View source for Chinese Filipinos

{{short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Multiple issues| 
{{More citations needed|date=August 2022}}
{{Original research|date=August 2022}}
{{Copy edit|date=July 2025}}
}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Chinese Filipinos
| native_name      = 咱儂 / 咱人 / 華菲人<br />''Chinoy'' / ''Tsinoy'' / ''Lannang''<br />''Chinito'' (''[[masculine form|m.]]'') / ''Chinita'' (''[[feminine form|f.]]'')
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = Chinese Filipino.jpg<!--Before adding an image, please see MOS:NOETHNICGALLERIES and past discussion. Do NOT include photomontages or a gallery of images for group members regarding ethnic groups and other similarly broad classifications of human groups-->
| image_caption    = A Filipina Chinese maiden wearing the ''[[Maria Clara gown]]'' called ''Traje de Mestiza'', dated November 4, 1913.
| pop              = Ethnic or pure Chinese : 1.35&nbsp;million ({{as of|2013|lc=x}}, according to the [[Senate of the Philippines|Senate]])<ref name="senate.gov.ph">{{cite press release|title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday|date=January 21, 2013|publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines|url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|last=Macrohon|first=Pilar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516035425/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|archive-date=May 16, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf |title=The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia |access-date=April 23, 2012|page=96|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101131721/http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf|archive-date=November 1, 2018}}</ref><br />[[Filipinos]] with Chinese descent : 22.8&nbsp;million ({{as of|2013|lc=x}}, according to the [[Senate of the Philippines|Senate]])<ref name="senate.gov.phb">{{cite press release|title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday|date=January 21, 2013|publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines|url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|last=Macrohon|first=Pilar|access-date=January 26, 2013|archive-date=April 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409034225/http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>
| popplace         = [[Metro Manila]], [[Metro Cebu]], [[Metro Davao]], [[Cagayan de Oro]], [[Iloilo]], [[Bacolod]],[[Baguio]], [[Pangasinan]], [[Pampanga]], [[Tarlac]], [[Laoag]], [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]], [[Rizal (province)|Rizal]], and [[Bicol Region|Bicol]].
| langs            = [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], [[Waray language|Waray]], [[Bikol languages|Bikol]], [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]], [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]], [[Philippine English|English]] and other [[languages of the Philippines]]<br /><br />[[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]], [[Mandarin in the Philippines|Mandarin]], [[Cantonese]], [[Taishanese]], [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] and several other [[varieties of Chinese]]
| rels             = Predominantly Christianity ([[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], [[Protestantism]], [[Philippine Independent Church|P.I.C]], [[Iglesia ni Cristo]])<br />Minority [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Mazu]]ism, [[Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia|Traditional Chinese Folk Religion]]
| related          = [[Sangley]], [[Filipino mestizo|Mestizo de Sangley]]<br />[[Overseas Chinese]], [[Chinese Singaporeans]], [[Chinese Indonesians]], [[Chinese Malaysians]], [[Han Taiwanese]], [[Thai Chinese]], etc.
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| s = 咱人
| t = 咱儂
| p = 
| j = 
| tl = Lán-nâng / Nán-nâng / Lán-lâng
| poj = Lán-nâng / Nán-nâng / Lán-lâng
| showflag = poj
| mi = 
| ci = 
| altname = 
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| s = 华菲人
| t = 華菲人
| p = Huáfēirén
| w = {{tone superscript|Hua2-fei1-jen2}}
| j = Waa4 fei1 jan4
| y = Wàh fēi yàhn
| gd = Wa⁴ féi¹ yen⁴
| tl = Huâ-hui-lîn
| poj = Hôa-hui-lîn
| showflag = wp|
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|ua|2|.|f|ei|1|.|r|en|2}}
| bpmf = ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄈㄟ ㄖㄣˊ
| tp = Huá-fei-rén
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|w|aa|4|-|f|ei|1|-|j|an|4}}
}}

'''Chinese Filipinos'''{{efn|''Chinoy''; {{langx|tl|Tsinoy}}, {{IPA|tl|tʃɪnoɪ||Tl-PH-Tsinoy.ogg}} / ''Tsinong Pilipino'', {{IPA|tl|tʃɪno|}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|c=咱儂 / 咱人 / 菲律賓華僑|poj=Lán-nâng / Lán-lâng / Nán-nâng / Hui-li̍p-pin Hôa-kiâu}}, [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|s=菲律宾华人 / 菲律宾华侨 / 华菲人|t=菲律賓華人 / 菲律賓華僑 / 華菲人|p=Fēilǜbīn huárén / Fēilǜbīn huáqiáo / Huáfēi rén}}}} (sometimes referred as '''Filipino Chinese''' or '''Chinoy'''/'''Tsinoy''' in the [[Philippines]]) are [[Filipinos]] of full or partial Chinese descent, but are typically born and raised in the [[Philippines]].<ref name="Palanca">{{cite journal |last=Palanca |first=Ellen H. |year=2002 |title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Asian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=31–42 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817200723/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf |archive-date=August 17, 2022 |access-date=November 22, 2021}}</ref> Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest [[overseas Chinese]] communities in Southeast Asia.<ref name="ocac.gov.tw" /> A large proportion of Chinese Filipinos can trace their ancestry back to the Chinese province of [[Fujian]].<ref name="Palanca" />

Chinese [[immigration to the Philippines]] occurred mostly during the [[Spanish Philippines|Spanish colonization of the islands]] between the 16th and 19th centuries, attracted by the lucrative trade of the [[Manila galleons]]. During this era, they were referred to as ''[[Sangley]]''. They were mostly the [[Hokkien]]-speaking [[Hoklo people|Hokkien people]] that later became the dominant group within the Filipino-Chinese community.<ref name="auto19">[https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:336763/fulltext.pdf The Birth of Globalization: The World and the Beginnings of Philippine Sovereignty, 1565-1610] PhD Thesis. Ethan P. Hawkley. April 2014. Northeastern University. {{Webarchive|url= http://web.archive.org/web/20200318145442/https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:336763/fulltext.pdf|date=March 18, 2020}}</ref><ref name="auto12">{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42632420 | jstor=42632420 | title=Chinese-Philippine Relations in the Late Sixteenth Century and to 1603 | last1=Chan | first1=Albert | journal=Philippine Studies | date=1978 | volume=26 | issue=1/2 | pages=51–82 }}</ref> In the 19th century, migration was triggered by the corrupt and bad governance of the late [[Qing dynasty]], combined with economic problems in China due to the Western and Japanese colonial wars and [[Opium Wars]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pedrasa |first=Ira P. |date=December 29, 2023 |title=Tracing hardy Chinoy roots in Fujian |url=https://business.inquirer.net/438808/tracing-hardy-chinoy-roots-in-fujian |access-date=January 7, 2024 |website=INQUIRER.net |language=en |archive-date=January 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107002148/https://business.inquirer.net/438808/tracing-hardy-chinoy-roots-in-fujian |url-status=live }}</ref> It subsequently continued during the 20th century, from [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American colonial times]], through the [[History of the Philippines (1946–1965)|post-independence era]] to [[History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|Cold War]], to [[History of the Philippines (1986–present)|the present]]. In 2013, according to older records held by the [[Senate of the Philippines]], there were approximately 1.35&nbsp;million [[Han Chinese|ethnic (or pure)]] [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] within the Philippine population, while [[Filipinos]] with any [[Sangley|Chinese descent]] comprised 22.8&nbsp;million of the population.<ref name="senate.gov.ph" /><ref name=":1" /> However, the actual current figures are not known since the [[Census in the Philippines|Philippine census]] does not usually take into account questions about [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Sangley, Intsik und Sino: die chinesische Haendlerminoritaet in den Philippine|last=Buchholt|first=Helmut|series=Working paper / Universität Bielefeld, Fakultät für Soziologie, Forschungsschwerpunkt Entwicklungssoziologie, 0936-3408|date=1993|publisher=Universität Bielefeld|url=http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/clc/587677|access-date=January 31, 2014|archive-date=November 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114083829/http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/clc/587677|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite thesis|last=Carter|first=Lauren|title=The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia|date=1995|degree=Master of Arts|publisher=Simon Fraser University|url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf|access-date=April 23, 2012|archive-date=November 1, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101131721/http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Accordingly, the oldest Chinatown in the world is located in [[Binondo, Manila]], founded on December 8, 1594.

Chinese Filipinos are a well established middle class ethnic group and are well represented in all of the levels of Filipino society.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Chua |first=Amy|title=World On Fire|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0-385-72186-8 |page=6}}</ref> Chinese Filipinos also play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and dominate the [[Economy of the Philippines|Philippine economy]] today.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last=Chua|first=Amy |title=World On Fire |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-385-72186-8|page=3}}</ref><ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto2">{{cite book |title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia|last=Gambe|first=Annabelle|year=2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=33|isbn=978-0-312-23496-6}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite book|title=Ethnic Business: Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia|last=Folk|first=Brian |publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=978-1-138-81107-2 |page=93}}</ref><ref name="auto4">{{cite book|last1=Chirot|first1=Daniel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgWumPDyaSIC&pg=PA54|title=Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe|last2=Reid|first2=Anthony|date=October 2011|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-80026-4|via=[[Google Books]]|access-date=May 6, 2012|archive-date=February 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218081158/https://books.google.com/books?id=BgWumPDyaSIC&pg=PA54|url-status=live}}</ref> Most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year comprise [[Tai-pan|Taipan]] billionaires of Chinese Filipino background.<ref>{{cite web |year=2023 |editor-last=LaFranco |editor-first=Rob |editor2-last=Peterson-Withorn |editor2-first=Chase |title=Forbes World's Billionaires List |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/#version:static_header:position_country:Philippines |access-date=May 31, 2023 |website=Forbes |archive-date=January 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104180124/https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/list/3/#version:static_header:position_country:Philippines |url-status=live }}</ref> Some in the [[List of political families in the Philippines|list of the political families in the Philippines]] are also of Chinese Filipino background, meanwhile the bulk are also of [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish-colonial-era]] [[Sangley|Chinese]] [[Filipino Mestizos|mestizo]] (''[[Filipino Mestizos|mestizo]] de [[Sangley]]'') descent, of which, many families of such background also compose a considerable part of the [[Demographics of the Philippines|Philippine population]] especially its [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]],<ref name="Chirot">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgWumPDyaSIC&pg=PA54 |title=Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe |last1=Chirot |first1=Daniel |last2=Reid |first2=Anthony |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-295-80026-4 |page=54 |access-date=May 14, 2021 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218081158/https://books.google.com/books?id=BgWumPDyaSIC&pg=PA54 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> who during the late [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Era]] in the late 19th century, produced a major part of the ''[[ilustrado]]'' [[intelligentsia]] of the late [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|Spanish Colonial Philippines]], that were very influential with the creation of [[Filipino nationalism]] and the sparking of the [[Philippine Revolution]] as part of the foundation of the [[First Philippine Republic]] and subsequent sovereign independent [[Philippines]].<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=Tan |first=Antonio S. |date=1986 |title=The Chinese Mestizos and the Formation of the Filipino Nationality |journal=Archipel |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1986_num_32_1_2316 |doi=10.3406/arch.1986.2316 |volume=32 |pages=141–162 |via=Persée |access-date=October 21, 2021 |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020220412/https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1986_num_32_1_2316 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Identity==
The organization ''Kaisa para sa Kaunlaran'' (Unity for Progress) omits the hyphen for the term Chinese Filipino, as the term is a noun. ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' and the [[APA style|APA]], among others, also omits the hyphen. When used as an adjective as a whole, it may take on a hyphenated form or may remain unchanged.<ref>{{cite web|title=American Anthropological Association Style Guide |url=http://uweb.txstate.edu/~rw04/anthropology/info/theory/long-style-guide.htm|website=txstate.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910021023/http://uweb.txstate.edu/~rw04/anthropology/info/theory/long-style-guide.htm|archive-date=September 10, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Michigan State University Style Sheet|website=msu.edu |url=http://msupress.msu.edu/journals/fch/FCH%20Style%20Sheet%2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905125109/http://msupress.msu.edu/journals/fch/FCH%20Style%20Sheet%2015.pdf |archive-date=September 5, 2006}}</ref><ref>[http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes07.html Hyphens, en dashes, em dashes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105014453/http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes07.html |date=January 5, 2007 }}. (n.d.) Chicago Style Q&A. ''Chicago Manual of Style Online''. (15th ed.)</ref>

There are various universally accepted terms used in the Philippines to refer to Chinese Filipinos:{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}
*'''''[[Han Chinese|Chinese]]''''' ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Intsik (Colloquial) / Tsino (Formal) / Tsekwa (Derogatory)}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=咱儂|s=咱人|poj=Lán-nâng / Lán-lâng / Nán-nâng}}, [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=華人|s=华人|p=Huárén}})—generalized term referring to any and all Chinese people in or outside the Philippines in general regardless of nationality or place of birth.
*'''''Chinese Filipino, Filipino Chinese''''' or '''''Philippine Chinese''''' ([[Philippine English|Philippine]] ''Chinoy''; [[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Tsinoy / Tsinito (masculine) / Tsinita (feminine) / Intsik}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=咱儂|s=咱人|p=|c=|poj=Lán-nâng / Lán-lâng / Nán-nâng}}, [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=華菲 / 菲律賓華人 / 菲律賓華僑|s=华菲 / 菲律宾华人 / 菲律宾华侨|p=Huáfēi / Fēilǜbīn huárén / Fēilǜbīn huáqiáo|c=|poj=}})—refers to people with some level of [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity with [[Philippine nationality law|Philippine nationality]] and to people of [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity with [[Chinese nationality law|Chinese nationality]] (either [[China|PRC]] or [[Taiwan|ROC]]) or whichever nationality but were born or mainly raised in the Philippines and usually have [[permanent residency]]. This also includes Chinese Filipinos who now live and/or were born overseas, but still have close ties to the community in the Philippines.
**'''''Hokkienese / Fukienese / Fujianese / Fookienese''''' ([[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=福建儂 / 閩南儂|s=福建人 / 闽南人|poj=Hok-kiàn-lâng / Bân-lâm-lâng}}, [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=福建人 / 閩南人|s=福建人 / 闽南人|p=Fújiànren / Mǐnnánrén}})—terms referring to Chinese Filipinos whose predominant ancestry is from [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] in [[Mainland China|China]], especially the [[Hokkien]]-speaking region in [[Minnan region|Southern Fujian]]. Chinese Filipinos of this background typically have [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] as a [[heritage language]], though just as any Chinese Filipino may also normally speak [[Philippine English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]]/[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] or other [[Philippine languages]] (such as [[Bisayan languages|Visayan languages]]) and may also [[Code-switching|code-switch]] any and all of these languages, such as [[Taglish]], [[Bislish]], [[Hokaglish]], etc.
**'''''Cantonese''''' ([[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=廣東儂 / 鄉親|s=广东人 / 乡亲|poj=Kńg-tang-lâng / Hiong-chhin}}, [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=廣東人|s=广东人|p=Guǎngdōngrén}})—terms referring to Chinese Filipinos whose ancestry is from [[Guangdong|Guangdong Province]] in China, especially the [[Taishanese]] or [[Cantonese]]-speaking regions.
*'''''[[Filipino mestizo|Chinese mestizo]]''''' ([[Philippine Spanish|Philippine]] {{langx|es|link=no|'''mestizo de Sangley''' / chinito (masculine) / chinita (feminine)}}; [[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Mestisong Tsino / Tsinito (masculine) / Tsinita (feminine)}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|c=出世仔 / 出世|poj=Chhut-sì-á / Chhut-sì}}, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=華菲混血|s=华菲混血|p=Huáfēi hùnxiě}})—refers to people who are of mixed [[Han Chinese]] and [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines#Native ethnolinguistic nations|indigenous Filipino]] ancestry, a common and historical phenomenon in the Philippines especially families tracing from the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial times]]. Those with 75% [[Han Chinese]] ancestry or more are typically not considered to be characteristically mestizo. Many Chinese mestizos are still Chinese Filipinos, though some with more indigenous Filipino ancestry or family or have just had a very long family history of living and assimilating to life in the Philippines may no longer identify as Chinese Filipino.
*'''''Mainland Chinese, Mainlander''''' ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Taga-China / Intsik / Taga-Tsina}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=大陸仔 / 中國儂 / 唐山儂|s=大陆仔 / 中国人 / 唐山人|poj=Tāi-dio̍k-á / Tiong-kok-lâng / Tn̂g-soaⁿ-lâng}}, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=中國人|s=中国人|p=Zhōngguórén}})—refers to any [[China|PRC]] citizens from China ([[China|PRC]]), especially those of [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity with [[Chinese nationality law|Chinese nationality]] that were raised in [[China|China (PRC)]].
*'''''Taiwanese''''' ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Taga-Taiwan / Intsik}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=台灣儂 / 臺灣儂 / 台灣仔 / 臺灣仔|s=台湾人 / 台湾仔|poj=Tâi-oân-lâng / Tâi-oân-á}}, [[Taiwanese Mandarin]] {{zh|t=臺灣人 / 台灣人|s=台湾人|p=Táiwānrén|zhu=ㄊㄞˊ ㄨㄢ ㄖㄣˊ|tp=Táiwanrén|w=Tʽai<sup>2</sup>-wan<sup>1</sup>-jen<sup>2</sup>}})—refers to [[Taiwan|ROC]] citizens from [[Taiwan|Taiwan (ROC)]], especially those of [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity with [[Taiwanese nationality law|Republic of China (Taiwan) nationality]] that were raised in [[Taiwan|Taiwan (ROC)]].
*'''''Hongkonger''''' ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Taga-Hong kong / Intsik}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=香港仔 / 香港儂|s=香港仔 / 香港人|poj=Hiong-káng-á / Hiong-káng-lâng}}, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=|s=|p=Xiānggǎngrén|c=香港人|poj=|zhu=|tp=|w=}}, [[Hong Kong Cantonese|Cantonese]] {{zh|c=香港人|j=Hoeng<sup>1</sup> gong<sup>2</sup> jan<sup>4</sup>}})—refers to people from Hong Kong, especially those of [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity with [[Hong Kong residents|Hong Kong (SAR) residency]] or [[British National (Overseas)|Hong Kong British National (Overseas) status]] that were born or raised in [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong (SAR)]] or [[British Hong Kong]].
*'''''Macanese''''' ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]/{{langx|tl|Taga-Macau / Intsik}}; [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=澳門儂 / 澳門仔|s=澳门人 / 澳门仔|poj=Ò-mn̂g-lâng / Ò-mn̂g-á}}, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=澳門人|s=澳门人|p=Àoménrén}}, [[Cantonese]] {{zh|c=澳門人|cy=Ou mùhn yàhn}})—refers to people from [[Macau]], especially those of [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity with [[Macau Resident Identity Card|Macau permanent residency]] that were born or raised in [[Macau|Macau (SAR)]] or [[Portuguese Macau]].
*[[Torna atrás|'''''tornatrás''''' or '''''torna atrás''''']]—obsolete Spanish term referring to people who are of varying mixtures of [[Han Chinese]], [[Spanish Filipino|Spanish]] and [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines#Native ethnolinguistic nations|indigenous Filipino]] during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Period]] of the [[Philippines]].
*'''[[Sangley]]'''—obsolete term referring to people of unmixed Chinese ancestry, especially fresh first generation Chinese migrants, during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Period]] of the [[Philippines]]. The mixed equivalents were likewise the above terms, ''mestizo de Sangley'' and ''tornatrás''.

