsaka Sutra]]'', the ''[[Vimalakirti Sutra]]'', the ''[[Nirvana Sutra]]'', the ''[[Amitabha Sutra]]'', and the ''[[Surangama Sutra]]''.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="Yü 2020 29–70">{{harvnb|Yü|2020|pp=29–70}}</ref>

As such, Chinese Buddhism adheres to the classic Mahayana worldview, which includes a belief in many [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|realms of existence]], the existence of many [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] and [[bodhisattvas]], as well as many other kinds of divine beings and ghosts.<ref name=":8" /> Chinese Buddhism also upholds classic Mahayana doctrines such as [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] ({{lang|zh|報應}}) and [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]] ({{lang|zh|超生}}), the bodhisattva path, and the doctrines of [[Śūnyatā|emptiness]], [[buddha-nature]], and the [[Ekayāna|one vehicle]].<ref name=":8" />

Chinese [[Buddhist philosophy]] contains various doctrinal traditions, the most important being the [[Tiantai]], [[Huayan]], [[Sanlun]], and [[Yogachara|Weishi]] schools of thought.<ref name=":8" /> These doctrinal traditions developed their own scriptural commentaries and treatises and also various doctrinal classifications ({{Lang|zh-Latn|[[panjiao]]}}), which hierarchically ordered the mass of Buddhist scriptures in order to advance their school's [[Buddhist hermeneutics|hermeneutical]] worldview.<ref name=":8" /> For example, according to master Zhiyi's "eight teachings and five periods" classification, the final and supreme teaching of the Buddha is found in the ''Lotus Sutra'' and the ''Nirvana Sutra''.<ref name=":8" /> According to Huayan masters such as [[Fazang]], the ''Huayan Sutra'' contains the supreme teaching, while the Weishi school held that the Yogachara texts are where the "third turning" of the Dharma can be found, and thus, represent the final and ultimate teaching of the Buddha.

=== Practices ===
[[File:Chanting The Buddhist Scriptures,by Li Mei-shu.jpg|thumb|''Chanting the Buddhist Scriptures'', by Taiwanese painter [[Li Mei-shu]]]]
{{Chinese folk religion}}

Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmic [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]], which can bring about positive results in this life or the next.<ref name=":8" />

According to Mario Poceski, for the vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists, "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance."<ref name=":8" /> Many monasteries and temples typically follow a [[Buddhist liturgy#Chinese Buddhist liturgy (chaomu kesong)|standardized traditional liturgy]] for daily morning and evening services, which typically involve [[Buddhist chant|chanting]] or recitation of [[sūtra]](s) or passages from a sūtra, [[Mantra|mantras]] and [[Dharani|dhāraṇīs]], [[Gatha (Buddhism)|gathas]] and verses of praises of Buddhist deities and figures, and food bestowal rites. Worship services can also include [[Buddhist devotion]]al practices such as offerings to an altar (of items like incense, flowers, food, and candles), ceremonial bowing, and extensive liturgies (including repentance ceremonies, rites for good health, and memorials for the dead).<ref name=":8" /> According to Chün-fang Yü, the most popular Chinese Buddhist ritual performed today is the ''[[Dabei Chan]]'', also known as the "Great Compassion Repentance", which associated with [[Guanyin]] and the ''[[Great Compassion Dharani]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=111}}</ref>

Adhering to sets of ethical rules, such as the classic Buddhist [[five precepts]], is another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path.<ref name=":8" /> Another important set of ethical precepts is the [[Bodhisattva Precepts|bodhisattva precepts]] of the ''[[Brahma's Net Sutra]]'', which are often practiced by both laypeople and monastics.<ref name=":8" /> Acts of charity or social service ({{lang|zh|結緣}}) are also an important of part of Chinese [[Buddhist ethics]].

Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging in [[Buddhist meditation]]s such as chanting the Buddha's name (''[[nianfo]]''), which is the core practice of Pure Land Buddhism, and seated meditation (''[[zazen]]''), which is the focus of the Chan tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddha's name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensive ''nianfo'' recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of the [[eight precepts]], silent meditation, and [[Dharma talk|Dharma lectures]].<ref name=":52">Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pure_Land/4ksqEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA198&printsec=frontcover Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice]'', pp. 198-210. Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-61180-890-2}}.</ref>

A major type of practice for Chinese Buddhist monastics is the performance of rituals aiming to help facilitate the nourishment and universal salvation ({{zhi|c=普渡|p=pǔdù}}) of all [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] in the six realms of [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|saṃsāra]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universal Salvation Ritual |url=https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/ubccommunityandpartnerspublicati/52387/items/1.0401704|author= Liu, Jingyu  |access-date=2025-05-02 |website=UBC Library Open Collections |date= 2021-04-22 |doi=10.14288/1.0401704 |doi-access=free |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Liu |first=Jingyu |date=May 2020 |title=The Unimpeded Passage: The Making of Universal Salvation Rites and Buddho-Daoist Interactions in Medieval China |url=https://gotriple.eu/documents/ftharvardudash:oai:dash.harvard.edu:1/37365892 |via=GoTriple |language=en |degree=PhD |location=Harvard University |publisher=Graduate School of Arts & Sciences |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250507180110/https://dash.harvard.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/ef57c38d-1409-40a4-a1ae-460bd12561a1/content |archive-date= May 7, 2025 }}</ref> This type of ritual often involves esoteric or [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism|tantric]] practices and usually requires setting-up a dedicated ritual space, invoking the [[Buddhist pantheon]], and the [[Transfer of merit|transference of merit]] from the performance of the ritual. A few examples of this type are the ''[[Yujia Yankou]]'' rite and the ''[[Shuilu Fahui]]'' ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lye|first=Hun Yeow|title=Feeding Ghosts: A Study of the Yuqie Yankou Rite |url=https://libraetd.lib.virginia.edu/public_view/b8515n64w |date=2003-08-01 |doi=10.18130/V3S82Z |website=UVA Library |doi-access=free |access-date=2025-05-02 }}</ref>

Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypeople. These include printing, copying, propagating, and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures.<ref name=":51">Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pure_Land/4ksqEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA188&printsec=frontcover Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice]'', pp. 188-198. Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-61180-890-2}}.</ref><ref name=":9" /> Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as lecture halls or [[Dharma Hall|dharma halls]], libraries, and scripture platforms ({{lang|zh|施法壇}}), a kind of sacred podium.<ref name=":51" /><ref name=":9" />

Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to be reborn in the [[pure land]] of a Buddha (the most popular being Amitabha's pure land).<ref name=":52" /> The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha through the repetition of the Buddha's name).<ref name=":52" /> It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experience auspicious signs, such as visions of Amitabha and bright lights.<ref name=":52" />

[[Pilgrimage]]s to well-known monasteries and sites, such as the [[Sacred Mountains of China#The Four Sacred Mountains of Buddhism|Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains]] ([[Mount Wutai]], [[Mount Emei]], [[Mount Jiuhua]], and [[Mount Putuo]]) are undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.<ref name="Twitchett, Denis 1998. p. 949" />

Another popular practice is the use of mantras and ''[[dharani]]s''. A few examples include the ''[[Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī|Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī]]'', the ''[[Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī]]'', the [[Shurangama Mantra|Śūraṅgama mantra]], the [[Ucchusma|Ucchuṣma mantra]], the [[Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani Sutra|Ekādaśamukha mantra]], and the ''[[Cundī Dhāraṇī]]'', which is one of the [[Ten Small Mantras]] that are regularly chanted as part of standard morning and evening liturgical services.<ref name="Twitchett, Denis 1998. p. 949" /> Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of [[Cundi (Buddhism)|Cundī]] enjoyed popularity among both the common people and the elite.<ref>Jiang, Wu (2008). ''Enlightenment in Dispute: The Reinvention of Chan Buddhism in Seventeenth-Century China''. p.&nbsp;146</ref>

=== Deities and temples ===
[[file:河南 鲁山县 世界最高的佛教造像 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Spring Temple Buddha]], a colossal statue of [[Vairocana]], in [[Henan]], China]]
[[file:Golden Summit (Jinding) (17264931860).jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra]] at Mount Emei]]
[[file:2016 Singapur, Chinatown, Świątynia i Muzeum Relikwi Zęba Buddy (26).jpg|thumb|Shrine to [[Cintāmaṇicakra]] within the Universal Wisdom Hall of the [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum]], Singapore]]

Various Mahayana [[Buddhist deities]] are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are [[Buddhas]] and bodhisattvas. Some of the key figures include:<ref>Kuan Ming. [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/ancientsgrfx.pdf ''Popular Deities of Chinese Buddhism''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113205904/http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/ancientsgrfx.pdf |date=2022-11-13 }}, Contemplative Order Malaysia.</ref><ref name=":8" />

* [[Shijiamouni]] ({{zhi|c=釋迦摩尼|p=Shìjiāmóní}}), or Śākyamuni ("sage of the [[Shakya|Śākyas]]"), the historical founder of Buddhism, commonly depicted with [[Ānanda]] and [[Mahākāśyapa]], or in a triad with [[Amituofo]] and [[Yaoshi|Yaoshi Fo]].
* The [[Five Tathāgatas]] ({{zhi|c=五方佛|p=Wǔfāngfó}}), an esoteric grouping of Five Buddhas who are commonly invoked in rituals such as the [[Yujia Yankou]].
* [[Guanyin]] ({{zhi|c=觀音|p=Guānyīn}}), the bodhisattva of compassion who has various forms (such as the thousand arms form) and is the East Asian version of the bodhisattva [[Avalokiteśvara]].
* [[Amitābha|Amituofo]] ({{zhi|c=阿彌陀佛|p=Āmítuó Fó}}), or Amitābha ('Limitless Light'), also called Amitāyus ('Limitless Life'), associated with the pure land of [[Sukhavati]], which many hope to reach after death.
* [[Dari Rulai]] ({{zhi|c=大日如來|p=Dàrì Rúlái}}), or Vairocana, the cosmic [[Adi-Buddha|primordial Buddha]] .
* [[Yaoshi|Yaoshi Fo]] ({{zhi|c=藥師佛|p=Yàoshī Fó}}), or Bhaiṣajyaguru, associated with medicinal powers.
* [[Mi Le Fo|Mi Le]] ({{zhi|c=彌勒菩薩|p=Mílè púsà}}), or Maitreya, is seen as the Buddha of the future, sometimes depicted as the monk [[Budai]].
* [[Wenshu]] ({{zhi|c=文殊|p=Wénshū}}), or Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva of wisdom, associated with Mount Wutai, who often appears mounted on a lion.
* [[Puxian Pusa|Puxian]] ({{zhi|c=普賢|p=Pǔxián}}), or Samantabhadra, often depicted riding an elephant, is associated with confession and repentance rites and the bodhisattva vows.
* [[Dizang]] ({{zhi|c=地藏 |p=Dìzàng}}), or Kṣitigarbha, the savior monk associated with rites for the deceased.
* [[Acala|Budong Mingwang]] ({{zhi|c=不動明王|p=Bùdòng Míngwáng}}), or Acala, a manifestation of Vairocana.
* [[Ucchusma|Huiji Jingang]] ({{zhi|c=穢跡金剛|p=Huìjì Jīngāng}}), or Ucchuṣma, a manifestation of Śākyamuni.
* The [[Eighteen Arhats]] ({{zhi|c=十八羅漢|p=Shíbā Luóhàn}}), disciples of Gautama Buddha.
* The [[Four Heavenly Kings|Four Great Heavenly Kings]] ({{zhi|c=四大天王|p=Sìdà Tiānwáng}}).
* The [[Twenty-Four Protective Deities]] ({{zhi|c=二十四諸天|p=Èrshísì Zhūtiān}}), a common set of protector deities ([[dharmapala]]s).
* The [[Wisdom King#The Ten Wisdom Kings|Ten Wisdom Kings]] ({{zhi|c=十大明王|p=Shídà Míngwáng}}), another common set of dharmapalas.

Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p= 72}}</ref> Devotion towards these images is a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship the images of these holy beings."<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=71}}</ref>

According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional [[Chinese palace]] layout:

<blockquote>
"[Buddhist temples] consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples, a number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication."<ref name=":8" />
</blockquote>

Another common structure is a [[pagoda]], which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=121}}</ref>

=== Monasticism ===
[[file:Buddhist Monks Kunming Yuantong Temple.jpeg|thumb|Buddhist Monks at [[Yuantong Temple|Kunming Yuantong Temple]]]]

[[Buddhist monasticism]] is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Both male and female monastics follow the [[Dharmaguptaka]] of [[Vinaya]], which is known as the ''Four Part Vinaya'' ({{transliteration|zh|Sifen lü}}{{tsp}}) in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns.<ref name=":8" />

Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services, [[Circumambulation|circumambulating]] the Buddha hall, preaching the scriptures, giving Dharma lectures, ritual meals, and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals.<ref name=":9">Huaiyu Chen, "East Asian Transformations of Monasticism" in ''The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism'', p. 299, Wiley-Blackwell (2014).</ref>

There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just a few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=125}}</ref>

=== Vegetarianism and veganism ===
[[file:Puzhaolou Vegetarian Restaurant (20170121123110).jpg|thumb|The vegetarian dining hall at [[South Putuo Temple]] is well known throughout China]]

The Chinese word {{zhi|out=c|c=純淨素|p=chún jìng sù}}, meaning 'pure Buddhist vegan/vegetarian', is widely used in Chinese Buddhism.<ref name=":8" /> Such dietary practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] ({{zhi|c=楞伽阿跋多羅寶經|p=léngqié ābáduōluó bǎojīng}}).<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese Veganism |url=https://www.chinavegans.org/news/how-do-you-say-vegan-in-chinese}}</ref>

Monastics are often required to be [[vegetarian]] or [[vegan]], and other animal products are often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries.<ref name=":8" /> Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and the five types of pungent vegetables.<ref name=":8" />

Devout laypeople are also often vegetarian. Some may practice being vegetarian on certain sacred days, during religious retreats, or during certain festivals.

Temples and monasteries often have vegetarian dining halls, and vegetarian feasts are a common feature of popular celebrations.<ref name=":8" />

===Laypeople===
[[File:Liurongsi Mooks.jpg|thumb|Lay Buddhists at the recitation hall of the [[Temple of the Six Banyan Trees]] in [[Guangzhou]].]]

In Chinese Buddhism, [[Upāsaka|lay Buddhist practitioners]] have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism in China has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism.<ref name="Twitchett, Denis 1998. p. 949">Twitchett, Denis, and Fairbank, John. ''The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8, Part 2''. 1998. p. 949</ref> Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries, such as [[Matteo Ricci]], which provide extensive and revealing accounts of the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.<ref name="Twitchett, Denis 1998. p. 949"/>

Traditional practices—such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism—were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people.<ref name="Twitchett, Denis 1998. p. 949"/> It is known from accounts from the time of the Ming dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chan traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sutras. The ''Heart Sutra'' and the ''[[Diamond Sutra]]'' were the most popular, followed by the ''Lotus Sutra'' and the ''Avatamsaka Sutra''.<ref name="Twitchett, Denis 1998. p. 949"/>

=== Syncretism and multiple religious belonging ===
[[File:Daxiangguo Temple - Guan Yu Statue.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Guan Yu]] at [[Daxiangguo Temple]]]]
{{Chinese folk religion}}

Chinese Buddhism also includes influences from native [[Religion in China|Chinese religions]], including Confucianism, Taoism, and [[Chinese folk religion]].<ref name=":8" /> This ecumenical attitude and embrace of religious pluralism has been a common feature of Chinese culture since ancient times.<ref name=":8" /> For example, Chinese Buddhists may practice [[qigong]], [[tai chi]], and [[Chinese martial arts|gongfu]], venerate [[Chinese gods and immortals|native deities]] (such as [[Guan Yu]], [[Mazu]], and the [[Monkey King]]), engage in [[Ancestor veneration in China|ancestor veneration]], practice [[traditional Chinese medicine|traditional medicine]], and make use of [[feng shui]] and [[Fulu|Chinese talismans]]. Chinese religions such as Taoism and Confucianism were also, in turn, influenced by Buddhism.<ref name=":8" />