[[File:Morong Church 06.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Example of a Chinese influence in Filipino Spanish Architecture in [[St. Jerome Parish Church (Morong, Rizal)]]]]

Other terms being used with reference to China include:
*華人 – ''Hoâ-jîn'' or ''Huárén''—a generic term for referring to Chinese people, without implication as to nationality
*華僑 – ''Hoâ-kiâo'' or ''Huáqiáo''—Overseas Chinese, usually China-born Chinese who have emigrated elsewhere
*華裔 – ''Hoâ-è'' or ''Huáyì''—People of Chinese ancestry who were born in, residents of and citizens of another country

"Indigenous Filipino" or simply "Filipino", is used in this article to refer to the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] inhabitants prior to the Spanish Conquest of the islands. During the Spanish Colonial Period, the term ''indio'' was used.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

However, intermarriages occurred mostly during the Spanish colonial period because Chinese immigrants to the Philippines up to the 19th century were predominantly male.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} It was only in the 20th century that Chinese women and children came in comparable numbers.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Today, Chinese Filipino male and female populations are practically equal in numbers. Chinese mestizos, as a result from intermarriages during the Spanish colonial period, then often opted to marry other Chinese or Chinese mestizos.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Generally, Chinese mestizos is a term referring to people with one Chinese parent.

By this definition, the ethnically Chinese Filipino comprise 1.8% (1.35&nbsp;million) of the population.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Ranking of Ethnic Chinese Population |url=http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |publisher=Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123193905/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B|archive-date=November 23, 2013}}</ref> This figure however does not include the Chinese mestizos who since Spanish times have formed a part of the middle class in Philippine society{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} nor does it include Chinese immigrants from the People's Republic of China since 1949.

==History==
===Early interactions===
Ethnic [[Han Chinese]] (a term which refers to a collection of distinct ethnic groups in central and east China) sailed around the Philippines from the 9th century onward and frequently interacted with the local Austronesian people. The "Han Chinese" that sailed to the Philippines mostly come from the Hokkien ethnic group.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 31, 1900|title=Report of the Philippine commission to the President |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tn7hAAAAMAAJ&q=report+of+the+philippine+commission+january+1900+part+ix+currency&pg=PR7 |page=150|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602234245/https://books.google.com/books?id=tn7hAAAAMAAJ&q=report+of+the+philippine+commission+january+1900+part+ix+currency&pg=PR7 |archive-date=June 2, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese and Austronesian interactions initially commenced as bartering and items.<ref name=":2" /> This is evidenced by a collection of Chinese artifacts found throughout Philippine waters, dating back to the 10th century.<ref name=":2" /> Since [[Song dynasty]] times in China and [[History of the Philippines (900–1565)|precolonial times]] in the Philippines, evidence of trade contact can already be observed in the [[Chinese ceramics]] found in archaeological sites, like in [[Santa Ana, Manila]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Pre-colonial Manila |website=Malacañan Palace: Presidential Museum And Library |url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/ |access-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-date=July 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724010336/http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200" caption="Chinese ([[Sangley]]) in Precolonial/Early Spanish Philippines, c. 1590 via [[Boxer Codex]]">
File:Ming1.jpg|Chinese ([[Sangley]]) Couple Migrants in the Philippines, c. 1590
File:Ming2.jpg|Chinese ([[Sangley]]) Couple Migrants in the Philippines, c. 1590
File:客家 Xaque - Hakka Couple in the Philippines - Boxer Codex (1590).jpg|[[She people|She]] or [[Hakka people|Hakka]] Chinese Merchant with Wife from [[Ming dynasty|Ming Dynasty China]]
File:Chinese General in Philippines.jpg|[[Ming dynasty]] Chinese General with Attendant, c. 1590
File:文官 Mandarín Letrado - Mandarin Official from China - Boxer Codex (1590).jpg|[[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|Mandarin Bureaucrat]] with Wife from [[Ming dynasty]], c. 1590
File:太子 Príncipe - Prince and Princess from China - Boxer Codex (1590).jpg|[[Chinese nobility]] from [[Ming dynasty|Ming Dynasty China]], c. 1590  
</gallery>In the year 972 AD, the [[Song dynasty]] annals briefly mentioned "麻逸" ([[Ma-i]], or in [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=Mâ-i̍t|c=麻逸}}) which is generally accepted to be located in [[Mindoro]] island, southwest of Manila. A year earlier, the annals recorded traders from Ma-i coming to Canton, and then in 982 AD. In the 11th century, the states—or chief settlements—recorded by the local Bureau of Maritime Trade are [[Butuan]], written in records as "蒲端" ([[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=Pô͘-toan|c=蒲端}}) and [[Sanmalan]] recorded as "三麻蘭" ([[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=Sam-mâ-lân|c=三麻蘭}}), whose traders presented themselves as tribute-paying envoys to China. They continued trade with the Song court in the years 1004, 1007 and 1011 and brought home Chinese ceramics. A century later, in addition to Ma-i, the bureau then recorded another states from the Philippines Baipuer ([[Babuyan Islands]]) and the group of islands collectively known as "Sandao" or "Sanyu" which were Jamayan (now [[Calamian Islands|Calamian]], recorded as "加麻延"([[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=Ka-mâ-iân|c=加麻延}})), Balaoyu ([[Palawan]], recorded as "巴姥酉"([[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=Pa-ló-iú|c=巴姥酉}})), and Pulihuan (approximate location is [[Manila]], or areas near it, recorded as "蒲裏喚"([[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=Pô͘-lí-hoàn|c=蒲裏喚}})). These native traders mostly belonged to the elite. In a Song dynasty record, a man from Sandao was treated with respect after he returned home from [[Quanzhou]] for a unique tradition seemed to have stemmed from the native's village that a man who had been to China was revered. In 1007 AD, a local chief from Butuan sent an envoy to China, requesting an equal status with Champa, however, this was rejected for the Song court appear to have favored Champa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Rita C. |year=1991 |title=Participation of the Philippines in the Nanhai Trade |url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/participation-philippines-nanhai-trade-9th-16th-centuries |journal=International Seminar for UNESCO Integral Study of the Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue: "Manila as an Entrepot in the Trans-pacific Commerce". |pages=2–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Zhenping |date=March 31, 2008 |title=Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial history of the Philippines |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10112/3180 |journal=Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies |volume=1 |pages=249–260|hdl=10112/3180 }}</ref>

While there is evidence that the Chinese had interactions with the island of [[Luzon]] and [[Mindanao]], for the [[Visayas]], not all historians agree such as [[William Henry Scott (historian)|William Henry Scott]], and Isabelo de los Reyes. Both authors claimed that the Chinese only began to arrive in the early colonial period,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |title=Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |year=1994 |isbn=9715501354 |pages=74 |quote=The problem is that non-Chinese traders who sold Chinese goods were often called Chinese. This testimony appears to be corroborated by the fact that Visayans called "foreign nations like Borneans and Sangleys [Chinese], *Sina*...}}</ref> and the latter claimed that by the administration of [[Lakandula|Lakan Dula]], Luzon (or sometimes referring to [[Manila]]) had monopolized the articles distributed by the Chinese and sometimes by the Japanese.<ref>{{Cite book |last=de los Reyes |first=Isabelo |title=Las islas visayas en la época de la conquista |publisher=Tipo-Litografía de Chofré y C. |year=1889 |edition=2nd |location=Manila |pages=63 |quote=Y hay autor que afirma que los chinos no los llegaban á Visayas y se encargaban los indígenas de Luzón ó Manila de llevar allí los articulos de la China ó del Japon...Si hay descendientes de chinos en Visayas, como verdaderamente abundan, el cruzamiento debió tener lugar después de la llegada de los españoles.}}</ref> In the [[The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898|Philippine Islands by Blair and Robertson]], [[Zhao Rukuo|Chao Ju-Kua]] from the 13th century mentioned "''San-hsii",'' which they believed to be the Visayas islands, however no other historian has affirmed nor investigated this claim.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Robertson (1873–1939) |first1=Antonio Pigafetta Emma Helen Blair (d 1911) James Alexander |last2=Pigafetta |first2=Antonio |date= |title=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898: explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth century, Volume XXXIV, 1519–1522; 1280–1605 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/47927/pg47927-images.html#xd21e9133src |access-date=October 24, 2024 |website=www.gutenberg.org|pages=187–188 |language=en-us |quote=[8] San-hsii signifies the "Three Islands" and is attributed to the Visayan Islands. Pai-pu-yen is perhaps the Babuyanes. Pu-li-lu may be Mindanao; Li-yin-tung, Lingayen; Lin-hsin sounds like Lin-hsing (called Lin-sung by Stangl), a Chinese name corresponding to their name for modern Luzón. However, Lin-hsin appears to be the Chinese name for Calilaya (modern Tayabas). Li-han is the primitive Chinese name for the present Malolos, whose princes bore the title of "Gat-Salihan" or "Gat-Salian."}}</ref>

===Spanish colonization of the Philippines (16th century–1898)===
{{Main|Sangley}}
[[File:Pinayavatar.jpg|thumb|right|A Chinese mestiza in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875. {{citation needed|date=May 2012}}]]
[[File:Sangelys, detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734).jpg|thumb|Sangleys of different social classes in the Spanish era, as depicted in the ''[[Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas]]'' (1734)]]
[[File:Mestizos Sangley y Chino by Justiano Asuncion.jpg|thumb|''Mestizos Sangley y Chino'' ([[Sangley]] Chinese-Filipino Mestizos), c. 1841 ''Tipos del País'' ''Watercolor'' by [[Justiniano Asuncion]]|alt=]]
When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, there was already a significant population of migrants from China all of whom were male due to the relationship between the ''barangays'' (city-states) of the island of Luzon and the Ming dynasty.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} "Sangley" was the term used during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines to refer to any ethnic Chinese person, regardless of specific ancestral origin in China. In the case of the Philippines, majority came from the province of [[Fujian]] in China, mostly the [[Southern Min]] people in [[Minnan region|Southern Fujian]], specifically the [[Hoklo people|Hokkien people]], who speak southern [[Fujian]]'s [[Hokkien]] language (referred also in the Philippines as Fukien or Fookien). The Hokkien people have their own unique culture, language, and religious belief systems, different from other ethnic groups in China.<ref name="auto19"/><ref name="auto12"/>

The first encounter of the Spanish authorities with the Chinese occurred when several Chinese pirates under the leadership of [[Limahong]] attacked and besieged the newly established capital of Manila in 1574. The pirates tried to capture the city but were defeated by the combined Spanish and native forces under the leadership of [[Juan de Salcedo]] in 1575. Almost simultaneously, the Chinese imperial admiral Homolcong arrived in Manila where he was well received. On his departure he took with him two priests, who became the first Catholic missionaries in China sent from the Philippines. This visit was followed by the arrival of Chinese ships in Manila in May 1603 bearing Chinese officials with the seal of the Ming Empire. This led to suspicions that the Chinese had sent a fleet to try to conquer the islands. However, seeing the city's strong defenses, the Chinese made no hostile moves.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} They returned to China without showing any particular motive for the journey and without either side mentioning the apparent motive.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Fortifications of Manila were started, with a Chinese settler in Manila named Engcang, who offered his services to the governor.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} He was refused and a plan to massacre the Spaniards quickly spread among the Chinese inhabitants of Manila. The revolt was quickly crushed by the Spaniards, ending in a large-scale massacre of the non-Catholic Sangley in Manila.

The Spanish authorities started restricting the activities of the Chinese immigrants and confined them to the ''Parían'' near [[Intramuros]]. With low chances of employment and prohibited from owning land, most of them engaged in small businesses or acted as skilled artisans to the Spanish colonial authorities.

The Spanish authorities differentiated the Chinese immigrants into two groups: ''Parían'' (unconverted) and ''Binondo'' (converted).{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Many immigrants converted to Catholicism and due to the lack of Chinese women, intermarried with indigenous women and adopted Hispanized names and customs. The children of unions between indigenous Filipinos and Chinese were called [[Sangley|Mestizos de Sangley]] or Chinese mestizos, while those between Spaniards and Chinese were called [[Tornatrás]].{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} The Chinese population originally occupied the [[Binondo]] area although eventually they spread all over the islands, and became traders, moneylenders and landowners.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Wickberg|first=Edgar|date=1964|title=The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History|url=http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/1129/1/CEAS.1964.n10.pdf|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History|location=Lawrence, Kansas|publisher=The University of Kansas, CEAS|volume=5|issue=1|pages=62–100|doi=10.1017/S0217781100002222|hdl=1808/1129|hdl-access=free|access-date=February 8, 2008|archive-date=April 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409133215/http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/1129/1/CEAS.1964.n10.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the late 18th century, Fr. Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga conducted a census of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila|Archdiocese of Manila]], which held most of Luzon under its spiritual care, and he reported that the tributes represented an average family of 5 to 7 per tribute; in which case there were 90,243 native Filipino tributes;<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} 10,512 Chinese (Sangley) and mixed Chinese Filipino mestizo tributes;<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|537}} and 10,517 mixed [[Spanish Filipinos|Spanish Filipino]] mestizo tributes.<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Pure Spaniards were not counted, as they were exempt from tribute. Out of these, Fr. Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga estimated a total population count exceeding half a million souls with Chinese and Chinese Mestizos forming 10,512 of the total tribute of 110,000+.<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|537}} In the provinces: [[Pampanga]] was home to 870 Chinese Filipino tributes/families,<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|460}} the City of [[Pasig City|Pasig]] has had half of its 3000 tributes/families at 1,500 be Chinese Filipinos.<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|296}} In 1603, Manila itself was also home to 25,000 Chinese immigrants.<ref name="Estadismo1" />{{rp|260}} [[Ilocos]] which was a separate bisphoric from the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila|Archdiocese of Manila]] had a comparatively large Chinese population which numbered 10,041 Chinese Filipino families.<ref name="Estadismo2">[https://ia601608.us.archive.org/10/items/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ_2/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ.pdf ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)]</ref>{{rp|9}} The [[Laguna (Province)|province of Laguna]] had 2,000 Chinese-Filipino farmers/families.<ref name="ConquestandPestilence">Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines By Linda A. Newson</ref>{{rp|124}} [[Biñan]] on the other hand had 256 Chinese-Filipino tributes.<ref name="ConquestandPestilence" />{{rp|142}} 

The Spanish, who initially viewed the Sangley as a good source of manpower and commerce for the colony, gradually had shifting perspectives due to presupposed threats of Chinese invasion, which historically never materialized. Regardless, the Spanish, including the clergy, sought ways to justify the limiting or expulsion of the Sangley population in the Philippines. The main contentions were often on religious morality grounds, such as vices of [[sodomy]] by [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]],<ref name="auto19"/> gambling, greed and the like that Spanish friars identified among non-Christian Sangley.<ref name="auto12"/>

===Chinese mestizos as Filipinos===
[[File:Chinese mestizo costume.jpg|thumb|French Illustration of a Chinese mestizo couple c.1846 by Jean Mallat de Bassilan]]

During the [[Philippine Revolution]] of 1898, ''Mestizos de Sangley'' (Chinese mestizos) would eventually refer to themselves as ''Filipino'',{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} which during that time referred to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The Chinese mestizos would later fan the flames of the Philippine Revolution.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Many leaders of the Philippine Revolution themselves have substantial Chinese ancestry. These include [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], [[Andrés Bonifacio]], [[Marcelo del Pilar]], [[Antonio Luna]], [[José Rizal]] and [[Manuel Tinio]].<ref name="Weightman 1960" />

===Chinese mestizos in the Visayas===
Sometime in 1750, an adventurous young man named Wo Sing Lok, also known as "Sin Lok" arrived in Manila, Philippines. The 12-year-old traveler came from Amoy, the old name for Xiamen, an island known in ancient times as "Gateway to China"—near the mouth of Jiulong "Nine Dragon" River in the southern part of Fujian Province.

Earlier in Manila, immigrants from China were herded to stay in the Chinese trading center called "Parian". After the Sangley Revolt of 1603, this was destroyed and burned by the Spanish authorities. Three decades later, Chinese traders built a new and bigger Parian near Intramuros.

For fear of a Chinese uprising similar to that in Manila, the Spanish authorities implementing the royal decree of Gov. Gen. Juan de Vargas dated July 17, 1679, rounded up the Chinese in Iloilo and hamletted them in the parian (now Avanceña Street). It compelled all local unmarried Chinese to live in the Parian and all married Chinese to stay in Binondo. Similar Chinese enclaves or "Parian" were later established in Camarines Sur, Cebu and Iloilo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Molo: Athens of the Philippines |last=Salvilla |first=Rex S. |date=July 26, 2007 |website=The News Today |url=http://www.thenewstoday.info/2007/07/26/molo.athens.of.the.philippines.html |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-date=August 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829203024/http://www.thenewstoday.info/2007/07/26/molo.athens.of.the.philippines.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sin Lok together with the progenitors of the Lacson, Sayson, Ditching, Layson, Ganzon, Sanson and other families who fled Southern China during the reign of the despotic Qing dynasty (1644–1912) in the 18th century and arrived in Maynilad; finally, decided to sail farther south and landed at the port of Batiano river to settle permanently in "Parian" near La Villa Rica de Arevalo in Iloilo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://asianjournalusa.com/the-locsin-clan-of-the-philippines-by-dinggol-araneta-divinagracia-p14736-95.htm |title=THE "LOCSIN CLAN" OF THE PHILIPPINES |author=Dinggol Araneta Divinagracia |website=Asian Journal San Diego |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904151952/http://asianjournalusa.com/the-locsin-clan-of-the-philippines-by-dinggol-araneta-divinagracia-p14736-95.htm |archive-date=September 4, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who are the Sansons of Cebu? |last=Bagares |first=Gavin |date=March 8, 2014 |website=Inquirer Lifestyle |url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/153533/who-are-the-sansons-of-cebu/ |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904160655/https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/153533/who-are-the-sansons-of-cebu/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===American colonial era (1898–1946)===
[[File:0100jfMinor Basilica Saint Lorenzo Ruiz Binondo Landmarksfvf 11.JPG|thumb|right|Binondo Church, the main church of the district of Binondo]]

During the [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American colonial period]], the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] in the United States was also put into effect in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/USA/ChineseExclusion.html |title=Chinese Exclusion Act: 1882 |last=Williams |first=Jenny |website=www.thenagain.info |access-date=December 26, 2007 |archive-date=January 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101195651/http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/USA/ChineseExclusion.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, the Chinese were able to settle in the Philippines with the help of other Chinese Filipinos, despite strict American law enforcement, usually through "adopting" relatives from Mainland or by assuming entirely new identities with new names.
[[File:Manila China Town, 711 Ongpin Street, Manila, Philippines (1949).jpg|thumb|Present No. 809-811 Ongpin St., [[Binondo]], [[Manila]] (1949)]]
The privileged position of the Chinese as middlemen of the economy under Spanish colonial rule<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/1072/1/CEAS.1962.n3.pdf |title=Early Chinese Economic Influence in the Philippines, 1850–1898 |last=Wickberg |first=Edgar |publisher=Center for East Asian Studies, University of Kansas |chapter=Extract from Pacific Affairs Fall, 1962 |series=East Asian Series, Reprint No. 3 |location=Lawrence, Kansas |access-date=September 12, 2014 |archive-date=June 25, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625154112/https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/1072/1/CEAS.1962.n3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> quickly fell, as the Americans favored the ''[[principalía]]'' (educated elite) formed by Chinese mestizos and Spanish mestizos. As American rule in the Philippines started, events in [[Mainland China]] starting from the [[Taiping Rebellion]], [[Chinese Civil War]] and [[Boxer Rebellion]] led to the fall of the [[Qing dynasty]], which led thousands of Chinese from [[Fujian]] in China to migrate ''en masse'' to the Philippines to avoid poverty, worsening famine and political persecution. This group eventually formed the bulk of the current population of unmixed Chinese Filipinos.<ref name="Weightman 1960" />
[[File:菲律宾华支臂章.JPG|thumb|220x220px|Arm-tag of the [[Wha-Chi]] Battalion or Squadron 48]]

===Formation of the Chinese Filipino identity (1946–1975)===
Beginning in [[World War II]], Chinese soldiers and guerrillas joined in the fight against the Japanese Imperial Forces during the Japanese Occupation in the Philippines (1941–1945).{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} On April 9, 1942, many Chinese Filipino Prisoners of War were killed by Japanese Forces during the [[Bataan Death March]] after the fall of [[Bataan]] and [[Corregidor]] in 1942.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Chinese Filipinos were integrated in the U.S. Armed Forces of the First & Second Filipino Infantry Regiments of the [[United States Army]].{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} After the Fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942, Chinese Filipinos joined as soldiers in a military unit of the [[Military history of the Philippines during World War II|Philippine Commonwealth Army]] under the U.S. military command as a ground arm of the [[Armed Forces of the Philippines]] (AFP) which started the battles between the Japanese Counter-Insurgencies and Allied [[Philippines campaign (1944-45)|Liberators]] from 1942 to 1945 to fight against the Japanese Imperial forces. Some Chinese Filipinos who joined as soldiers were integrated into the 11th, 14th, 15th, 66th & 121st Infantry Regiment of the U.S. Armed Forces in the Philippines{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} – Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL) under the military unit of the Philippine Commonwealth Army started the Liberation in Northern Luzon and aided the provinces of [[Ilocos Norte]], [[Ilocos Sur]], [[La Union]], [[Abra (province)|Abra]], Mountain Province, [[Cagayan]], [[Isabela (province)|Isabela]] and [[Nueva Vizcaya]] in attacking Imperial Japanese forces. Many Chinese Filipinos joined the guerrilla movement of the Philippine-Chinese Anti-Japanese guerrilla resistance fighter unit or [[Wha-Chi|Wha-Chi Movement]],{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} the Ampaw Unit under Colonel Chua Sy Tiao {{citation needed|date=May 2012}} and the Chinese Filipino 48th Squadron since 1942 to 1946 in attacking Japanese forces.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Thousands of Chinese Filipino soldiers and guerrillas died of heroism in the Philippines from 1941 to 1945 during World War II.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Thousands of Chinese Filipino veterans are interred in the Shrine of Martyr's Freedom of the Filipino Chinese in World War II located in Manila.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} The new-found unity between the ethnic Chinese migrants and the indigenous Filipinos against a common enemy – the Japanese, served as a catalyst in the formation of a Chinese Filipino identity who started to regard the Philippines as their home.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/hl/hl100564.htm |title=Balitang Beterano: Fil-chinese Guerrilla in WW2 in RP|last=Vanzi|first=Sol Jose|date=June 29, 2004 |website=newsflash.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040824042748/http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/hl/hl100564.htm|archive-date=August 24, 2004}}</ref>

===Chinese as aliens under the Marcos regime (1975–1986)===
Under the administration of [[Ferdinand Marcos]], Chinese Filipinos called "lao cao" ([[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|s=|poj=lāu-kâu|c=老猴|l=}}, meaning "old people" or literally, "old monkey" (a [[Comic relief|comedic reference]] to the [[Monkey King|Monkey King (Sun Wukong)]] from the old famous [[Classic Chinese Novels|Chinese classical novel]], ''[[Journey to the West]]'')), i.e., Chinese in the Philippines who acquired citizenship, referred only to those who arrived in the country before World War II. Those who arrived after the war were called the "jiu qiao" ([[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=舊僑|s=旧侨|p=jiù qiáo|l=old sojourner}}). They were residents who came from China (also usually [[Minnan region|southern Fujian]]) via [[British Hong Kong]], such as through [[North Point]], [[Causeway Bay]], or [[Kowloon Bay]], between the 1950s to 1980s.<ref name="scmp.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/society/article/2178748/what-do-filipinos-have-against-chinese-filipinos-meet-tsinoys|title=What do Filipinos have against Chinese Filipinos?|date=December 22, 2018|access-date=May 10, 2020|archive-date=May 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522171119/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/society/article/2178748/what-do-filipinos-have-against-chinese-filipinos-meet-tsinoys|url-status=live}}</ref>

Chinese schools in the Philippines, which were governed by the [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]] of the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), were transferred under the jurisdiction of the Philippine government's [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]]. Virtually all Chinese schools were ordered closed or else to limit the time allotted for Chinese language, history and culture subjects from four hours to two hours and instead devote them to the study of Filipino languages and culture.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Marcos' policies eventually led to the formal assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into mainstream Filipino society,<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf |title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia |last=Palanca |first=Ellen H. |year=2002 |journal=Asian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=29–62 |access-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-date=August 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817200723/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the majority were granted citizenship, under the administration of Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos.<ref name="scmp.com"/>

Following the February 1986 [[People Power Revolution]] (EDSA 1), the Chinese Filipinos quickly gained national spotlight as [[Cory Aquino]], a [[Tarlac]] [[Sangley|Chinese mestiza]] from the influential [[Cojuangco family]] took up the Presidency.<ref>{{Citation|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams|year=1988 |url=http://www.public-conversations.org.za/_pdfs/anderson_12.pdf|archive-date=October 3, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003035607/http://www.public-conversations.org.za/_pdfs/anderson_12.pdf}}</ref>

===Return of democracy (1986–2000)===
[[File:Corazon Aquino 1986.jpg|thumb|[[Corazon Aquino]], of [[Sangley|Sangley Chinese mestizo]] ancestry of [[Tarlac]], is the third Philippine president to have [[Han Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] ancestry through the [[Cojuangco|Cojuangco family]].]]

Despite getting better protections, crimes against Chinese Filipinos were still present, the same way as crimes against other ethnic groups in the Philippines, as the country was still battling the lingering economic effects of the Marcos regime.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}<ref>{{cite news|first=Seth|last=Mydans|date=March 17, 1996|title=Kidnapping of Ethnic Chinese Rises in Philippines|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/17/world/kidnapping-of-ethnic-chinese-rises-in-philippines.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-date=August 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829041549/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/17/world/kidnapping-of-ethnic-chinese-rises-in-philippines.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/24/world/chinese-filipinos-protest-ransom-kidnappings.html|title=Chinese-Filipinos Protest Ransom Kidnappings|first=Carlos H.|last=Conde|date=November 24, 2003|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-date=August 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829081626/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/24/world/chinese-filipinos-protest-ransom-kidnappings.html|url-status=live}}</ref> All these led to the formation of the first Chinese Filipino organization, [[Bahay Tsinoy|Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran, Inc.]] (Unity for Progress) by [[Teresita Ang See]]{{efn|Kaisa, the organization she heads, aims to inform the Filipino mainstream of the contributions of the ethnic Chinese to Philippine historical, economic and political life. At the same time, Kaisa encourages Chinese Filipinos to maintain loyalties to the Philippines, rather than China or Taiwan.}} which called for mutual understanding between the ethnic Chinese and the native Filipinos. Aquino encouraged free press and cultural harmony, a process which led to the burgeoning of the Chinese-language media<ref name="google.com">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lISGiGDW2Z0C&pg=PA128|title=Figures of Criminality in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Colonial Vietnam|last=Hau|first=Caroline S.|publisher=SEAP, Cornell University|year=1999|editor-last=Rafael|editor-first=Vicente L.|series=Studies on Southeast Asia No. 25|pages=128–151|chapter=Who Will Save Us From The 'Law'?": The Criminal State and the Illegal Alien in Post-1986 Philippines|isbn=978-0-87727-724-8}}</ref> During this time, the third wave of Chinese migrants came. They are known as the "xin qiao" ([[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=新僑|s=新侨|p=xīn qiáo|l=new sojourner}}), tourists or temporary visitors with fake papers, fake permanent residencies or fake Philippine passports that started coming starting the 1990s during the administration of Fidel Ramos and Joseph Estrada.<ref name="scmp.com"/>

===21st century (2001–present)===
More Chinese Filipinos were given Philippine citizenship during the 21st century. Chinese influence in the country increased during the pro-China presidency of Gloria Arroyo.<ref>{{cite web|title=The woman who 'sold Spratlys to China'|url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/115224/woman-sold-spratlys-china|date=August 9, 2018|access-date=May 10, 2020|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728115358/https://opinion.inquirer.net/115224/woman-sold-spratlys-china|url-status=live}}</ref> "Xin qiao" Chinese migration from mainland China into the Philippines intensified from 2016 up to the present,<ref name="scmp.com"/> due to controversial pro-China policies by the Rodrigo Duterte presidency, prioritizing Chinese [[Philippine Offshore Gaming Operator|POGO businesses]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/03/09/1999310/number-pogo-workers-continues-rise |title=Number of POGO workers continues to rise |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |access-date=May 10, 2020 |archive-date=May 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517194205/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/03/09/1999310/number-pogo-workers-continues-rise |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Chinese Filipino community have expressed concerns over the [[Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|ongoing disputes between China and the Philippines]], which majority preferring peaceful approaches to the dispute to safeguard their own private businesses.<ref name="scmp.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/5277-scarborough-in-the-eyes-of-chinese-filipinos|title=Scarborough in the eyes of Filipino-Chinese|website=Rappler.com|date=May 12, 2012|access-date=January 11, 2018|archive-date=January 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112160322/https://www.rappler.com/nation/5277-scarborough-in-the-eyes-of-chinese-filipinos|url-status=live}}</ref> The community has also expressed concerns over the increased anti-Chinese sentiment from other Filipinos resulting from issues surrounding the POGO businesses and investigations on the background of former [[Bamban]] mayor [[Alice Guo]], who was accused by the authorities of having connections with a POGO business in the said municipality.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/why-the-loyalty-check-chinese-filipinos-fear-prejudice-fuelled-by-alice-guo-case-south-china-sea-dispute |title=Why the loyalty check?: Chinese-Filipinos fear prejudice fuelled by Alice Guo case, South China Sea row |last=Cepeda |first=Mara |date=September 2, 2024 |work=The Straits Times |access-date=September 23, 2024}}</ref>

==Origins==
[[File:Chinese Filipino Ethnicity.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|Ethnicity of Chinese Filipinos, including Chinese mestizos]]

Most Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines are [[Hoklo people|Hokkien people]], historically speaking [[Hokkien]]. Many Chinese Filipinos are either fourth-, third-, or second-generation; in general natural-born Philippine citizens who can still recognize their Chinese roots and have Chinese relatives in China, as well as in other Southeast Asian, Australasian or North American countries.

According to a study of around 30,000 gravestones in the [[Manila Chinese Cemetery]] of [[Metro Manila]] with marked birthplaces or ancestral places of the interred, 89.26% were from within the Hokkien-speaking [[Minnan region|Southern Min]] region in Southern [[Fujian]], while 9.86% were from [[Cantonese]] regions in [[Guangdong|Guangdong (Canton)]] province. More specifically on those of the Southern Min region, 65.01% hailed from [[Jinjiang, Fujian|Jinjiang]] ({{zh|t=晉江|poj=Chìn-kang|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], 17.25% from [[Nan'an, Fujian|Nan'an]] ({{zh|t=南安|poj=Lâm-oaⁿ|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], 7.94% from [[Xiamen]] ({{zh|t=廈門|poj=Ē-mn̂g|labels=no}}) ([[Xiamen]] city proper), 2.90% from [[Hui'an County|Hui'an]] ({{zh|t=惠安|poj=Hūi-oaⁿ|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], 1.52% from [[Longhai City|Longxi]] ({{zh|t=龍溪|poj=Liông-khe|labels=no}}) [within [[Longhai District|Longhai]], coastal [[Zhangzhou]]], 1.21% from [[Siming District|Siming]] ({{zh|t=思明|poj=Su-bêng|labels=no}}) [southern district of [[Xiamen]] or [[Xiamen]] itself]<!--source says Enming-->, 1.14% from [[Quanzhou]] ({{zh|t=泉州|poj=Choân-chiu|labels=no}}) ([[Quanzhou]] city proper), 1.10% from [[Tong'an District|Tong'an]] ({{zh|t=同安|poj=Tâng-oaⁿ|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Xiamen]]], 0.83% from [[Shishi, Fujian|Shishi]] ({{zh|t=石狮|poj=Chio̍h-sai|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], 0.57% from [[Yongchun County|Yongchun]] ({{zh|t=永春|poj=Éng-chhun|labels=no}}) [from inland Quanzhou], and 0.53% from [[Anxi County|Anxi]] ({{zh|t=安溪|poj=An-khoe|labels=no}}) [from inland Quanzhou].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.anvilpublishing.com/shop/trade-books/history-culture/chinese-and-chinese-mestizos-of-manila/|title=Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila|last=Chiu|first=Richard T.|publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV|year=2010|isbn=978-971-27-2716-0|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|pages=29–30|access-date=September 12, 2019|archive-date=November 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105211336/https://www.anvilpublishing.com/shop/trade-books/history-culture/chinese-and-chinese-mestizos-of-manila/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to a study in March 27 to 29, 2005 by two scholars, Gyo Miyabara and Ito Jimenez, in [[Metro Cebu]], they inspected 1,436 gravestones of Chinese Filipinos in five cemeteries of [[Metro Cebu|Cebu]], namely Cebu Memorial Park, Queen City Memorial Park, Manila Memorial Park Cebu (Liloan), Cebu Chinese Cemetery (宿務華僑義山), and Ludo Memorial Park. The gravestones inspected with marked birthplaces or ancestral places from China of those interred were as follows, 669 graves (46.6%) hailed from [[Jinjiang, Fujian|Jinjiang]] ({{zh|t=晉江|poj=Chìn-kang|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], 362 graves (25.2%) from [[Nan'an, Fujian|Nan'an]] ({{zh|t=南安|poj=Lâm-oaⁿ|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], 147 graves (10.2%) from [[Huli, Xiamen|Huli]] district ({{zh|t=湖里區|poj=Ô͘-lí-khu|labels=no}}, former {{zh|t=禾山|poj=Hô-soaⁿ|labels=no}}) [from northern [[Xiamen]]], 80 graves (5.6%) from [[Siming, Xiamen|Siming]] district ({{zh|t=思明區|poj=Su-bêng-khu|labels=no}}) [from  southern [[Xiamen]]], 46 graves (3.2%) from [[Kinmen]] ({{zh|t=金門|poj=Kim-mn̂g|labels=no}}), 31 graves (2.2%) from [[Guangdong]] ({{zh|t=廣東|poj=Kńg-tang|labels=yes|j=gwong{{sup|2}} dung{{sup|1}}}}), 11 graves (0.8%) from [[Shishi, Fujian|Shishi]] ({{zh|t=石狮|poj=Chio̍h-sai|labels=no}}) [from coastal [[Quanzhou]]], and 45 graves (3.1%) from other parts of China or left unlabeled.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=江柏煒 |date=December 2014 |title=海外金門人僑社調查實錄－菲律賓篇：成果報告 |trans-title=Survey Records of Overseas Kinmen Communities – Philippines: Results Report |url=https://ws.moi.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvT2xkRmlsZV9LTU5QL3Jlc291cmNlL2NvbnNlcnZpY2F0aW9uLzIxLnBkZg%3D%3D&n=MjEucGRm&icon=..pdf&fbclid=IwAR3XWItCdNEtJBAnBpyw6gqOeaeuICcAfRfuvb_045rIltQK7CZpm5sBZvo |journal=海外金門人僑社調查實錄 |publisher=金門國家公園管理 [Kinmen National Park Management Office] |access-date=April 29, 2024}}</ref>

===Hokkien (Fujianese / Hokkienese / Fukienese / Fookienese / Hoklo) people===
Chinese Filipinos who have roots as [[Hoklo people|Hokkien people]] (福建人/閩南人) predominantly have ancestors who came from [[Minnan region|Southern Fujian]] and usually speak or at least have [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] as [[heritage language]]. They form the bulk of Chinese settlers in the Philippines during or after the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Period]], and settled or spread primarily from [[Metro Manila]] and key cities in [[Luzon]] such as [[Angeles City]], [[Baguio]], [[Dagupan]], [[Ilagan]], [[Laoag]], [[Lucena]], [[Tarlac]] and [[Vigan]], as well as in major [[Visayas|Visayan]] and [[Mindanao]] cities such as [[Bacolod]], [[Cagayan de Oro]], [[Cotabato City|Cotabato]], [[Metro Cebu]], [[Metro Davao]], [[Dumaguete]], [[General Santos]], [[Iligan]], [[Metro Iloilo–Guimaras|Metro Iloilo]], [[Ormoc]], [[Tacloban]], [[Tagbilaran]] and [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]].