The idea of the compatibility of the [[three teachings]] (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism) is common in China and is expressed in the phrase ''the three teachings harmonious as one'' ({{lang-zh|c=三敎合一|p=sānjiào héyī|labels=no}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vuong |first1=Quan-Hoang |date=2018 |title=Cultural additivity: behavioural insights from the interaction of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in folktales |journal=Palgrave Communications |volume=4 |issue=1 |article-number=143 |doi=10.1057/s41599-018-0189-2 |s2cid=54444540 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="afe">{{Cite web |title=Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/teachings.htm |website=afe.easia.columbia.edu |access-date=2022-11-30 |archive-date=2017-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508234058/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/teachings.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Chinese Buddhism developed mythologies and philosophies that incorporated and accommodated Chinese religions. For example, apocryphal texts tell of how [[Laozi]] was actually a disciple of the Buddha and how [[Confucius]] was a bodhisattva.<ref name="Chinese Buddhism p. 14"/> Chinese Buddhist thinkers such as [[Guifeng Zongmi]] argued that all three teachings should be followed and practiced since they all contain important truths (though he considered Buddhism to reveal the highest truth).<ref>Gregory, Peter N. (2002), ''Tsung-mi and the Sinification of Buddhism'', University of Hawaiʻi Press, Kuroda Institute, p. 257. (originally published Princeton University Press, 1991, Princeton, N.J.), {{ISBN|0-8248-2623-X}}</ref>

One such important element of Chinese Buddhism is that religious practices focus on one's ancestors, something that is shared in common with other traditional Chinese religions. This can include paying respect to them at various sites and at festivals such as the [[Qingming Festival|Qingming]] and [[Zhong Yuan Festival|Zhong Yuan]] festivals, as well as participating in services to pray for one's deceased ancestors.

The ritual burning of incense (shaoxiang, [[jingxiang]]) is another common religious practice in Buddhist spaces derived from traditional Chinese religion. During the [[Zhou dynasty]], the Chinese believed that smoke resulting from the burning of [[sandalwood]] would act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits.<ref name="sinica.edu.tw">{{Cite web |script-title=zh:中央研究院網站 |url=https://www.sinica.edu.tw/tit/festivals/0497_Incense.html |access-date=2016-01-29 |archive-date=2020-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200405015518/https://www.sinica.edu.tw/tit/festivals/0497_Incense.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The practice remains a common offering in Chinese Buddhism, which it shares with other Chinese religions.

Another common feature of Chinese religion is [[multiple religious belonging]]. As such, Chinese adherents may practice Buddhism alongside other Chinese religious practices without seeing this as conflicting. According to Mario Poceski:

<blockquote>Many or even most people who actually come to worship at Buddhist temples are not hardcore believers. A good number of them assume the kinds of fuzzy or hybrid religious identities that are typical of Chinese religiosity; among other things, that can mean that many of them also worship at Daoist temples or shrines associated with popular religion. This is one of the reasons why it is very difficult to arrive at reliable data about the number of Buddhists in China.<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>

During the Tang and Yuan dynasties, Chinese Buddhism was also in proximity to Chinese branches of the [[Church of the East]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenott |first=Lance |date=2002-05-07 |title=The Eastern (Nestorian) Church |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/religion/nestorians/nestorians.html |access-date=2023-03-01 |website=Silk Road Seattle |publisher=[[University of Washington]]}}</ref> and [[Christianity]] in general, and competed with these traditions,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Clasquin-Johnson |first=M. |date=December 2009 |title=The centuries-old dialogue between buddhism and christianity |url=http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1015-87582009000200003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |url-status=live |journal=Acta Theologica |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages= |issn=1015-8758 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709132443/http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1015-87582009000200003 |archive-date=2020-07-09 |via=[[SciELO]]}}</ref> especially during the Tang dynasty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lau |first=Hua Teck |year=2003 |title=The Cross and the Lotus |journal=Church and the Society |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=85–87, 90, 93–94}}</ref> Chinese<ref name=":11" /> [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] and [[Mongolian Buddhism|Mongolian]] Buddhism<ref name=":100">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=434 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> were also significantly influenced by them,<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Nestorians |url=https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/N/nestorians.html |access-date=2023-03-01 |website=McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia Online |publisher=StudyLamp Software |language=en}}</ref> as Mongolian Buddhism, influenced by [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] beliefs,<ref name=":100" /> and Tibetan Buddhism spread out during the Yuan dynasty. The three Buddhist traditions also heavily influenced each other.

==Traditions==
[[file:庐山东林寺大雄宝殿.JPG|thumb|[[Donglin Temple (Jiujiang)|Donglin Temple]] at [[Mount Lu]], considered the birthplace of Pure Land Buddhism]]
[[File:柏林禅寺 bai lin chan si - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Pagoda of Bailin Temple|Bailin Temple]] ([[Hebei]]), a Chinese Chan temple]]
[[File:Model of Guoqing Temple 01 2017-01.jpg|thumb|A model of [[Guoqing Temple]], a center of the [[Tiantai]] school]]
[[File:Jing'an, Shanghai, China - panoramio (7).jpg|thumb|The [[Jing'an Temple]] in [[Shanghai]], a modern Chinese Esoteric tradition temple]]

=== Major traditions ===
Traditional Chinese Buddhist scholars such as [[Sheng-yen]] enumerate thirteen Buddhist traditions or schools ({{transliteration|zh|pinyin|zōng}}).<ref name=":4">Chan Master Sheng Yen (2007). ''Orthodox Chinese Buddhism: A Contemporary Chan Master's Answers to Common Questions'', pp.&nbsp;116–119. North Atlantic Books.</ref> This list is also found in traditional Japanese Buddhist histories, particularly that of [[Gyōnen]] (1240–1321).<ref>Blum, Mark L. (2002). ''The Origins and Development of Pure Land Buddhism: A Study and Translation of Gyonen's Jodo Homon Genrusho'', p.&nbsp;15. Oxford University Press.</ref>

Over time, some of these schools survived or were revived as living traditions, while others are now defunct historical traditions or were absorbed into other schools. These traditions are not rigid designations and there has always been much intermixing, and many temples and communities are influenced by many of these traditions (and also by local Chinese custom and traditional Chinese religions such as Taoism). Some traditions may also have numerous sub-schools or sects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Buddhism in China Today: An Adaptable Present, a Hopeful Future |url=https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/buddhism-in-china-today-an-adaptable-present-a-hopeful-future |archive-date=2020-09-27 |access-date=2020-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927190837/https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/buddhism-in-china-today-an-adaptable-present-a-hopeful-future |url-status=live }}.</ref>

The various Chinese Buddhist traditions are not [[Exclusivism|exclusivist]], and are better seen as trends, emphases, [[School of thought|schools of thought]], or ''dharma-gates'' ({{zhi|c=法門|p=fǎmén}}), instead of as separate sects.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":21">Jones, Charles B. (2019) ''Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, Understanding a Tradition of Practice'', pp.&nbsp;10–12. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Honolulu.</ref> Chün-fang Yü quotes a famous saying that describes the harmonious situation in Chinese Buddhism, "Tiantai and Huayan for doctrine, Chan and Pure Land for practice."<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p=127}}</ref>

As Mario Poceski notes, Chinese Buddhism "lacks clear sectarian divisions of the kind we find in other Buddhist traditions".<ref name=":8" /> All Chinese monastics follow the same ordination procedures and monastic precepts; and, as such, there is no rigid separation between ''schools'' or ''sects''. While traditions such as Chan and Tiantai are understood as distinctive teachings, they are all part of the single Chinese Buddhist tradition, which is "characterized by broad-minded acceptance of a variety of styles of discourse, modes of worship, and approaches to spiritual cultivation."<ref name=":8" /> Due to the religion's acceptance of diversity, [[Interfaith dialogue#Buddhism|ecumenism]], and difference, most Chinese Buddhists would not identify themselves as being part of a specific school.<ref name=":8" /> However, there are still disagreements and doctrinal debates within the community.<ref name=":8" />

The thirteen schools are:<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">William Edward Soothill, Lewis Hodous (1977). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index''. p. 256. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Buddhist Schools: The Chinese Buddhist Schools |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/b3schchn.htm |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=www.buddhanet.net |archive-date=2013-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214105638/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/b3schchn.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

* The [[Satyasiddhi|Chengshi]] school (historical), which focused on the study of the ''[[Tattvasiddhi|Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra]]'' ("The Treatise that Accomplishes Reality"; {{zhi|c=成實論|p=Chengshilun}}).
* The Kosa School (俱舍宗) (historical), based on the study of [[Abhidharma]] using the ''[[Abhidharmakośa]]'' of [[Vasubandhu]].
* The [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|''Three Treatises'' school]] ({{zhi|c=三論|p=Sānlùn}}; Chinese [[Madhyamaka]]), founded by [[Kumārajīva|Kumarajiva]] (344–413 CE).
* The [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] school.
* The [[Nirvana School]] (historical), based on the ''[[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]]'' translated by [[Dharmarakṣa]] (c. 233–310); this was later absorbed into the Tiantai school.<ref name=":5" /> 
* The Dilun school (based on the ''[[Dashabhumika|Daśabhūmikā sutra]]'' translated by [[Bodhiruci]]); this was later absorbed into the Huayan tradition.<ref name=":5" />  
* The Shelun school (based on [[Asanga]]'s ''[[Mahāyānasaṃgraha|Summary of the Mahayana]]'' translated by [[Paramartha]]); it was later absorbed into the [[Huayan]] and Consciousness-only schools.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" />
* The [[East Asian Yogācāra|Consciousness-Only school]] ({{zhi|c=唯識宗|p=Wéishí}}, [[Yogachara]]), a.k.a. Faxiang ('dharma characteristics') school, founded by Xuanzang (602–664) and based on his {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|[[Cheng Weishi Lun]]}} ("The Demonstration of Consciousness-only").
* The [[Tiantai]] school, also known as the Lotus school, due to their focus on the ''Lotus Sutra''.
* The [[Huayan]] school, the school of the ''Avatamsaka Sutra''.
* The [[Vinaya]] school or Nanshan school, a historical tradition that focused on the Dharmaguptaka monastic discipline, established by the monk [[Daoxuan]] (596–667).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vinaya school |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803115901616 |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129154358/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803115901616 |url-status=live }}</ref> 
* The [[Chinese Chán|Chan]] ([[Dhyana in Buddhism|Dhyana]]) school, i.e. the [[Zen]] tradition attributed to the founder [[Bodhidharma]], which focuses on sitting meditation ({{transliteration|zh|pinyin|[[Zazen|zuòchán]]}}) and developed numerous sub-schools such as Caodong and Linji.
* The ''[[Zhenyan]]'' school ({{zhi|c=真言宗|l=true word|tr=[[mantra]] school}}), i.e., [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]], also called {{zhp|p=Mìjiao|c=密教|tr=Esoteric Teaching}}, {{zhp|p=Mìzōng|c=密宗|tr=Esoteric Tradition}}, or {{zhp|p=Tángmì|c=唐密|tr=Tang Esoterica}}.