[[Hoklo people|Hokkien peoples]], also known in ''Fukienese / Hokkienese / Fookienese / Fujianese'' or in [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|t=咱儂 / 福建儂 / 閩南儂|s=咱人 / 福建人 / 闽南人|poj=Lán-nâng / Lán-lâng / Nán-nâng / Hok-kiàn-lâng / Bân-lâm-lâng}} or in [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=福建人 / 閩南人|s=福建人 / 闽南人|p=Fújiànren / Mǐnnánrén}}, form 98.7% of all unmixed ethnic Chinese in the Philippines. Of the Hokkien peoples, about 75% are from [[Quanzhou|Quanzhou Prefecture]] (especially around [[Jinjiang, Fujian|Jinjiang City]]), 23% are from [[Zhangzhou|Zhangzhou Prefecture]] and 2% are from [[Xiamen|Xiamen City]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Reading Chinese Transnationalisms: Society, Literature, Film|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-962-209-796-4|editor-last=Ng|editor-first=Maria N.|location=Hong Kong|page=20|editor-last2=Holden|editor-first2=Philip}}</ref>

The Hokkien-descended Chinese Filipinos currently dominate the [[Light industry|light]] and [[Heavy industry|heavy]] industries, as well as the entrepreneurial and real estate sectors of the [[Economy of the Philippines|Philippine economy]]. Many younger Hokkien-descended Chinese Filipinos are also entering the fields of banking, computer science, engineering, finance and medicine.

To date, most emigrants and permanent residents from [[Mainland China]], as well as the vast majority of [[Taiwanese people]] in the Philippines are also of Hokkien background.

===Teochews===
Linguistically related to the Hokkien people are the [[Teochew people|Teochew]] ([[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|c=潮州人|poj=Tiô-chiu-lâng}} or in [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|p=Cháozhōurén|c=潮州人}}).

They migrated in large numbers to the Philippines during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Period]] to the main [[Luzon]] island of the Philippines, such as the famed smuggler, [[Limahong|Limahong (林阿鳳)]], and his followers who were originally from [[Raoping County|Raoping]], [[Chaozhou]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mFZoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35|title=An Introduction to the Culture and History of the Teochews in Singapore|last=Tan|first=Gia Lim|publisher=World Scientific|year=2018|isbn=978-981-323-935-7|location=Singapore|doi=10.1142/10967}}</ref> but later on were eventually assimilated by intermarriage with the mainstream Hokkien.

The Teochews are often mistaken for being Hokkien.

===Cantonese people===
Chinese Filipinos who have roots as [[Cantonese people]] ([[Cantonese]] {{zh|c=廣府人|poj=|s=|t=|cy=Gwóng fú yàhn}}) have ancestors who came from [[Guangdong|Guangdong Province]] and speak or at least have [[Cantonese]] or [[Taishanese]] as [[heritage language]]. They settled down in [[Metro Manila]], as well as in major cities of Luzon such as [[Baguio|Baguio City]], [[Angeles City]], [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Naga]] and [[Olongapo]]. Many also settled in the provinces of Northern Luzon (e.g., [[Benguet]], [[Cagayan]], [[Ifugao]], [[Ilocos Norte]]) especially around [[Baguio]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Chow |first=Chino |date=June 10, 2020 |title=Chow: The Cantonese–Chinese cultural minority in the Philippines |work=SunStar |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/ampArticle/1859719 |access-date=January 26, 2023 |archive-date=January 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126191309/https://www.sunstar.com.ph/ampArticle/1859719 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Examples of those of Cantonese descent are people like [[Ma Mon Luk]], the [[Tecson (surname)|Tecson]] and [[wikt:Ticzon|Ticzon]] families descended from the three ''"Tek Sun"'' brothers from [[Guangzhou|Guangzhou (Canton)]], Guangdong.

The [[Cantonese people]] ([[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|c=廣東人 / 鄉親|poj=Kńg-tang-lâng / Hiong-chhin}}, [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] {{zh|t=廣東人|s=广东人|p=Guǎngdōngrén}}) form roughly 1.2% of the unmixed ethnic Chinese population of the Philippines, with large numbers of descendants originally from either [[Taishan, Guangdong|Taishan]], [[Kaiping]],<ref name=":4" /> [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]], Hong Kong, [[Guangzhou|Canton (Guangzhou)]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Galang |first=Jely A. |year=2022 |title=Los Chinos Macanistas: The Cantonese Chinese in the Spanish Philippines, 1778-1898 |url=https://www.chinesestudiesjournal.org/volumes/volume-16-2022/los-chinos-macanistas-the-cantonese-chinese-in-the-spanish-philippines?fbclid=IwY2xjawLBbDRleHRuA2FlbQIxMQABHuA7p3NdKxpDSfD1f_rF_rUn1geONTdzplGf--5cFDoyL9nTy6kqzV-hUYDp_aem_ORp4A6Z70lFqVKCEUF85ig |journal=Chinese Studies Journal |publisher=Philippine Association for Chinese Studies |volume=16 |pages=40–70}}</ref> or nearby areas transiting from either [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]],<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":9" /> [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]],<ref name=":5">{{cite book |last=Bagamaspad |first=Prof. Anavic |url=https://www.pacs.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/6-15-History-of-the-Baguio-Chinese_-Integration-into-the-Baguio-Community-by-Anavic-Bagamaspad.pdf |title=History of the Baguio Chinese: Integration into the Baguio Community |publisher=University of the Philippines College Baguio |year=1983 |location=Baguio |pages=6–15 |access-date=January 26, 2023 |archive-date=November 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109223518/https://www.pacs.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/6-15-History-of-the-Baguio-Chinese_-Integration-into-the-Baguio-Community-by-Anavic-Bagamaspad.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Guangzhou|Guangzhou (Canton)]].<ref name=":9" /> Many were/are not as economically prosperous as the Hokkien Chinese Filipinos.<ref name=":4" /> Barred from owning land during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Period]], most Cantonese were into the service industry, working as cooks, carpenters, miners, artisans, househelpers, bakers, shoemakers, metal workers, barbers, herbal physicians, porters/stevedores (''cargadores / coulis''), soap makers and tailors. During the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Era]], they were usually known in Spanish as "''chinos macaos''" or "''chinos macanistas''" and were mostly working as miners in [[Ilocos Sur]] and were renowned cooks and carpenters in [[Manila]] and [[Iloilo City|Iloilo]] especially during the 1800s enough that even [[José Rizal|Jose Rizal]] mentioned in [[El filibusterismo|El Filibusterismo]] (1891) a famous restaurant run by them known as ''Pancitería Macanista de Buen Gusto''.<ref name=":9" /> They also intermarried with other local Filipinos during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Colonial Era]] and many of their descendants are now assimilated as [[Filipino Mestizos|Chinese mestizos]]. There are also those that came during the [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American Colonial Period]] before [[World War II|WW2]] especially in [[Baguio]] as part of the 700 Chinese ([[Cantonese people|Cantonese]]) [[coolie]] laborers recruited from [[British Hong Kong]] by the British managing the [[Manila Railroad Company]] for the construction of the [[Kennon Road|Benguet Road (Kennon Road)]] along with the [[Japanese in the Philippines|Japanese]] (who also later stayed to become [[Japanese in the Philippines|Japanese Filipinos]]) and other [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|lowland Filipinos]]. In Baguio, Cantonese Chinese were known for their carpentry, masonry, and culinary skills, where they were employed in hotels and places like [[Camp John Hay]] and they set up businesses like restaurants, grocery stores, bazaars, hardware stores, sari-sari stores and dried fish stalls. The logging, mining, and [[agribusiness]] industry during the 1930s in Baguio was also big among the [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] Chinese Filipinos there and it was only at such time during 1930s and after [[World War II|WW2]] when [[Hoklo people|Hokkien]] Chinese Filipinos started to establish themselves in [[Baguio]].<ref name=":5" /> Presently, they are into small-scale entrepreneurship and in education. There are also about 30 or so Filipino Cantonese associations in the Philippines, such as the Baguio Filipino Cantonese Association CAR (BFCA-CAR), which was merged from The Baguio Cantonese Association and the Brotherhood of Filipino-Cantonese Mestizos during 1999.<ref name=":4" /> There are also schools such as [[Baguio Patriotic School]] and [[Manila Patriotic School]].

===Others===
There are also some ethnic Chinese from neighboring Asian countries and territories, most notably from [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Taiwan]] and Hong Kong who are naturalized Philippine citizens and have since formed part of the Chinese Filipino community. Many of them are also [[Hokkien]] speakers, with a sizeable number of [[Cantonese]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] speakers.

Temporary resident Chinese businessmen and envoys include people from Beijing, Shanghai and other major cities and provinces throughout China.

=== Chinese Moro mestizos ===
The Chinese Moro mestizos are of paternal [[Han Chinese]] descent who married Moro Muslim women from Tausug, Sama and Maguindanaon ethnicities and are not descendants of [[Hui people|Hui]] Muslims. The Moros did not follow [[Sharia]] prohibitions on marriage of Muslim women to non-Muslims. So, Han Chinese men from the [[Straits Settlements]] and the Chinese mainland migrated to Mindanao (and the islands of Sulu) and founded families. These mestizos celebrated Chinese New Year and Chinese holidays including ones of pagan origin and practice Han cultural taboos; like the taboo against patrilineal cousin marriage. Hui in China practice marriage of patrilineal cousins of the same surname to each other, which the Han-descended Chinese Moro mestizos do not. Observant Hui Muslims also do not practice Chinese pagan holidays. The Han men continued practicing their own pagan religions and holidays when married to Moro Muslim women. As late as the 1970s, Professor Samuel Kong Tan said among the Chinese and Moros of Sulu, it was still normal for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women.

The Han who became part of the Chinese-Moro mestizo community are mostly of Minnan background, either directly from southern Fujian like Xiamen (Amoy) or the Peranakans who are descendants of Minnan speaking Han men and Malay women, with a small minority of them being descendants of other Han like one northern Han family who married into the Tausug. Some Han of either Hakka or Cantonese background in Sabah, Borneo married Tausug women there before World War II ended.

The Chinese families among the Tausug include the Kho, Lim, Teo, Kong and multiple families with the surname Tan, including the family of Tuchay Tan and Hadji Suug Tan. These families maintain the Chinese practice of not permitting marriages in the same paternal families with the same surname, and even though the Tans are multiple families, they still adhere to the rule of avoiding marriage to each other believing they were related far in the past.

The assimilation and intermarriages between the local Muslim Moro Tausug and Sama in Sulu and the Han Chinese immigrants, in contrast to Chinese living in Filipino Catholic areas, was facilitated by the good relations throughout history between China and Sulu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tan |first=Samuel K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVuAAAAMAAJ&q=samuel+k |title=華人 |date=1994 |publisher=Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran, Incorporated |isbn=971-8857-05-2 |editor1-last=See |editor1-first=Teresita Ang |location= |pages=160, 137, 127 |chapter=The Tans and Kongs of Sulu: An Analysis of Chinese Integration in a Muslim Society |quote=While some of the papers tend to view integration as a continuing problem in Chinese-Filipino relations, Samuel K. Tan's paper on "The Tans and Kongs of Sulu: An Analysis into the Nature and Extent of Chinese Integration in Sulu Society", provides a different historical process. In Sulu, Tan explains that "the strong foundation of Sulu-China relations has provided Sulu society with a kind of historical consciousness that allows the easy, smooth, and almost natural integration of Chinese into the local society as shown by the extent of Chinese intermarriages with the native Sama and Tausug ... This explains why the Chinese in Sulu have become an integral part of the local social, economic, cultural and political traditions which are shared independently by the Tausug and Sama people. " Li Ding – guo's paper, " Exploratory ... Dr. Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu Archipelago. A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researches. 4. The ' Sulu Kings ', more accurately datus or rajahs, before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A.D., sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A.D. This continued regularly until the last embassy in 1762 A.D. The ancient Chinese records show the increasing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders. At one time, a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking 27 days. 5. It was during the visit of 1417 A.D. when the Sulu King, as the Tausug head was called, died of illness and was entombed in Te – Chow by imperial order. A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains. His heir named Antuluk decided to remain also. Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the Chinese texts as An Lu Chin and Un Chong Kai. 6. Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from 17th century on in their works. The Philippine Islands (55 volumes). It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule. 7. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia General de Filipinas desde el Discubrimiento de Dichas Islas hasta Nuestros Dias, vol. II. (Madrid, 1894–1895), pp. 266–269. 8. Samuel K. Tan, Sulu Under American Military Rule, 1899–1913. (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1967) p. 11. 9. Najeeb M. Saleeby, The History of Sulu, (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, Inc. 1963), p. 83. 10. Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr. Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage. The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government. 11. Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara, the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate, goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter of recognition of their important role in Sulu's economy. In fact, Wang also records Sulu's taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage. 12. Data on the Tawi – Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila. As permanent residents of South Ubian, Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives. The data on the Ullayans, Dausans and Aldanis were provided by Mrs. Kimlan Lim. 13. The information on Chinese families in Bongao etc. were provided by Paquito Tan of Sitangkai during the visits of the author to Bongao in late 1988.. |editor2-last=Go |editor2-first=Bon Juan |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407072734/https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVuAAAAMAAJ&q=samuel+k |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Francisco |first=Juan R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-rRuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+publication+is+a+bimonthly+magazine+of+the+Philippine+-+China+Resource+Center+%22 |title=Society and Culture: The Asian Heritage: Festschrift for Juan R. Francisco, Ph.D., Professor of Indology |date=1999 |publisher=Asian Center, University of the Philippines |isbn=971-8992-07-3 |editor1-last=Palongpalong |editor1-first=Artemio |location= |page=63 |quote=The publication is a bimonthly magazine of the Philippine - China Resource Center ( PCRC ) with office in New Manila, Quezon City Dr. Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese Texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu archipelago. A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researchers. The " Sulu Kings " more accurately datus or rajas, before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A. D., sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A. D. This continued regularly until the last embassy 1762 A. D. The ancient Chinese records show the increasing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders. At one time, a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking for 27 days. It was during the visit of 1417 A. D. when the Sulu King, as the Tausug head was called, died of illness and was entombed in Te – Chow by imperial order. A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains. His heir, named Antuluk, decided to stay also. Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the texts as An Lu Chih and Un Chong Kai. Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from the 17th century in their work The Philippine Islands ( 55 volumes ). It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas desde el discubrimento de dichas ilas hasta nuestros dias. ( Madrid, 18941895 ), 266-69.. 5. 6. 7. 8. Samuel K. Tan, Sulu Under the American Military Rule, 1899–1913. ( Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1967 ), 11. Najeeb M. Salleby, The History of Sulu. ( Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, Inc., 1963 ), 83. 9. 10. 11. Data on the Tan family of Tan 63. Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr. Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage. The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government. Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara, the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate, goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter ofrecognition of their important role in Sulu's economy. In fact, Wang also records Sulu's taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage. Data on the Tawi – Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila. As permanent residents of South Ubian, Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives. The data on the Ullayans, Dausans, and Aldanis were provided by Mrs. Kimian Lim |editor2-last=Mahiwo |editor2-first=Sylvano |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414010540/https://books.google.com/books?id=-rRuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+publication+is+a+bimonthly+magazine+of+the+Philippine+-+China+Resource+Center+%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Chinese mestizo descendants of Han Chinese men and Moro Muslim Tausug and Sama women are integrating and dissolving into the Tausug and Sama population as they lose practice of Chinese culture except celebrating some festivals and their Chinese names.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VedAAAAMAAJ&q=%22philippine-china+development+resource+center%22+of+siasi |title=China Currents: A Philippine Quarterly on China Concerns, Volumes 5–8 |date=1994 |publisher=Philippine-China Development Resource Center |isbn= |location= |page=9 |quote=... p.17 " The Overseas Chinese and China's Economic Modernization " Tan, Samuel K. Volume 2 Number 1 January - February 1991, p.6 " The Chinese of Siasi: A Case of Successful Integration " Tan Chee - Beng Volume 3 Number 1 January ... |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407072723/https://books.google.com/books?id=5VedAAAAMAAJ&q=%22philippine-china+development+resource+center%22+of+siasi |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBFxAAAAMAAJ&q=%22philippine-china+development+resource+center%22+of+siasi |title=PDRC Currents: Bi-monthly Magazine of the PDRC., Volume 2 |date=1991 |publisher=Philippine-China Development Resource Center |isbn= |location= |pages=7, 3 |quote=... PDRC Volume 2 Number 17 January - February 1991 Published by the Philippine-China Development Resource Center No .... 6 THE CHINESE OF SIASI: A Case of Successful Integration By Samuel K. Tan, Ph.D. 10 Theresa C. Cariño is the ... |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407072740/https://books.google.com/books?id=bBFxAAAAMAAJ&q=%22philippine-china+development+resource+center%22+of+siasi |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tong |first=Chee Kiong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bXnUL46_X0C&dq=%22names+and+occasional+festivities,+the%22&pg=PA232 |title=Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia: Racializing Chineseness |date=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-8909-0 |location= |page=232 |quote=With the exception of their names and occasional festivities, the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing. Tilman (1974), whose study was carried out on the provincial city of Cebu where the Chinese have greater contacts with the ... |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406214606/https://books.google.com/books?id=8bXnUL46_X0C&dq=%22names+and+occasional+festivities,+the%22&pg=PA232 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBFxAAAAMAAJ&q=%22names+and+occasional+festivities,+the%22 |title=PDRC Currents: Bi-monthly Magazine of the PDRC., Volume 2 |date=1991 |publisher=Philippine-China Development Resource Center |isbn= |location= |page=9 |quote=Today, with the exception of their names and occasional festivities, the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing The implications of this preliminary observation point to two types of Chinese integration. |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407072726/https://books.google.com/books?id=bBFxAAAAMAAJ&q=%22names+and+occasional+festivities,+the%22 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tan |first=Samuel Kong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yn9wAAAAMAAJ&q=%22names+and+occasional+festivities,+the%22 |title=China, Across the Seas. The Chinese as Filipinos |date=1992 |publisher=Philippine Association for Chinese Studies |isbn=971-91333-0-9 |editor1-last=See |editor1-first=Teresita Ang |location= |page=90 |quote=Today, with the exception of their names and occasional festivities, the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing. The implication of this preliminary observation points to the two types of Chinese integration. |series=Vol. 2–3 of Chinese studies |access-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407072652/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yn9wAAAAMAAJ&q=%22names+and+occasional+festivities,+the%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Demographics==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Dialect
!Population{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.joshuaproject.net/people_groups|title=People Group profiles, lists, resources and maps &#124; Joshua Project|website=www.joshuaproject.net|access-date=April 11, 2023|archive-date=February 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228075920/http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PH|title=Philippines|website=ethnologue.com|access-date=November 14, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125023738/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PH|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Hokkienese]]
|1,044,000
|-
|[[Yue Chinese|Cantonese]]
|13,000
|-
|[[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
|550
|-
|[[Filipino mestizo|Chinese mestizo]]*
|486,000
|}
* ''The figure above denotes first-generation Chinese mestizos – namely, those with one Chinese and one Filipino parent. This figure does not include those who have less than 50% Chinese ancestry, who are mostly classified as "Filipino".''

The exact number of Filipinos with Chinese ancestry is unknown, as the [[Philippine Statistics Authority]] does not conduct official surveys on ethnicity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lorenlegarda.com.ph/news_623_legarda_wants_inclusion_of_ethnic_origin_in_natl_census_to_better_address_needs_of_ips.php|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416092035/http://www.lorenlegarda.com.ph/news_623_legarda_wants_inclusion_of_ethnic_origin_in_natl_census_to_better_address_needs_of_ips.php|title=Legarda Wants Inclusion of Ethnic Origin in Nat'l Census to Better Ad…|date=April 16, 2013|archive-date=April 16, 2013|website=lorenlegarda.com.ph}}</ref> Various estimates have been given from the start of the Spanish colonial period up to the present, ranging from 10% to as high as 18–27%.

According to a research report by historian Austin Craig who was commissioned by the United States in 1915 to ascertain the total number of the various races of the Philippines, the pure Chinese, referred to as ''Sangley'', number around 20,000 (as of 1918), and that around one-third of the population of Luzon have partial Chinese ancestry. This comes with a footnote about the widespread concealing and de-emphasising of the exact number of Chinese in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite book|title=Full text of "Report of ... Austin Craig on a research trip to the United States, December 15th, 1914, to May 5th, 1915"|date=c. 1915|publisher=Manila |url=https://archive.org/stream/reportofaustincr00crairich/reportofaustincr00crairich_djvu.txt}}</ref>

Another source dating from the Spanish Colonial Period shows the growth of the Chinese and the Chinese mestizo population to nearly 10% of the Philippine population by 1894.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Race
! Population (1810)
! Population (1850)
! Population (1894)
|-
| ''Malay'' (i.e., indigenous Filipino)
| 2,395,677
| 4,725,000
| 6,768,000
|-
| ''mestizo de sangley'' (i.e., Chinese mestizo)
| 120,621
| 240,000
| 500,000
|-
| ''mestizo de español'' (i.e., Spanish mestizo)
| 7,000 (tributes) x 5 (Minimum family-size) = 35,000<ref name="Estadismo1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |title=ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish) |year=1893 |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309030040/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Estadismo2"/>
| 70,000
| 140,000
|-
| ''sangley'' (i.e., Unmixed Chinese)
| 7,000
| 25,000
| 100,000
|-
| ''Peninsular'' (i.e., Spaniard)
| 4,000
| 10,000
| 35,000
|-
| '''Total'''
| 2,619,705
| 5,184,814
| 7,772,628
|}{{Citation needed|reason=Dec 2009|date=December 2009}}

==Language==
{{See also|Language and overseas Chinese communities#Philippines}}
[[File:Chinese Filipino Language.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|Languages spoken by Chinese Filipinos at home]]
The vast majority (74.5%) of Chinese Filipinos, especially those in [[Metro Manila]] and surrounding [[Regions of the Philippines|regions]], speak [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) and/or [[Philippine English]] as their native language. Most Chinese Filipinos (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a second or third language.<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57" />

The use of Hokkien as a first language is seemingly confined to the older generation and to Chinese Filipino families living in traditional Chinese Filipino centers, such as [[Binondo]] Chinatown district of [[Manila]], [[Caloocan]], [[Davao Chinatown]], [[Metro Cebu|Cebu]], [[Cagayan de Oro]] and many other parts of the Philippines. In part due to the increased adoption of Philippine nationality during the [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos Sr. era]], most Chinese Filipinos born from the 1970s to the mid-1990s tend to use [[Philippine English|English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) and other [[Philippine languages|Philippine regional languages]], which they frequently [[Code-switching|code-switch]] between as [[Taglish]] or mix together with [[Hokkien]] as [[Hokaglish]]. Among the younger generation (born from the mid-1990s onward), the preferred language is often [[Philippine English|English]] besides also, of course, knowing [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]])<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Poa |first=Dory（潘露莉） |year=2004 |editor-last=Dai |editor-first=Qingxia |title=从四语人到双语人：论菲律宾华校的多语教学 (From Quadrilingual to Bilingual: On the Multilingual Teaching in the Chinese Schools in the Philippines) |url=https://www.lannangarchives.org/items/0f545351-247b-45f2-900c-f4802ec14499 |journal=Bilingual Studies |location=Beijing |publisher=Minzu Chubanshe |volume=2}}</ref> and, in most regions of the Philippines, other [[Philippine languages|regional languages]].<ref name="Palanca2">{{Cite journal|last=Palanca|first=Ellen H.|year=2002|title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia|url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf|journal=Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=2|pages=31–32|access-date=November 22, 2021|archive-date=August 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817200723/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Recent arrivals from [[Mainland China]] or [[Taiwan]], despite coming mostly from traditionally Hokkien-speaking areas, typically use [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] among themselves.

Unlike other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, which feature an assortment of dialect groups, Chinese Filipinos descend overwhelmingly from [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions in [[Minnan region|Southern Fujian]]. Hence, Hokkien remains the main [[heritage language]] among Chinese Filipinos. [[Philippine Mandarin|Mandarin]], however, is perceived as the most prestigious Chinese language, so it is taught in Chinese Filipino schools and used in all official and formal functions within the Chinese Filipino community despite the fact that very few Chinese Filipinos are conversant in Mandarin or have it as a heritage language.<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57" />

For the [[Filipino mestizo|Chinese mestizos]], Spanish used to be the most important [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige language]] and the preferred first language during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial era]]. Starting from the [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American period]], the use of Spanish gradually decreased and is now completely replaced by either English or Filipino.<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 60" />

===Hokkien / Fukien / Fookien (Philippine Hokkien)===
{{Main|Philippine Hokkien}}

Since most Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines trace their ancestry to [[Minnan region|Southern Fujian]] in [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] of [[Mainland China]], the [[Hokkien language]], specifically the [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] dialect, is the ''[[heritage language]]'' of most Chinese Filipinos. Currently, it is typically the elderly and those of the older generations, such as the [[Silent Generation]], the [[Baby boomers|Baby boomer generation]] and part of [[Generation X]], who speak Philippine Hokkien as their [[First language|first]] or [[second language]], especially as [[Immigrant generations#First generation|first-]] or [[Immigrant generations#Second generation|second-generation]] Chinese Filipinos. The younger generations, such as part of [[Generation X]] and most [[Millennials]] and [[Generation Z]] youth, sparsely use Hokkien as a [[Second language|second or third language]] and even more seldom as a [[first language]]. This is due to Hokkien nowadays only being used and heard within family households and no longer being taught at schools. As a result, most of the youth can either only understand Hokkien by ear or do not know it at all, using instead [[Philippine English|English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]])<ref name=":8" /> and in some cases one or more other [[Philippine languages]].

The variant of [[Hokkien]] spoken in the Philippines, [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]], is locally called ''Lannang-ue'' ([[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|c=咱儂話 / 咱人话|poj=Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe|l=Our People's Language}}). Philippine Hokkien is mutually intelligible to a certain degree with other [[Hokkien]] variants in [[mainland China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Malaysia]], Singapore, [[Indonesia]], etc. and is particularly close to the variant spoken in [[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]], especially around [[Jinjiang, Fujian|Jinjiang]]. Its unique features include its conservative nature that preserves old vocabulary and pronunciations, the presence of a few [[loanword]]s from [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Philippine Spanish]] and [[Filipino language|Filipino]] and frequent [[code-switching]] with [[Philippine English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]]/[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and other [[Philippine languages]] (such as [[Bisayan languages|Visayan languages]]), excessive use of shortenings and colloquial words (e.g., "''pīⁿ-chhù''" [病厝]: literally, "sick-house", instead of the [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] term "''pīⁿ-īⁿ''" [病院] to refer to "hospital" or "''chhia-thâu''" [車頭]: literally, "car-head", instead of the [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] term "''su-ki''" [司機] to refer to a "driver") and use of vocabulary terms from various variants of Hokkien, such as from the [[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]], [[Amoy dialect|Amoy (Xiamen)]] and [[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]] dialects of the [[Hokkien|Hokkien language]].

The Chinese Sangley community in the Philippines centuries ago during [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial times]] spoke a mix of different Hokkien dialects ([[Zhangzhou dialects|Zhangzhou/Chiangchiu]], [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou/Chuanchiu]], [[Amoy dialect|Amoy/Xiamen]]), enough that the Hokkien recorded by the Spaniards during the early 1600s, such as in the ''Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum'' (1604), resembled the [[Zhangzhou dialects|Zhangzhou dialect]] more,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Simmons |first=Richard VanNess |date=August 1, 2012 |title=The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century. By Henning Klöter. Leiden: Brill, 2011. xxii, 411 pp., 32 pages of color plates. $179.00 (cloth). |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/journal-of-asian-studies/article-pdf/71/3/775/1784278/s0021911812000769.pdf |department=Book Reviews—China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=775–776 |doi=10.1017/S0021911812000769 |s2cid=162460859 |id={{ProQuest|1031202030}}}}</ref> contrary to the modern 21st century Philippine Hokkien that now resembles the [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou dialect]] more.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Hui-Ming (蔡惠名) |year=2017 |title=Fēilǜbīn zánrénhuà (Lán-lâng-uē) yánjiū 菲律賓咱人話（Lán-lâng-uē）研究 |trans-title=A Study of Philippine Hokkien Language |url=https://etds.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/thesis/detail/d9babe778274fb8c4ffabf34d9067b40/ |language=zh |publisher=National Taiwan Normal University |access-date=May 31, 2023 |archive-date=January 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108220914/https://etds.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/thesis/detail/d9babe778274fb8c4ffabf34d9067b40/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Mandarin===
{{Main|Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines}}

[[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] is currently the subject and [[medium of instruction]] for teaching [[Standard Chinese]] ([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]) class subjects in [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese Filipino schools]] in the Philippines. However, since the language is rarely used outside of the classroom besides jobs and interactions related to [[China|Mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], most Chinese Filipinos would be hard-pressed to converse in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]].

As a result of longstanding influence from the [[Taiwan|ROC]] [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]] of the [[Overseas Chinese Affairs Council]] of the [[Taiwan|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] since the early 1900s up to 2000, the Mandarin variant (known in many schools in [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|c=國語|poj=kok-gí|l=|j=}}) taught and spoken in many older Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines closely mirrors that of [[Taiwanese Mandarin]], using [[Traditional Chinese characters]] and the [[Bopomofo|Zhuyin]] phonetic system (known in many schools in [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|c=國音|poj=kok-im|l=|j=}}) being taught, though in recent decades [[Simplified Chinese characters]] and the [[Pinyin]] phonetic system were also introduced from China and Singapore. Some Chinese Filipino schools now also teach Mandarin in Simplified characters with the Pinyin system, modeled after those in China and Singapore. Some schools teach both or either of the systems.

Spanish Dominican Catholic missionaries like [[Francisco Varo]] who visited 17th century Fujian (late Ming and early Qing) learned both local Min Chinese and the official Ming dynasty Mandarin Chinese (guanhua) and they explicitly noted that Mandarin was regarded as an elegant, "elevated" language by the local Fujianese Chinese while their own local Min speech were regarded as "coarse speech". They noted Mandarin Guanhua was solemn and used by the educated Fujianese literati and officials while it was the rural villagers and women who only spoke the local Min patois (xiangtan) since they didn't speak Mandarin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menegon |first=Eugenio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_cFEAAAQBAJ&dq=spanish+missionary+patois+mandarin&pg=PA217 |title=Ancestors, Virgins, and Friars: Christianity as a Local Religion in Late Imperial China |date=2020 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-1-68417-053-1 |series=Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law |page=217 |access-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407075821/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_cFEAAAQBAJ&dq=spanish+missionary+patois+mandarin&pg=PA217 |url-status=live }}</ref> Jesuits in Ming dynasty China like Matteo Ricci generally focused on studying the official and prestigious Mandarin while Dominicans studied vernacular Hokkien dialects in Fujian.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zhi 耿 |first=Geng 直 |date=April 14, 2008 |title=The concepts and methods of Western Chinese learning in the early period:A study based on Spanish missionary Francisco Varo's Arte de la lenguaMandarina |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CLAC/article/download/60513/4564456547395 |journal=Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a la Comunicación |volume=74 |pages=45–58 |doi=10.5209/CLAC.60513 |issn=1576-4737 |doi-access=free |access-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404040751/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CLAC/article/download/60513/4564456547395 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Cantonese and Taishanese===
Currently, there are still a few minority [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] Chinese Filipino families that still privately speak [[Cantonese]] or [[Taishanese]] at home or in their circles,<ref name=":4" /> but many who still interact with the overall Chinese Filipino community have also learned to speak [[Philippine Hokkien]] for business purposes<ref name=":4" /> due to Hokkien's status as a community [[lingua franca]]<ref name=":8" /> within the Chinese Filipino community. Due to the relatively small population of Chinese Filipinos who are or claim to be of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese ancestry]], most [[Filipinos]] of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese ancestry]], such as [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish-colonial-era]] [[Filipino Mestizos|Chinese mestizos]] (''[[Mestizos de Sangley]]'') that originally trace back to [[Macau]] or [[Guangzhou|Canton (Guangzhou)]], especially the younger generations thereof, do not speak [[Cantonese]] or [[Taishanese]] anymore and can only speak the local languages, such as [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), [[Philippine English|English]] and other [[Philippine languages]] such as [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], etc. Some families of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese ancestry]] within the Chinese Filipino community also speak [[Philippine Hokkien]] with their family, especially those that intermarried with Chinese Filipinos of [[Hoklo people|Hokkien ancestry]]. There may also be some Chinese Filipino families of [[Hoklo people|Hokkien ancestry]] that speak [[Cantonese]] due to a family history of having lived in Hong Kong, such as around the districts of [[North Point]] ({{zh|c=北角|poj=Pak-kak|l=|j=}}), [[Kowloon Bay]] or [[Causeway Bay]], during the [[Cold War in Asia|Cold War]] period, when many families fled the [[Chinese Communist Revolution|communist advance]] to [[British Hong Kong]] and then later to countries in Southeast Asia such as the [[Philippines]] or [[Indonesia]].