Many of these traditions were later exported to other East Asian nations, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

According to [[Sheng-yen]], the Chan school is the most popular school in China today, and it is often eclectically combined with the other traditions of Pure Land, Tiantai, Huayan, Three Treatises, Consciousness-Only, Vinaya, and Esoteric.<ref name=":7">Chan Master Sheng Yen (2007). ''Orthodox Chinese Buddhism: A Contemporary Chan Master's Answers to Common Questions'', pp.&nbsp;118–119. North Atlantic Books.</ref>

There is also a modernist movement called [[Humanistic Buddhism]], which emphasizes [[humanism]], charity, and other humanitarian practices that help improve social conditions.

===New religious movements===
There are many sects and organizations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (''fo'' or ''fu'': 'awakening', 'enlightenment') that are not recognized as legitimate Buddhism by the [[Chinese Buddhist Association]] and the Chinese government. These groups include:

* [[Guanyin]] Buddhism {{interp|Awakening Teaching}} ({{zhi|c=观音佛教|p=Guānyīn Fójiào}}) or Guanyin Church ({{zhi|c=观音会|p=Guānyīn Huì}}){{sfnb|Munro|Spiegel|1994|p=269–271}}
* [[True Buddha School]]
* Buddhism {{interp|Awakening Teaching}} of the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity ({{zhi|c=寿山万隆天主佛教|p=Shòushān Wànlóng Tiānzhǔ Fójiào}})
* Wulian Jingang Dadao ('Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening')
* Hanmi Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Living Buddha Dechan Jueren

== Holidays and festivals ==
[[File:Chinese Buddhist Monks Ceremony Hangzhou.jpeg|thumb|Traditional Buddhist ceremony in [[Hangzhou]], [[Zhejiang]]]]
[[file:资源河灯歌节3.jpg|thumb|[[Ghost Festival|Ghost festival]] floating lanterns, [[Hong Kong]]]]
[[file:HK Hung Hom square 香港體育館 Coliseum B09 bathing Buddhists May-2013 香港佛教聯合會 Hong Kong Buddhist Association.JPG|thumb|[[Buddha's Birthday]] celebration of bathing baby Buddha statues]]

Chinese Buddhists celebrate numerous religious festivals and holidays, and these are the most widely attended and popular of the religion's events.<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|p= 97}}</ref>

During religious festivals, Chinese people visit temples to take part in rituals, chanting, food, celebrations, parades, and to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers, and monetary donations. On such days, they may observe the moral precepts very strictly, as well as partake of a full day's vegetarian diet. Some of the most important holidays celebrated by Chinese Buddhists include [[Buddha's Birthday]] (on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month), [[Chinese New Year]] and the [[Lantern Festival]] (on the first and fifteenth days of the first lunar month), and the [[Ghost Festival]] (fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month).<ref>{{harvnb|Yü|2020|pp= 97–100.}}</ref>

=== List of holidays ===
The following holiday dates given are based on the [[Chinese calendar]]. For example, 8.4 refers to the eighth day of the fourth month of the Chinese calendar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fivepeaks.org/english/calendar/guanyin%20vegetarian.pdf|title=2020 Buddhist Calendar|access-date=2020-01-04|archive-date=2020-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918222245/https://www.fivepeaks.org/english/calendar/guanyin%20vegetarian.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 8.12{{snd}}Enlightenment Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
* 1.1{{snd}}Birthday of [[Maitreya]] Buddha
* 9.1{{snd}}Birthday of [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]], Lord of the [[deva (Buddhism)|Devas]]
* 8.2{{snd}}Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
* 15.2{{snd}}[[Parinirvana|Mahāparinirvāṇa]] Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
* 19.2{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva [[Avalokiteśvara]] ([[Guan Yin]])
* 21.2{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra]]
* 4.4{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva [[Manjusri]]
* 8.4{{snd}}Buddha's Birthday
* 15.4{{snd}}[[Vesak]]
* 13.5{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama ([[Guan Yu|Qie Lan]])
* 3.6{{snd}}Birthday of [[Skanda (Buddhism)|Skanda]] (Wei Tuo)
* 19.6{{snd}}Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
* 13.7{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva [[Mahasthamaprapta|Mahāsthāmaprāpta]]
* 15.7{{snd}}[[Ullambana]] Ghost Festival
* 24.7{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva [[Nagarjuna]]
* 30.7{{snd}}Birthday of Bodhisattva [[Kṣitigarbha]]
* 22.8{{snd}}Birthday of [[Dipankara|Dīpaṃkara]] Buddha
* 19.9{{snd}}Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
* 30.9{{snd}}Birthday of [[Bhaisajyaguru|Bhaiṣajyaguru]] Buddha (Medicine Buddha)
* 5.10{{snd}}Anniversary of the death of [[Bodhidharma]]
* 17.11{{snd}}Birthday of Amitabha Buddha