===English===
{{main|Philippine English}}

Just like most other [[Filipinos]], the vast majority of Chinese Filipinos who grew up in the Philippines are fluent in English,<ref name=":8" /> especially [[Philippine English]] (which descends from [[American English]]) as taught in schools in the Philippines. They are usually natively bilingual or even multilingual since both English and [[Filipino language|Filipino]] are required subjects in all grades of all schools in the Philippines,<ref name=":8" /> as English serves as an important formal [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige language]] in Philippine society. Due to this, around 30% of all Chinese Filipinos, mostly those belonging to the younger generations, use English as their preferred [[first language]]. Others have it as their [[second language]] or [[third language]], being natively bilingual or multilingual together with Filipino and sometimes one or more other [[Philippine languages]].<ref name="Palanca2" /><ref name=":8" />

===Filipino and other Philippine languages===
{{main|Filipino language|Tagalog language|Philippine languages}}

The majority of Chinese Filipinos who were born, were raised, or have lived long enough in the Philippines are at least natively [[bilingual]] or [[Multilingualism|multilingual]]. Along with English, Chinese Filipinos typically speak [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]])<ref name=":8" /> and, in non-Tagalog regions, the dominant regional [[Philippine languages|Philippine language(s)]], such as the [[Bisayan languages|Visayan languages]] ([[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], [[Waray language|Waray]], etc.) spoken in the [[Visayas]] and [[Mindanao]].<ref name="Palanca2" />

Many Chinese Filipinos, especially those living in the [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]], speak the regional language(s) of their province as their [[first language]](s), if not English or Filipino. Just like most other Filipinos, Chinese Filipinos frequently [[Code-switching|code-switch]] either with [[Filipino language|Filipino]] or [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[Philippine English|English]], known as [[Taglish]], or with other regional provincial languages, such as [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]] and [[Philippine English|English]], known as [[Bislish]]. This frequent code-switching has produced a [[trilingual]] mix with the above [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]], known as [[Hokaglish]], which mixes [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Hokkien]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[Philippine English|English]]. However, in [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] where Tagalog is not a native language, the equivalent dominant [[Philippine languages|regional language(s)]] may be mixed instead of Tagalog or along with Tagalog in a mix of [[Multilingualism|four or more languages]] due to the normalcy of [[code-switching]] and [[multilingualism]] as part of Philippine society.<ref name="Palanca2" />

===Spanish===
{{Main|Spanish language in the Philippines}}

During the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial period]] and subsequent few decades before its replacement by English, [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish]] used to be the formal [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige language]] of Philippine society and hence, [[Sangley|Sangley Chinese]] (Spanish-era unmixed Chinese), [[Filipino mestizo|Chinese mestizos]] (Spanish-era mixed Chinese Filipinos) and ''[[Torna atrás|Tornatras]]'' mestizos (Spanish-era mixed Chinese-Spanish or Chinese-Spanish-native Filipinos) also learned to speak Spanish throughout the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial period]] to the early to mid 20th century when its role was eventually eclipsed by English and later largely dissipated from mainstream Philippine society. Most of the elites of Philippine society during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial era]] and [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American colonial era]] were Spanish mestizos or Chinese mestizos, which later intermixed together to an unknown degree and now frequently treated as one group known as [[Filipino mestizo]]s. Due to this history in the Philippines, many of the older generation Chinese Filipinos (mainly those born before WWII), whether pure or mixed, can also understand some Spanish, due to its importance in commerce and industry. The Chinese community of the Philippines during the [[Spanish Philippines|Spanish colonial era]] used to also speak a sort of Spanish [[pidgin]] variety known as ''"[[wikt:caló#Spanish|Caló]] [[wikt:chino#Spanish|Chino]] [[wikt:español#Spanish|Español]]"'' or ''"[[wikt:Kastila#Tagalog|Kastilang]] [[wikt:tindahan#Tagalog|tindahan]]"''. This was especially the case with the local Sangley Chinese that intermarried during Spanish colonial times. They brought forth Spanish-speaking Chinese Mestizos of varying proficiency, from the accented pidgin Spanish of the new Chinese immigrants to the fluent Spanish of Sangley Chinese old-timers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Andrade|first=Pío|title=Education and Spanish in the Philippines|work=Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila|url=http://www.galeondemanila.org/index.php/component/content/article/49/111|access-date=March 13, 2022|archive-date=July 26, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726073441/http://www.galeondemanila.org/index.php/component/content/article/49/111|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Religion==
{{Pie chart
|caption = Religion of Chinese Filipinos{{cn|date=August 2025}}
|label1 = [[Catholicism]]
|value1 = 70
|color1 = Purple
|label2 = [[Protestant]]
|value2 = 13
|color2 = Blue
|label3 = Other (including [[Chinese Folk Religion]], [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], No Religion, [[Islam]] etc.)
|value3 = 17
|color3 = Red
}}
Chinese Filipinos are unique in Southeast Asia in being overwhelmingly Christian (83%).<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57" /> but many families, especially Chinese Filipinos in the older generations still practice [[Chinese folk religion|traditional Chinese religions]]. Almost all Chinese Filipinos, including the Chinese ''mestizos'' but excluding recent migrants from either [[Mainland China]] or [[Taiwan]], had or will have their marriages in a [[Church (building)|Christian church]].<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57" />

In the 18th century, many Chinese converted from traditional religions to Catholicism.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=H. Francia |first=Luis |author-link=Luis H. Francia |title=A History of the Philippines: From Indios Bravos to Filipinos |publisher=[[Abrams Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4683-0857-0 |location=New York City |publication-date=2021 |pages=46, 110}}</ref>
[[File:0490jfSanto Cristo de Longos Santa Cruz Manilafvf 08.jpg|thumb|Sto. Cristo de Longos, by Ongpin St., [[Binondo]], [[Manila]]]]

===Roman Catholicism===
{{See also|Chinese Rites controversy}}
The majority (70%) of Christian Chinese Filipinos are [[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Catholic]].<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57" /> Many Catholic Chinese Filipinos still tend to practice the [[Chinese folk religion|traditional Chinese religions]] alongside Catholicism, due to the recent openness of the Church in accommodating Chinese beliefs such as [[Chinese ancestor veneration|ancestor veneration]].

Unique to the Catholicism of Chinese Filipinos is the religious syncretism that is found in Chinese Filipino homes. Many have altars bearing Catholic images such as the ''[[Santo Niño de Cebu|Santo Niño]]'' (Child Jesus) as well as statues of the [[Buddha]] and [[Shen (Chinese religion)|Taoist deities]]. It is not unheard of to venerate the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], saints, or the dead using joss sticks and otherwise traditional offerings, much as one would have done for [[Guan Yin]] or [[Matsu (goddess)|Mazu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alineang.blogspot.com/2006/09/feast-of-ma-cho.html|title=Feast of Ma-cho|date=September 28, 2006|website=alineang.blogspot.com|access-date=February 16, 2008|archive-date=July 8, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708022521/http://alineang.blogspot.com/2006/09/feast-of-ma-cho.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Protestantism===
[[File:St Stephen's Church for the Chinese, Manila (1923).jpg|thumb|[[Saint Stephen's Parish Church (Manila)|St. Stephen's Church]] in Manila in 1923, an [[Episcopal Church in the Philippines|Anglican]] church and school for Chinese Filipinos]]
Approximately 13% of all Christian Chinese Filipinos are [[Protestants]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.joshuaproject.net/countries/RP |title=Philippines people groups, languages and religions |website=Joshua Project |access-date=April 11, 2023 |archive-date=April 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411151503/https://www.joshuaproject.net/countries/RP |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many Chinese Filipino schools are founded by Protestant missionaries and churches.

Chinese Filipinos comprise a large percentage of membership in some of the largest [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] churches in the Philippines, many of which are also founded by Chinese Filipinos, such as the Christian Gospel Center, [[Christ's Commission Fellowship]], [[United Evangelical Church of the Philippines]] and the Youth Gospel Center.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Heritage of the Chinese-Filipino Protestant Churches |url=http://www.apts.edu/jam/99-1/j-shao.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409133235/http://www.apts.edu/jam/99-1/j-shao.pdf |last=Shao |first=Joseph T. |date=1999 |journal=Journal of Asian Mission |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=93–99 }}</ref>

In contrast to Roman Catholicism, Protestantism forbids traditional Chinese practices such as ancestor veneration, but allows the use of meaning or context substitution for some practices that are not directly contradicted in the Bible (e.g., celebrating the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] with moon cakes denoting the moon as God's creation and the unity of families, rather than the traditional Chinese belief in [[Chang'e]]). Many also had ancestors already practicing Protestantism while still in China.

Unlike native and mestizo Filipino-dominated Protestant churches in the Philippines which have very close ties with North American organizations, most Protestant Chinese Filipino churches instead sought alliance and membership with the [[Chinese Congress on World Evangelization]], an organization of Overseas Chinese Christian churches throughout Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cccowe.org/8ccowe/eng_index.php|title=8th CCOWE|website=Chinese Coordination Centre of World Evangelism (CCCOWE)}}</ref>

===Chinese traditional religions and practices===
[[File:Chinese Filipino Religious Persuasion.jpg|alt=|right|400x400px]]
A small number of Chinese Filipinos (2%) continue to practise [[traditional Chinese religions]] solely.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Uayan |first=Jean |title=Chap Chay Lo Mi: Disentangling the Chinese-Filipino Worldview |journal=Journal of Asian Mission |date=June 2004 |volume=6 |series=2 |issue=6 |pages=183–194 |url=http://www.apts.edu/jam/6-2/JUayan.pdf |access-date=May 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617090224/http://www.apts.edu/jam/6-2/JUayan.pdf |archive-date=June 17, 2006}}</ref> [[Chinese Buddhism|Mahayana Buddhism]], specifically, Chinese [[Pure Land Buddhism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fgsphilippines.org/|title=菲律賓佛光山萬年寺 Fo Guang Shan Mabuhay Temple|website=fgsphilippines.org|access-date=February 16, 2008|archive-date=May 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529135031/http://fgsphilippines.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Daoism|Taoism]]<ref>[http://www.eng.taoism.org.hk/daoism&human-civilization/daoism&scientific-civilization/pg5-1-intro.asp Daoism and Scientific Civilization] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822232622/http://www.eng.taoism.org.hk/daoism%26human-civilization/daoism%26scientific-civilization/pg5-1-intro.asp |date=August 22, 2007}}</ref> and [[Chinese ancestor worship|ancestral worship]] (including [[Confucianism]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/n/neo-conf.htm|title=Neo-Confucian Philosophy – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|website=www.iep.utm.edu|access-date=February 16, 2008|archive-date=April 13, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413080106/http://www.iep.utm.edu/n/neo-conf.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> are the traditional Chinese beliefs that continue to have adherents among the Chinese Filipino.

Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where the Chinese live, especially in urban areas like Manila.{{efn|Most prominently the Buddhist [[Seng Guan Temple]] in Tondo, Manila.}} Veneration of the [[Guanyin]] (觀音), known locally as ''Kuan-im'' either in its pure form or seen a representation of the [[Virgin Mary]] is practised by many Chinese Filipinos. The Chinese Filipino community also established indigenous religious denominations like [[Bell Church]] (钟教), which is a [[syncretic]] religion with ecumenical and interfaith in orientation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Malanes|first1=Maurice|title=Keeper of Chinese tradition|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|url=https://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-daily-inquirer/20101013/282999691193658|access-date=November 28, 2020|date=October 13, 2010|archive-date=September 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919143355/https://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-daily-inquirer/20101013/282999691193658|url-status=live}}</ref> There are several prominent Chinese temples like [[Seng Guan Temple]] (Buddhist) in Manila, [[Cebu Taoist Temple]] in Cebu City and [[Lon Wa Buddhist Temple]] in Davao City.

Around half (40%) of all Chinese Filipinos regardless of religion still claim to practise [[Chinese ancestor worship|ancestral worship]].<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57" /> The Chinese, especially the older generations, have the tendency to go to pay respects to their ancestors at least once a year, either by going to the temple, or going to the Chinese burial grounds, often burning incense and bringing offerings like fruits and [[Zhizha|accessories made from paper]].

[[Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia|Chinese traditional religions]] have been practiced on the Philippines since 985 at the latest,<ref name=":7" /> but there is evidence of cultural and human transference from China to the Philippines since at least 5000 BC, including in matters of folk belief and [[myth]]ology.<ref>{{Citation |title=Chinese in the Philippines |date=2005 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World |pages=760–769 |editor-last=Skoggard |editor-first=Ian |editor-last2=Ember |editor-first2=Melvin |editor-link2=Melvin Ember |editor-last3=Ember |editor-first3=Carol R. |editor-link3=Carol R. Ember |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_79 |access-date=April 29, 2024 |place=New York |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_79 |isbn=978-0-387-29904-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Others===
There are very few Chinese Filipino [[Islam in the Philippines|Muslim]]s, most of whom live in either [[Mindanao]] or the Sulu Archipelago and have intermarried or assimilated with their [[Moro people|Moro]] neighbors. Many of them have attained prominent positions as political leaders. They include [[Datu Piang]], [[Abdusakur Mahail Tan|Abdusakur Tan]] and [[Michael Mastura]], among such others.

Others are also members of the [[Iglesia ni Cristo]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] or [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Some younger generations of Chinese Filipinos also profess to be atheists.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

==Education==
{{main|List of Chinese schools in the Philippines}}

There are 150 Chinese schools that exist throughout the Philippines, slightly more than half of which operate in [[Metro Manila]].<ref name="mccarthy" /><ref>{{cite web|title=List of Chinese schools (华校一览)|url=http://www.pcerc.org/Schools/Schools.htm|url-status=live|access-date=October 4, 2021|website=Philippine Chinese Education Research Center (菲律賓華教中心)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040803015117/http://www.pcerc.org:80/Schools/Schools.htm |archive-date=August 3, 2004}}</ref> Chinese Filipino schools typically include the teaching of [[Standard Chinese]] ([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]), among other [[Course (education)|school class subjects]], and have an international reputation for producing award-winning students in the fields of science and mathematics, most of whom reap international awards in mathematics, computer programming, and robotics Olympiads.<ref>{{Cite news|date=August 12, 2012|title=Filipino Math Wizards Reap Medals in Hong Kong|work=Manila Bulletin|url=https://ph.news.yahoo.com/filipino-math-wizards-reap-medals-hong-kong-113905392.html|access-date=October 4, 2021|archive-date=October 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004132832/https://ph.news.yahoo.com/filipino-math-wizards-reap-medals-hong-kong-113905392.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===History===

The first school founded specifically for the Chinese in the Philippines, the Anglo-Chinese School (now known as [[Tiong Se Academy]]) was opened in 1899 on the [[Qing Dynasty]] Chinese Embassy grounds. The first curriculum called for [[Rote learning|rote memorization]] of the four major Confucian texts (the [[Four Books and Five Classics]]) along with Western science and technology. This was followed suit in the establishment of other Chinese schools, such as [[Hua Siong College of Iloilo]], established in [[Iloilo]] in 1912, the [[Manila Patriotic School|Chinese Patriotic School]], established in [[Manila]] in 1912 (the first school for the [[Cantonese|Cantonese Chinese]]), [[Saint Stephen's High School]], established in [[Manila]] in 1915 (the first sectarian school for the Chinese), and the [[Cebu Eastern College|Chinese National School]], established in [[Cebu]] in 1915.<ref name="mccarthy" />

Burgeoning of Chinese schools throughout the Philippines, including in Manila, occurred from the 1920s until the 1970s, with a brief interlude during World War II, when all Chinese schools were ordered closed by the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] and their students were forcibly integrated into Japanese-sponsored Philippine public education. After [[World War II]], the [[Third Republic of the Philippines]] and the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China (ROC)]] signed the [[Sino-Philippine Treaty of Amity]], which provided for the direct control of [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese schools]] throughout the archipelago by the [[Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]]'s [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]]. In the late 20th century, despite Mandarin taking the place of Amoy Hokkien as the usual Chinese course taught in Chinese schools, some schools still tried to teach Hokkien as well, deeming it more practical in the Philippine-Chinese setting.<ref name="Palanca3">{{Cite journal|last=Palanca|first=Ellen H.|year=2002|title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia|journal=Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=2|page=55|url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf|access-date=November 22, 2021|archive-date=August 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817200723/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Such a situation continued until 1973, when amendments made during the [[Marcos Regime|Marcos Era]] to the [[Philippine Constitution]] effectively transferred all Chinese schools to the authority of the [[Republic of the Philippines]]' [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education (DepEd)]].<ref name="mccarthy" /> With this, the [[medium of instruction]] for teaching [[Standard Chinese]] ([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]) was shifted from [[Amoy dialect|Amoy Hokkien Chinese]] to [[Mandarin Chinese]] (or in some schools to [[Philippine English|English]]). Teaching hours relegated to Chinese language and arts, which featured prominently in the pre-1973 Chinese schools, were reduced. Lessons in Chinese geography and history, which were previously subjects in their own right, were incorporated into the Chinese language subject(s), whereas [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) and Philippine history, civics and culture became newly required subjects.

The changes in Chinese education initiated with the 1973 Philippine Constitution led to a large shifting of mother tongues, reflecting the assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into general Philippine society. The older generation of Chinese Filipinos, who were educated in the old curriculum, typically use [[Philippine Hokkien]] at home, while most younger-generation Chinese Filipinos are more comfortable conversing in [[Philippine English|English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), and/or other [[Philippine languages]] like [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], including their [[code-switching]] forms like [[Taglish]] and [[Bislish]], which are sometimes varyingly admixed with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to make [[Hokaglish]].

===Curriculum===

Chinese Filipino schools typically feature curriculum prescribed by the Philippine [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]] (DepEd). The limited time spent in Chinese instruction consists largely of language arts.

The three core [[Standard Chinese|Chinese]] subjects are "Chinese Grammar" ({{zh|c=|poj=Hoâ-gí|l=Chinese Language|j=|s=华语|t=華語|p=Huáyǔ|zhu=ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ}}), "Chinese Composition" ({{zh|c=綜合|poj=Chong-ha̍p|l=Composition|j=|s=|t=|p=Zònghé|zhu=ㄗㄨㄥˋ ㄏㄜˊ}}), and "Chinese Mathematics" ({{zh|c=數學|poj=Sò͘-ha̍k|l=Mathematics|j=|s=|t=|p=Shùxué|zhu=ㄨˋ ㄒㄩㄝˊ}}). Other schools may add other subjects such as "Chinese Calligraphy" ({{zh|c=毛筆|poj=Mô͘-pit|l=Calligraphy Brush|j=|s=|t=|p=Máobǐ|zhu=ㄇㄠˊ ㄅㄧˇ}}). Chinese history, geography and culture are also integrated in all the three core Chinese subjects – they stood as independent subjects of their own before 1973. Many schools currently teach at least just one Chinese subject, known simply as just "Chinese" ({{zh|c=|poj=Hoâ-gí|l=Chinese Language|j=|s=华语|t=華語|p=Huáyǔ|zhu=ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ}}). It also varies per school if either or both [[Traditional Chinese characters|Traditional Chinese]] with [[Bopomofo|Zhuyin]] (known in many schools in [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|c=國音|poj=kok-im|l=|j=}}) and/or [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]] with [[Pinyin]] is taught. Currently, all Chinese class subjects are taught in [[Mandarin Chinese]] (known in many schools in [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|c=國語|poj=kok-gí|l=|j=}}) and in some schools, students are prohibited from speaking any other language, such as [[Philippine English|English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), other regional [[Philippine languages]], or even [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] during Chinese classes, when decades before, there were no such restrictions.

===Schools and universities===
[[File:Philippine Cultural College.jpg|thumb|[[Philippine Cultural College]], also known as Kiâo Tiong in [[Hokkien]].]]
Many Chinese Filipino schools are sectarian, being founded by either [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] or Chinese [[Protestantism|Protestant Christian]] missions. These include [[Grace Christian College]] (Protestant-[[Baptist]]), Hope Christian High School (Protestant-[[Evangelical]]), Immaculate Conception Academy (Roman Catholic-[[Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Conception]]), Jubilee Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), LIGHT Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), Makati Hope Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), MGC-New Life Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), Saint Peter the Apostle School (Roman Catholic-[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila|Archdiocese of Manila]]), [[Saint Jude Catholic School (Manila)|Saint Jude Catholic School]] (Roman Catholic-[[Society of the Divine Word]]), [[Saint Stephen's High School]] (Protestant-[[Episcopalian]]), [[Ateneo de Iloilo]], [[Ateneo de Cebu]] and [[Xavier School]] (Roman Catholic-[[Society of Jesus]]).

Major non-sectarian schools include [[Chiang Kai Shek College]], [[Manila Patriotic School]], [[Philippine Chen Kuang High School]], [[Philippine Chung Hua School]], [[Philippine Cultural College]] – the oldest Chinese Filipino secondary school in the Philippines, and [[Tiong Se Academy]] – the oldest Chinese Filipino school in the Philippines.

[[Chiang Kai Shek College]] is the only college in the Philippines accredited by both the [[Philippines|Philippine]] [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education (DepEd)]] and the [[Taiwan|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]].

Most Chinese Filipinos attend Chinese Filipino schools until Secondary level and then transfer to non-Chinese colleges and universities to complete their tertiary degree, due to the dearth of Chinese language tertiary institutions.

==Name format==
{{Main|Chinese name}}

Many Chinese who lived during the Spanish naming edict of 1849 eventually adopted Spanish name formats, along with a Spanish given name (e.g., Florentino Cu y Chua).{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} Some adopted their entire Chinese name romanized as a surname for the entire clan (e.g., Jose Antonio Chuidian ({{zh|c=|poj=Chui-lian|l=|j=|s=|t=|p=|zhu=}}); Alberto Cojuangco ({{zh|c=許寰哥|poj=Khó-hoân-ko|l=|j=|s=|t=|p=|zhu=}})). Chinese mestizos, as well as some Chinese who chose to completely assimilate into the local Filipino or Spanish culture during [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial times]] also adopted [[Spanish surnames]], just as any other Filipino, either as per christening of a new [[Christian name]] under [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Christian [[baptism]]al under the [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars]] or through the 1849 decree of [[Governor-General of the Philippines|Gov-Gen.]] [[Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa|Narciso Claveria]] that distributed surnames from the ''[[Catálogo alfabético de apellidos]]'', most of which listed there were Spanish surnames.

Newer Chinese migrants who came during the American Colonial Period use a combination of an adopted Spanish (or rarely, English) name together with their Chinese name (e.g., Carlos Palanca Tan Quin Lay or Vicente Go Tam Co).{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} This trend was to continue up to the late 1970s.

As both exposure to North American media as well as the number of Chinese Filipinos educated in English increased, the use of English names among Chinese Filipinos, both common and unusual, started to increase as well. Popular names among the second generation Chinese community included English names ending in "-son" or other Chinese-sounding suffixes, such as ''Anderson'', ''Emerson'', Jackson, Jameson, Jasson, ''Patrickson'', ''Washington'', among such others. For parents who are already third and fourth generation Chinese Filipinos, English names reflecting American popular trends are given, such as ''Ethan'', ''Austin'' and ''Aidan''.

It is thus not unusual to find a young Chinese Filipino, for example, named "Chase Tan", whose father's name is "Emerson Tan" and whose grandfather's name is "Elpidio Tan Keng Kui", reflecting the depth of immersion into the English language as well as into the Philippine society as a whole.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

===Surnames===

Filipino-Chinese whose ancestors came to the Philippines from 1885 onward usually have monosyllabic Chinese surnames. On the other hand, most Chinese ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1885 usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Gokongwei, Ongpin, Cuyegkeng, Pempengco, Yuchengco, Tansipek, Teehankee, CuUnjieng and Yaptinchay among such others. These were originally full [[Chinese name]]s which were transliterated in [[Spanish orthography]] and adopted as surnames.

Common single-syllable Chinese Filipino surnames are [[Chen (surname)|Tan]] ({{lang|zh|陳}}), [[Lin (surname)|Lim]] ({{lang|zh|林}}), [[Chua (surname)|Chua]] ({{lang|zh|蔡}}), [[Uy (surname)|Uy]] ({{lang|zh|黃}}) and [[Ong (surname)|Ong]] ({{lang|zh|王}}). Most such surnames are spelled according to their [[Hokkien]] pronunciation.

On the other hand, most Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1885 use a Hispanicized surname ''(see below)''. Many Filipinos who have Hispanicized Chinese surnames are no longer pure Chinese, but are [[Sangley|Chinese]] [[Filipino Mestizos|mestizos]].

====Hispanized surnames====

Chinese Filipinos and Chinese mestizos usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Angseeco (from ang/see/co/kho) Aliangan (from liang/gan), Angkeko, Apego (from ang/ke/co/go/kho), Asico (from au/oh/see/si/co/ko), Chuacuco, Chuatoco, Chuateco, Ciacho (from Sia), Cinco (from Go), Cojuangco, Coquilay, Corong, Cuyegkeng, CuUnjieng, Dioquino, Dybuncio, Dytoc, Dy-Cok, Dysangco, Dytioco, Gueco, Gokongwei, Gotamco, Gundayao, Kiamco/Quiamco, Kimpo/Quimpo, King/Quing, Landicho, Lanting, Lim-An, Limcuando, Limgemco, Ongpin, Pempengco, Quebengco, Siopongco, Sycip, Tambengco, Tambunting, Tanbonliong, Tansipek, Tantoco, Tinsay, Tiolengco, Yuchengco, Tanciangco, Yuipco, Yupangco, Licauco, Limcaco, Ongpauco, Tancangco, Tanchanco, Teehankee, Uytengsu and Yaptinchay among such others. These were originally full [[Hokkien]] [[Chinese characters|Chinese]] names which were transliterated in [[Latin script|Latin letters]] with [[Spanish orthography]] and adopted as [[Hispanicization|Hispanicized]] surnames.<ref name=alipem-2 />

There are also multisyllabic Chinese surnames that are Spanish transliterations of [[Hokkien]] words. Surnames like Tuazon (Eldest Grandchild, [[wikt:大孫|大孫]], ''Tuā-sun''),<ref>{{cite book|year=1932|author=小川尚義|title=臺日大辭典(台譯版)|publisher=臺灣總督府|location=大日本帝󠄁國臺灣) 臺北市 (Taihoku, Taiwan, Empire of Japan|url=http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/TGB/data/TJTST2/TJTST2_%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2_0431.png|page=427|access-date=March 29, 2022|archive-date=April 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406105651/http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/TGB/data/TJTST2/TJTST2_%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2_0431.png|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tiongson/Tiongzon (Eldest Grandchild, [[wikt:長孫|長孫]], ''Tióng-sun'')<ref name="auto25">{{cite book|year=1932|author=小川尚義|title=臺日大辭典(台譯版)|publisher=臺灣總督府|location=大日本帝󠄁國臺灣) 臺北市 (Taihoku, Taiwan, Empire of Japan|url=http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/TGB/data/TJTST2/TJTST2_%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2_0310.png|page=306|access-date=March 29, 2022|archive-date=March 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329040845/http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/TGB/data/TJTST2/TJTST2_%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2_0310.png|url-status=dead}}</ref>/(Second/Middle Grandchild, [[wikt:仲孫|仲孫]], ''Tiōng-sun''),<ref name="auto25"/> Sioson (Youngest Grandchild, 小孫, ''Sió-sun''), Echon/Ichon/Itchon/Etchon/Ychon (First Grandchild, 一孫, ''It-sun''), Dizon (Second Grandchild, 二孫, ''Dī-sun''), Samson/Sanson (Third Grandchild, 三孫, ''Sam-sun''), Sison (Fourth Grandchild, 四孫, ''Sì-sun''), Gozon/Goson/Gozum (Fifth Grandchild, 五孫, ''Gǒ͘-sun''), Lacson (Sixth Grandchild, 六孫, ''La̍k-sun''), Sitchon/Sichon (Seventh Grandchild, 七孫, ''Tshit-sun''), Pueson (Eighth Grandchild, 八孫, ''Pueh-sun''), Causon/Cauzon (Ninth Grandchild, 九孫, ''Káu-sun''), are examples of transliterations of designations that use the Hokkien suffix -son/-zon/-chon ([[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|c=孫|poj=sun|l=Grandchild|j=}}) used as surnames for some Chinese Filipinos who trace their ancestry from Chinese immigrants to the Philippines during the Spanish Colonial Period. The surnames [[Sun (surname)|孫]], [[wikt:仲孫|仲孫]], [[Zhangsun (surname)|長孫]] are listed in the classic Chinese text [[Hundred Family Surnames]], perhaps shedding light on the Hokkien suffix -son/-zon/-chon used here as a surname alongside some sort of accompanying enumeration scheme.

The Chinese who survived the massacre in Manila in the 1700s fled to other parts of the Philippines and to hide their identity, some also adopted two-syllable surnames ending in "son" or "zon" and "co" such as: Yanson = Yan = 燕孫, Ganzon = Gan = 颜孫(Hokkien), Guanzon = Guan/Kwan = 关孫 (Cantonese), Tiongson/Tiongzon = Tiong = 仲孫 (Hokkien), Cuayson/Cuayzon = 邱孫 (Hokkien), Yuson = Yu = 余孫, Tingson/Tingzon = Ting = 陈孫 (Hokchew), Siason = Sia = 谢孫 (Hokkien).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph//article/183724|title=Tantingco: What your surname reveals about your past|last=Tantingco|first=Robby|date=March 15, 2010|website=Sunstar|language=en|access-date=September 4, 2019|archive-date=April 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416065411/https://www.sunstar.com.ph//article/183724|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Many also took on Spanish or native Filipino surnames (e.g. Alonzo, Alcaraz, Bautista, De la Cruz, De la Rosa, De los Santos, Garcia, Gatchalian, Mercado, Palanca, Robredo, Sanchez, Tagle, Torres, etc.) upon naturalization. Today, it can be difficult to identify who are Chinese Filipino based on surnames alone.

A phenomenon common among Chinese migrants in the Philippines dating from the 1900s would be to purchase their surname, particularly during the American Colonial Period, when the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] was applied to the Philippines. Such law led new Chinese migrants to purchase the Hispanic or native surnames of native and mestizo Filipinos and thus pass off as long-time Filipino residents of Chinese descent or as native or mestizo Filipinos. Many also purchased the Alien Landing Certificates of other Chinese who have gone back to China and assumed his surname and/or identity. Sometimes, younger Chinese migrants would circumvent the Act through adoption – wherein a Chinese with Philippine nationality adopts a relative or a stranger as his own children, thereby giving the adoptee automatic Filipino citizenship – and a new surname.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

==Food==
{{Main|Filipino Chinese cuisine}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2025}}[[File:Lumpiang shanghaijf4063.JPG|thumb|227x227px|[[Lumpia]] ([[Hokkien]]: 潤餅), a [[spring roll]] of [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] origin. ]]
Traditional ''Tsinoy'' cuisine, as Chinese Filipino home-based dishes are locally known, make use of recipes that are traditionally found in China's [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] and fuse them with locally available ingredients and recipes. These include unique foods such as ''hokkien chha-peng'' (Fujianese-style fried rice), ''si-nit mi-soa'' (birthday noodles), ''pansit canton'' (Fujianese-style e-fu noodles), ''hong ma'' or ''humba'' (braised pork belly), ''sibut'' (four-herb chicken soup), ''hototay'' (Fujianese egg drop soup), ''kiampeng'' (Fujianese beef fried rice), ''machang'' (glutinous rice with adobo) and ''taho'' (a dessert made of soft tofu, ''arnibal'' syrup and pearl sago).

However, most Chinese restaurants in the Philippines, as in other places, feature [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]], [[Shanghainese cuisine|Shanghainese]] and Northern Chinese cuisines, rather than traditional [[Fujianese cuisine|Fujianese]] fare.

==Politics==
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2025}}
With the increasing number of Chinese with Philippine nationality, the number of political candidates of Chinese-Filipino descent also started to increase. The most significant change within Chinese Filipino political life would be the citizenship decree promulgated by former President Ferdinand Marcos which opened the gates for thousands of Chinese Filipinos to formally adopt Philippine citizenship.

Chinese Filipino political participation largely began with the [[People Power Revolution]] of 1986 which toppled the Marcos dictatorship and ushered in the Aquino presidency. The Chinese have been known to vote in blocs in favor of political candidates who are favorable to the Chinese community.

Important Philippine political leaders with Chinese ancestry include the current president [[Bongbong Marcos]], and former presidents [[Rodrigo Duterte]], [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], [[Benigno Aquino III]], [[Cory Aquino]], [[Sergio Osmeña]], [[Manuel L. Quezon|Manuel Quezon]] and [[Ferdinand Marcos]], former senators [[Nikki Coseteng]], [[Alfredo Lim]], [[Raul Roco]], [[Panfilo Lacson]], [[Vicente Yap Sotto]], [[Vicente Sotto III]] and [[Roseller Lim]], as well as several governors, congressmen and mayors throughout the Philippines. Many ambassadors and recent appointees to the presidential cabinet are also Chinese Filipinos like [[Arthur Yap (politician)|Arthur Yap]], [[Jesse Robredo]], [[Jose Yulo]], [[Manuel Yan]], [[Alberto Lim]], [[Danilo Lim]], [[Karl Kendrick Chua|Karl Chua]] and [[Bong Go]].

The former [[Archbishop of Manila]], Cardinals [[Jaime Sin]], [[Rufino Santos]] and [[Luis Antonio Tagle]] also have Chinese ancestry.

==Society and culture==
[[File:Chinese draak.jpg|thumbnail|The dragon dance is still a popular tradition among Chinese Filipinos.]]
[[File:ManilaChinatownjf0180 16.JPG|thumb|upright|Welcome Arch, Manila Chinatown, Ongpin-Binondo, Manila, Filipino-Chinese Bridge of Friendship]]
[[File:Chinatown Davao City.jpg|thumb|[[Davao Chinatown]] in [[Davao City]] is the biggest Chinatown in the Philippines and the only one in [[Mindanao]].]]
[[File:A Chinese Feng-Shui Shop.jpg|thumb|A Feng-Shui shop in a mall in Manila City selling Chinese charms, statues and images]]

===Society===

The Chinese Filipino are mostly business owners{{according to whom|date=October 2013}} and their life centers mostly in the family business. These mostly small or medium enterprises play a significant role in the Philippine economy. A handful of these entrepreneurs run large companies and are respected as some of the most prominent business tycoons in the Philippines.

Chinese Filipinos attribute their success in business to frugality and hard work, Confucian values and their traditional Chinese customs and traditions. They are very business-minded and entrepreneurship is highly valued and encouraged among the young. Most Chinese Filipinos are urban dwellers. An estimated 50% of the Chinese Filipino live within Metro Manila, with the rest in the other major [[cities of the Philippines]]. In contrast with the Chinese mestizos, few Chinese are plantation owners. This is partly because until recently when the Chinese Filipino became Filipino citizens, the law prohibited the non-citizens, which most Chinese were, from owning land.

===Culture===

As with other Southeast Asian nations, the Chinese community in the Philippines has become a repository of traditional Chinese culture common to unassimilated ethnic minorities throughout the world. Whereas in mainland China many cultural traditions and customs were suppressed or destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]] or simply regarded as old-fashioned nowadays, these traditions have remained largely preserved in the Philippines.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Many new cultural twists have evolved within the Chinese community in the Philippines, distinguishing it from other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. These cultural variations are highly evident during festivals such as [[Chinese New Year]] and [[Mid-Autumn Festival]]. The Chinese Filipino have developed unique customs pertaining to weddings, birthdays and funerary rituals.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

====Weddings====
Wedding traditions of Chinese Filipinos, regardless of religious persuasion, usually involve identification of the dates of [[supplication]] or ''pamamanhikan'' (''kiu-hun''), [[engagement]] (''ting-hun'') and wedding (''kan-chhiu'') adopted from Filipino customs. In addition, ''feng shui'' based on the birthdates of the couple, as well as of their parents and grandparents may also be considered. Certain customs found among Chinese Filipinos include during supplication (''kiu-hun'') also include a solemn [[East Asian tea ceremony|tea ceremony]] within the house of the [[bridegroom]] ensues where the couple will be served tea, [[Misua|egg noodles]] (''misua'') and given [[Red envelope|red packets or envelopes containing money]], commonly referred to as an ''ang-pao''.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

During the supplication ceremony, pregnant women and recently engaged couples are forbidden from attending the ceremony. Engagement (''ting-hun'') quickly follows, where the [[bride]] enters the ceremonial room walking backward and turned three times before being allowed to see the groom. A welcome drink consisting of red-colored juice is given to the couple, quickly followed by the exchange of gifts for both families and the wedding tea ceremony, where the bride serves the groom's family and vice versa. The engagement reception consists of sweet tea soup and ''misua'', both of which symbolizes long-lasting relationship.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Before the wedding, the groom is expected to provide the matrimonial bed in the future couple's new home. A baby born under the Chinese sign of the Dragon may be placed in the bed to ensure fertility. He is also tasked to deliver the wedding gown to his bride on the day prior to the wedding to the sister of the bride, as it is considered ill fortune for the groom to see the bride on that day. For the bride, she prepares an initial batch of personal belongings (''ke-chheng'') to the new home, all wrapped and labeled with the Chinese characters for ''sang-hi''. On the wedding date, the bride wears a red robe emblazoned with the emblem of a dragon prior to wearing the bridal gown, to which a pair of ''sang-hi'' (English: marital happiness) coin is sewn. Before leaving her home, the bride then throws a fan bearing the Chinese characters for ''sang-hi'' toward her mother to preserve harmony within the bride's family upon her departure. Most of the wedding ceremony then follows Catholic or Protestant traditions.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Post-wedding rituals include the two single brothers or relatives of the bride giving the couple a ''wa-hoe'' set, which is a bouquet of flowers with umbrella and sewing kit, for which the bride gives an ''ang-pao'' in return. After three days, the couple then visits the bride's family, upon which a pair of sugar cane branch is given, which is a symbol of good luck and vitality among Hokkien people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kasal.com/html/philippine-wedding/wedding-article/filipino-chinese-wedding-rituals.html|title=A Guide to the Filipino-Chinese Wedding Rituals – Wedding Article – Kasal.com – The Essential Philippine Wedding Planning Guide|date=July 5, 2009|website=www.kasal.com|access-date=November 15, 2012|archive-date=June 22, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622031225/http://www.kasal.com/html/philippine-wedding/wedding-article/filipino-chinese-wedding-rituals.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Births and birthdays====
Birthday traditions of Chinese Filipinos involve large banquet receptions, always featuring noodles{{efn|Filipinos usually cook and serve pansit noodles on birthdays to wish for long life.}} and round-shaped desserts. All the relatives of the birthday celebrant are expected to wear red clothing which symbolize respect for the celebrant. Wearing clothes with a darker hue is forbidden and considered bad luck. During the reception, relatives offer ''ang paos'' (red packets containing money) to the birthday celebrant, especially if he is still unmarried. For older celebrants, boxes of egg noodles (''misua'') and eggs on which red paper is placed are given.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Births of babies are not celebrated and they are usually given pet names, which he keeps until he reaches first year of age. The Philippine custom of [[circumcision]] is widely practiced within the Chinese Filipino community regardless of religion, albeit at a lesser rate as compared to native Filipinos. First birthdays are celebrated with much pomp and pageantry, and grand receptions are hosted by the child's paternal grandparents.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

====Funerals and burials====
Funerary traditions of Chinese Filipinos mirror those found in Southern [[Fujian]]. A unique tradition of many Chinese Filipino families is the hiring of professional mourners which is alleged to hasten the ascent of a dead relative's soul into Heaven. This belief particularly mirrors the merger of traditional Chinese beliefs with the Catholic religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.megascene.net/?p=1480|title=Philippine Funeral Customs – MegaScene|website=www.megascene.net|access-date=November 15, 2012|archive-date=May 30, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530225521/http://www.megascene.net/?p=1480|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Subcultures===
Most of the Chinese mestizos, especially the landed gentry trace their ancestry to the Spanish era. They are the "First Chinese" or [[Sangley]] whose descendants nowadays are mostly integrated into Philippine society. Most are from [[Zhangzhou]], [[Fujian|Fujian province]] in China, with a minority coming from [[Guangdong]]. They have embraced a Hispanized Filipino culture since the 17th century. After the end of Spanish rule, their descendants, the Chinese mestizos, managed to invent a cosmopolitan ''mestizo'' culture{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} coupled with an extravagant [[Sangley|Mestizo de Sangley]] lifestyle, intermarrying either with native Filipinos or with Spanish mestizos.