==See also==
{{Buddhism}}
{{cmn|colwidth=20em|* [[Budai]]
* [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
* [[Buddhism in China]]
* [[Buddhism in Hong Kong]]
* [[Buddhism in Taiwan]]
* [[Buddhism and Eastern religions]]
* [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine]]
* [[Dharma Drum Mountain]]
* [[East Asian Buddhism]]
* [[Fo Guang Shan]]
* [[Four Buddhist Persecutions in China]]
* [[List of Buddhist architecture in China]]
* [[List of converts to Buddhism]]
* [[Manjusri]] (Wen Shu)
* [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra]] (Pu Xian)
* [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]]
* [[Persecution of Buddhists in China]]
* [[Timeline of Buddhism]]
* [[Shuilu ritual paintings]]
* [[Zhiyuan fabao kantong zong lu]], a translation catalog
}}

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last = Broughton |first = Jeffrey L. |year = 1999 |title = The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen |location = Berkeley, CA |publisher = University of California Press |isbn = 978-0-520-21972-4 }}
* {{Citation |last = Chen |first=Kenneth Kuan Sheng |title = Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey |location = Princeton, N.J. |publisher = Princeton University Press |year=1964}}
* {{Citation |last = Dumoulin |first = Heinrich |year = 2005 |title = Zen Buddhism: A History |location = Bloomington, IN |publisher = World Wisdom |volume = 1: India and China |isbn = 978-0-941532-89-1 }}
* Han Yu. ''Sources of Chinese Tradition''. c. 800.
* {{citation |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia Buckley |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |year=1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-66991-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00ebre |format=paperback }}
* {{citation |last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia |first2=Anne |last2=Walthall |first3=James |last3=Palais |year=2006 |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History |location=Boston, Mass. |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |isbn=978-0-618-13384-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0 }}
* {{citation |last=Hill |first=John E. |year=2009 |title=Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE |publisher=BookSurge |location=Charleston, S.C. |isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1}}
* {{Citation |last = Hodus |first = Lewis |year = 1923 |title = Buddhism and Buddhists in China |url = http://www.authorama.com/buddhism-and-buddhists-in-china-1.html |access-date = 2013-03-29 |archive-date = 2019-03-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190309010022/http://www.authorama.com/buddhism-and-buddhists-in-china-1.html |url-status = live }}
* {{Citation |last = Kambe |first = Tstuomu |date = n.d. |title = Bodhidharma. A collection of stories from Chinese literature |url = http://www.purple.dti.ne.jp/kambe/BodhiDharma-IDS.pdf |access-date = 2013-02-19 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151106054424/http://www.purple.dti.ne.jp/kambe/BodhiDharma-IDS.pdf |archive-date = 2015-11-06 }}
* {{Citation |last = Lai |first = Hongyi Harry |year = 2003 |title = The Religious Revival in China |journal=Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies |volume=18 |url = http://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/cjas/article/download/19/18 |access-date = 2013-03-29 |archive-date = 2013-07-22 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130722174724/http://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/cjas/article/download/19/18 |url-status = live }}
* {{Citation |last = Laliberte |first = Andre |year = 2011 |title = Buddhist Revival under State Watch |journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs |volume=40 |issue = 2 |pages=2,107–134 |doi = 10.1177/186810261104000205 |url = http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/download/419/417 |access-date = 2013-03-29 |archive-date = 2019-12-25 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191225011933/http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/download/419/417 |url-status = live }}
* {{citation |last=Liebenthal |first=Walter |title=Chao Lun - The Treatises of Seng-Chao |location=Hong Kong |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=1968}}
* Liebenthal, Walter. ''Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus'' Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, 1952 [http://data.datacite.org/10.5169/seals-145467 Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306234824/http://data.datacite.org/10.5169/seals-145467 |date=2016-03-06 }}
* {{citation |last=Maspero |first=Henri |year=1981 |title=Taoism and Chinese Religion |translator-first=Frank A |translator-last=Kierman Jr|language=en |isbn=9780870233081 |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press}}
* {{Citation |last = McRae |first = John R. |year = 2000 |contribution = The Antecedents of Encounter Dialogue in Chinese Ch'an Buddhism |contribution-url = http://kr.buddhism.org/zen/koan/John_McRae.htm |editor1-last = Heine |editor1-first = Steven |editor2-last = Wright |editor2-first = Dale S. |title = The Kōan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism |publisher = Oxford University Press |access-date = 2013-02-19 |archive-date = 2012-07-25 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120725041529/http://kr.buddhism.org/zen/koan/John_McRae.htm |url-status = live }}
* {{Citation | last = McRae | first =John | year = 2003 | title = Seeing Through Zen | publisher = The University Press Group Ltd. }}
* {{Citation | last = Mullin |first=Glenn H. |title=The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations |year=2001 |publisher=Clear Light Publishers |isbn=1-57416-092-3}}.
* {{citation |last=Saunders |first=Kenneth J. |year=1923 |title=Buddhism in China: A Historical Sketch |journal=The Journal of Religion |pages= Vol. 3.2, pp.&nbsp;157–169; Vol. 3.3, pp.&nbsp;256–275}}
* {{citation |last=Welch |first=Holmes |title=The Practice of Chinese Buddhism |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1964}}
* {{citation |last=Welch |first=Holmes |title=The Buddhist Revival in China |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1968}}
* {{citation |last=Welch |first=Holmes |title=Buddhism under Mao |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1972}}
* {{Citation |last = Welter |first = Albert |year = 2000  |contribution = Mahakasyapa's smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an (Koan) Tradition |editor-first1=Steven |editor-last1=Heine |editor-first2=Dale S. |editor-last2=Wright |title=The Koan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism |location = Oxford, England |publisher = Oxford University Press }}
* {{Citation |last1=Yang |first1=Fenggang |last2=Wei |first2=Dedong |title=The Bailin Buddhist Temple: Thriving Under Communism |url=http://www.purdue.edu/crcs/itemPublications/articles/YangWei.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606223643/http://www.purdue.edu/crcs/itemPublications/articles/YangWei.pdf |archive-date=June 6, 2010 }}
* {{Citation |last = Yü |first = Chün-fang |year = 2020 |title = Chinese Buddhism: A Thematic History |location = Honolulu |publisher = University of Hawaii Press |isbn =  978-0-8248-8348-5 }}
* {{Citation |last=Zhu |first=Caifang |title=Buddhism in China Today: The Example of the Bai Lin Chan Monastery |journal=Perspectives |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=June 2003 |url=http://oycf.org/Perspectives2/21_063003/sec_4a.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929095828/http://oycf.org/Perspectives2/21_063003/sec_4a.pdf |archive-date=2010-09-29 }}
* {{Citation |last = Zvelebil |first = Kamil V. |title = The Sound of the One Hand |journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=107 |issue=1 |year=1987 |pages=125–126 |doi = 10.2307/602960 |jstor=602960 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
{{wikiquote}}

===History===
* {{Citation | author=Nan Huai-Chin | translator=J.C. Cleary | year=1998 | title=Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen | publisher=Red Wheel Weiser}}
* {{Citation | author=Nan Huai-Chin | translator=Thomas Cleary | year=1995 | title=The Story of Chinese Zen | publisher =Charles E. Tuttle Company}}
* {{Citation | author=Tansen Sen | year=2003 | title=Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400 | publisher=Association for Asian Studies & University of Hawaiʻi Press}}
* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (1999). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 1: A General Survey. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 1, 91–103. Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707011447/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj3-1/08MOC.pdf original]
* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2001). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 2: The Earliest Period; Chapter 3: Hui-yuan of Mt.Lu; and Chapter 4: The Translation of Texts-Spurious Scriptures. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 241–275. Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707074549/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj3-3/11MC3.pdf original]
* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2002). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter Five: The Early Pure Land Faith: Southern China, and Chapter Six: The Early Pure Land Faith: Northern China. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 4, 259–279. Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707020301/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj3-4/13MC4.pdf original]
* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2000). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 7: T'an-luan. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 2, 149–165. Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707044510/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj3-2/08SM2.pdf original]

===First Buddhist revival===
* {{Citation | last =Pittman | first =Don Alvin | year =2001 | title =Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms | publisher =University of Hawaii Press}}
* {{Citation|last=Daoru |first=Wei |date=n.d. |title=Buddhism in China and Modern Society: An Introduction Centering Around the Teachings of Taixu and Yinshun |url=http://www.iop.or.jp/1020/daoru.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402072049/http://www.iop.or.jp/1020/daoru.pdf |archive-date=April 2, 2013 }}
* {{Citation | last =Lancashire | first =Douglas | date =n.d. | title =Buddhism in Modern China | url =http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rcl/05-4_220.pdf}}

===Contemporary Chinese Buddhism===
* {{Citation | last =Chau | first =Adam Yuet | year =2010 | title =Religion in Contemporary China: Revitalization and Innovation | publisher =Taylor & Francis}}
* {{Citation | last =Miller | first =James | year =2006 | title =Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies | publisher =ABC-CLIO}}
* {{Citation | last =Baumer | first =Christoph | year =2011 | title =China's Holy Mountain: An Illustrated Journey into the Heart of Buddhism | place =London | publisher= I.B.Tauris | isbn =978-1-84885-700-1}}
* {{Citation | author=Master Sheng Yen | others=Translated by Douglas Gildow and Otto Chang | year=2007 | title=Orthodox Chinese Buddhism | publisher=North Atlantic Books}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Munro |first1 = Robin |first2=Mickey |last2=Spiegel |year = 1994 |title = Detained in China and Tibet: A Directory of Political and Religious Prisoners |publisher = Human Rights Watch |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zZv3IRRk8WoC |isbn = 978-1-56432-105-3 }}
** List first published in: {{cite journal |title = Appendix: Sects and Societies Recently or Currently Active in the PRC |journal = Chinese Sociology & Anthropology | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 103–104 | date = 1989 |doi = 10.2753/CSA0009-46252104102 }}

{{Religion in China}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Chinese Buddhist Pantheon}}

[[Category:Buddhism in China| ]]
[[Category:Buddhism by country|China]]
[[Category:History of Buddhism in Asia]]
[[Category:Three teachings]]