The largest group of Chinese in the Philippines are the "Second Chinese", who are descendants of migrants in the first half of the 20th century, between the anti-Qing [[1911 Revolution]] in China and the [[Chinese Civil War]]. This group accounts for most of the "full-blooded" Chinese. They are almost entirely from Fujian Province.

The "Third Chinese" are the second largest group of Chinese, the recent immigrants from mainland China, after the [[Chinese economic reform]] of the 1980s. Generally, the "Third Chinese" are the most entrepreneurial and have not totally lost their Chinese identity in its purest form and seen by some "Second Chinese" as a business threat. Meanwhile, continuing immigration from mainland China further enlarge this group<ref name="Palanca2007">{{Citation|last=Palanca|first=Clinton|title=Beyond Binondo and Ma Ling|date=July 11, 2007|url=https://old.pcij.org/stories/beyond-binondo-and-ma-ling/|work=[[Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism]]|access-date=August 12, 2022|archive-date=June 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627024600/https://old.pcij.org/stories/beyond-binondo-and-ma-ling/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Civic organizations===

[[File:Yuchengco Hall.jpg|thumb|[[Don Enrique T. Yuchengco Hall]] at De La Salle University.]]
Aside from their family businesses, Chinese Filipinos are active in Chinese-oriented civic organizations related to education, health care, public safety, social welfare and public charity. As most Chinese Filipinos are reluctant to participate in politics and government, they have instead turned to civic organizations as their primary means of contributing to the general welfare of the Chinese community. Beyond the traditional family and clan associations, Chinese Filipinos tend to be active members of numerous alumni associations holding annual reunions for the benefit of their Chinese-Filipino secondary schools.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Website of Hope Christian High School Alumni Association of America |website=hopealumniofamerica.org |url=http://www.hopealumniofamerica.org/15601.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080326172336/http://www.hopealumniofamerica.org/15601.html|archive-date=March 26, 2008}}</ref>

Outside of secondary schools catering to Chinese Filipinos, some Chinese Filipinos businessmen have established charitable foundations that aim to help others and at the same time minimize tax liabilities. Notable ones include the Gokongwei Brothers Foundation, Metrobank Foundation, Tan Yan Kee Foundation, Angelo King Foundation, Jollibee Foundation, Alfonso Yuchengco Foundation, Cityland Foundation, etc. Some Chinese-Filipino benefactors have also contributed to the creation of several centers of scholarship in prestigious Philippine Universities, including the John Gokongwei School of Management at Ateneo de Manila, the Yuchengco Center at [[De La Salle University]], and the Ricardo Leong Center of Chinese Studies at Ateneo de Manila. Coincidentally, both Ateneo and [[De La Salle University|La Salle]] enroll a large number of Chinese-Filipino students. In health care, Chinese Filipinos were instrumental in establishing and building medical centers that cater for the Chinese community such as the [[Chinese General Hospital and Medical Center]], the [[Metropolitan Medical Center]], [[Chong Hua Hospital]] and the [[St. Luke's Medical Center, Inc.]],{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} one of Asia's leading health care institutions. In public safety, Teresita Ang See's Kaisa, a Chinese-Filipino civil rights group, organized the Citizens Action Against Crime and the Movement for the Restoration of Peace and Order at the height of a wave of anti-Chinese kidnapping incidents in the early 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcij.org/i-report/edsa20/teresita-ang-see.html|title=Teresita Ang See|website=Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism|access-date=February 24, 2008|archive-date=March 9, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309220055/http://pcij.org/i-report/edsa20/teresita-ang-see.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition to fighting crime against Chinese, Chinese Filipinos have organized volunteer fire brigades all over the country, reportedly the best in the nation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Association Of Volunteer Fire Chiefs & Fire Fighter |website=philippinefirefighter.org |url=http://www.philippinefirefighter.org/members.php |access-date=February 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308203117/http://www.philippinefirefighter.org/members.php|archive-date=March 8, 2008 }}</ref> that cater to the Chinese community. In the arts and culture, the Bahay Tsinoy and the Yuchengco Museum were established by Chinese Filipinos to showcase the arts, culture and history of the Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://yuchengcomuseum.org/ |title=About |publisher=Yuchengco Museum |access-date=April 11, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323202531/https://yuchengcomuseum.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Ethnic Chinese Filipinos' perceptions of non-Chinese Filipinos===

Non-Chinese Filipinos were initially referred to as ''[[Huan-a|huan-á]]'' ([[wikt:番仔|番仔]]) by ethnic Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines. It is also used in other Southeast Asian countries such as [[Malaysia]], Singapore and [[Indonesia]] by [[Hokkien]]-speaking ethnic Chinese to refer to peoples of [[Malay race|Malay]] ancestry.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Tong|first=Chee Kiong|title=Identity and ethnic relations in Southeast Asia|publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=978-90-481-8908-3|page=99}}</ref> In [[Taiwan]], it was also used but it has become a taboo term with negative stigma since it was used to refer to [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|indigenous Taiwanese aboriginals]]<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Paul R.|title=Religion and the formation of Taiwanese identities|last2=Rubinstein|first2=Murray A.|publisher=Springer|year=2003|isbn=1-4039-8173-6|page=279}}</ref> and the Japanese during the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation of Taiwan]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huang|first=Junjie|title=Taiwan in transformation|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1895–2005|isbn=978-0-7658-0311-5|page=164}}</ref> The term itself in [[mainland China]] originally just meant "foreigner" but at times may also have been considered derogatory<ref name=":0" /> since it could negatively connote to "barbarian/outsider" by some who had negative views on certain neighboring non-Chinese peoples that certain groups historically lived with since for centuries this was the term predominantly used to refer to non-Chinese people, but today, it does not necessarily carry its original connotations, depending on the speaker's perceptions and culture of how they grew up to learn to perceive the term, since in the Philippines, its present usage now mostly just plainly refers to any non-Chinese [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|Filipinos]], especially [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines#Native ethnolinguistic nations|native Filipinos]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tan|first=Michael L.|date=October 18, 2019|title=My 'huan-na' uncle|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/124662/my-huan-na-uncle|access-date=January 10, 2021|archive-date=February 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227113017/https://opinion.inquirer.net/124662/my-huan-na-uncle|url-status=live}}</ref> When speaking [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Hokkien]], most older Chinese Filipinos still use the term, while younger Chinese Filipinos may sometimes instead use the term ''Hui-li̍p-pin lâng'' ([[wikt:菲律賓人|菲律賓儂]]), which directly means, "Philippine person" or simply "Filipino". This itself brings complications though as Chinese Filipinos themselves are [[Filipinos]] too, born and raised in the [[Philippines]] often with families of multiple generations carrying [[Philippine nationality law|Filipino citizenship]].

Some Chinese Filipinos perceive the government and authorities to be unsympathetic to the plight of the ethnic Chinese, especially in terms of frequent kidnapping for ransom during the late 1990s.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 7, 1997|title=MANILA´S CHINATOWN CLOSES TO PROTEST KIDNAPPINGS|work=Union of Catholic Asian News (UCA News)|url=https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=%2F1997%2F12%2F08%2Fmanilas-chinatown-closes-to-protest-kidnappings&post_id=10554&fbclid=IwAR2GGqpLSuiEKiTNYXRE6ouLnP06yJ-COYwWR4qKFd_k7Wg2aQ_0WBh6xJw|access-date=January 10, 2021|archive-date=July 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722080711/https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1997/12/08/manilas-chinatown-closes-to-protest-kidnappings&post_id=10554&fbclid=IwAR2GGqpLSuiEKiTNYXRE6ouLnP06yJ-COYwWR4qKFd_k7Wg2aQ_0WBh6xJw|url-status=live}}</ref> Currently, most of the third or fourth generation Chinese Filipinos generally view the non-Chinese Filipino people and government positively, and have largely forgotten about the historical oppression of the ethnic Chinese. They are also most likely to consider themselves as just being "Filipino" and focus on the [[Philippines]], rather than on just being "Chinese" and being associated with [[China|China (PRC)]] or [[Taiwan|Taiwan (ROC)]].

Some Chinese Filipinos believe racism still exists toward their community among a minority of non-Chinese Filipinos, who the Chinese Filipinos refer to as "''pâi-huâ''" ([[wikt:排華|排華]]) in [[Hokkien in the Philippines|Philippine Hokkien]]. Organizations belonging to this category include the Laspip Movement, headed by Adolfo Abadeza, as well as the Kadugong Liping Pilipino, founded by Armando "Jun" Ducat Jr. that stirred tensions around the late 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|title=WebSpawner – WHK – WALANG HANGGANG KASAKIMAN (BOOKLET 1 TO 10)|url=http://www.webspawner.com/users/laspipmovement2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029200707/http://www.webspawner.com/users/laspipmovement2|archive-date=October 29, 2013|access-date=May 17, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Suhandinata|first=Ir. Justian|title=Indonesian Chinese Descent in Indonesia's Economy And Political|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|year=2013|isbn=978-979-22-3762-7|page=222}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bankoff|first1=Greg|title=Post-Colonial National Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of Independence|last2=Weekley|first2=Kathleen|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-351-74209-2|page=68}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Dizon|first=David|date=March 28, 2008|title=Hostage-taker Jun Ducat continues crusade behind bars|work=ABS-CBN News|url=https://www.abs-cbn.com/special-report/03/28/08/hostage-taker-jun-ducat-continues-crusade-behind-bars|access-date=January 11, 2021|archive-date=January 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113000651/https://news.abs-cbn.com/special-report/03/28/08/hostage-taker-jun-ducat-continues-crusade-behind-bars|url-status=live}}</ref> Also due in part to racial or chauvinistic views from [[Mainland Chinese]] towards native Filipinos or Filipinos in general in the 1980s after Filipinos became in demand in the international work force, some racial tendencies of mainland Chinese brought about by [[Han chauvinism]] against native Filipinos have intensified in the 21st century, where many [[Mainland Chinese]] from [[mainland China]] have branded the Philippines as a "gullible nation of maids and banana sellers", amidst [[Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|disputes]] in the [[South China Sea]].<ref name=":China2016">{{Cite report|last1=Huang|first1=Echo|last2=Stegar|first2=Isabella|year=2016|title=A gullible nation of maids and banana sellers: How many Chinese see the Philippines|url=https://qz.com/800826/a-childlike-nation-of-maids-and-banana-sellers-how-chinese-see-the-philippines/|via=Quartz News|access-date=June 3, 2021|archive-date=April 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414213910/https://qz.com/800826/a-childlike-nation-of-maids-and-banana-sellers-how-chinese-see-the-philippines/|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to such racist remarks against native Filipinos, racism against mainland Chinese in mainland China and by extension, ethnic-Chinese in general such as Chinese Filipinos, later developed among certain native or mestizo Filipino communities as a form of backlash.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rappler.com/voices/ispeak/opinion-chinese-filipino-teen-racism-coronavirus|title=&#91;OPINION&#93; A Chinese-Filipino teen speaks out on racism and the coronavirus|date=February 5, 2020|access-date=September 26, 2020|archive-date=September 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929140809/https://www.rappler.com/voices/ispeak/opinion-chinese-filipino-teen-racism-coronavirus|url-status=live}}</ref> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in 2020, some Chinese Filipinos have also voiced concerns about [[Anti-Chinese sentiment|Sinophobic sentiments]] that some non-Chinese Filipinos may carry against any ethnic Chinese, especially those from [[China|mainland China]] due to being the site of the first [[Coronavirus disease 2019|coronavirus]] outbreak, that may sometimes extend and generalize on Chinese Filipinos.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tiu|first=Col|date=February 5, 2020|title=[OPINION] A Chinese-Filipino teen speaks out on racism and the coronavirus|work=Rappler|url=https://www.rappler.com/voices/ispeak/opinion-chinese-filipino-teen-racism-coronavirus|access-date=January 10, 2021|archive-date=January 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107110714/https://www.rappler.com/voices/ispeak/opinion-chinese-filipino-teen-racism-coronavirus|url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese Filipino organizations have discouraged the mainstream Filipino public from being discriminatory, particularly against [[China|Chinese nationals]] amid the global spread of [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=February 1, 2020|title=Groups decry racism against Chinese amid coronavirus outbreak|work=CNN Philippines|url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2020/2/1/groups-decry-racism-coronavirus-china.html|access-date=January 10, 2021|archive-date=February 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203013935/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2020/2/1/groups-decry-racism-coronavirus-china.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Intermarriage==
Chinese [[mestizo]]s are persons of mixed Chinese and either Spanish or indigenous Filipino ancestry. Mestizos are thought to make up as much as 25% of the country's total population. A number of Chinese mestizos have surnames that reflect their heritage, mostly two or three syllables that have Chinese roots (e.g., the full name of a Chinese ancestor) with a Hispanized phonetic spelling.

During the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish authorities encouraged the Chinese male immigrants to convert to Catholicism. Those who converted got baptized and their names Hispanized, and were allowed to intermarry with indigenous Filipino women. The couple and their mestizo offspring became colonial subjects of the Spanish crown, and as such were granted several privileges and afforded numerous opportunities that were denied to the unconverted and non-citizen Chinese. Starting out as traders, many Chinese mestizo businesspeople branched out into land leasing, money-lending, and later, landholding.

Chinese mestizo men and women were encouraged to marry Spanish and indigenous women and men,{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} by means of dowries,{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} as part of a colonial policy to mix the different ethno-racial groups of the Philippines so as it would be impossible to expel the Spanish.<ref name=blair-tpi-52/>

Today, "blood purity" is still of prime concern in most traditional Chinese Filipino families, especially pure-blooded Han ones. Many Chinese Filipinos who maintain traditional perspectives on marriage continue to uphold the belief that a Chinese Filipino can only be married to another fellow Chinese Filipino since marriages to a non-Han Chinese Filipino or any non-Han Chinese outsider was considered taboo and undesirable. The prospects and implications of the sustained trend of ongoing intermarriage between Chinese to native, mestizo Filipinos, and other outsiders, still continues to be shrouded in ambiguity, raising controversy, casting doubt, and posing uncertainty for all parties involved, even to this day. As the Chinese Filipino family structure is traditionally patriarchal hence, it is the male that carries the last name of the family which also entails the pedigree and legacy of the family name itself.  Marriages between Chinese Filipino men and native Filipinas or mestizas, or any outsider, was deemed more socially permissible than the other way around. In the case of the Chinese Filipina female marrying a native or mestizo Filipino or any outsider, it may incur several unwanted racial issues and tensions, especially on the side of the Chinese family.

In some instances, a member of a traditional Chinese Filipino family may be denied of his or her inheritance and likely to be disowned by his or her family for marrying an outsider without their consent. However, there are narrow exceptions in which intermarriage to a non-Chinese Filipino or any outsider would considered socially permissible provided that their family's socioeconomic background is well-off or influential.

On the other hand, modern Chinese Filipino families who exhibit more liberal cosmopolitan views and beliefs are generally more receptive to interracial marriage by allowing their children to marry native or mestizo Filipino or any non-Han Chinese outsider. Even with these changes in attitude and shifting perspectives towards miscegenation, many contemporary Chinese Filipino families would still by and large prefer that the Filipino or any non-Han Chinese outsider would have some or little Han Chinese ancestry, such as the descendants of Chinese mestizos dating back to the Spanish colonial period.

==Trade and industry==
{{Main|Bamboo network|Economy of the Philippines}}

[[File:Philippine Stock Exchange (BGC, Taguig)(2018-06-04).jpg|right|thumb|450px|The [[Manila Stock Exchange]] is now pullulated with thousands of prospering Chinese-owned Filipino stock brokerage houses and publicly traded companies.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto8"/> Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry dominate the Manila Stock Exchange as they are estimated to control more than half of the publicly listed companies by market capitalization.<ref name="Ateneo de Manila University">{{Cite journal|last1=Hodder|first1=Rupert|date=2005|title=The Study of the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia: Some Comments on its Political Meanings with Particular Reference to the Philippines |pages=8|journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]]|location=Quezon City, Philippines|publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]]|volume=53|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Private Banking: A Global Perspective |last=  Weldon  |first= Lucy  |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=978-1855733282 |pages=59}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World|last1=April|first1=K.|last2=Shockley|first2=M.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2007|isbn=978-0230001336 |publication-date=February 6, 2007|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_j3l5/page/169 169]|url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_j3l5/page/169}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Private Banking: A Global Perspective|last= Weldon|first=Lucy|publisher= Woodhead Publishing|year=1997|isbn=978-1855733282|pages=59}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=49 Myths about China|last1= Galtung|first1= Marte Kjær|last2=Stenslie|first2= Stig|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|year=2014|isbn= 978-1442236226|pages=99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The People Link: Human Resource Linkages Across The Pacific|last1=Safarian|first1=A.E.|last2=Dobson|first2=Wendy|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0802042996}}</ref>]]

Like much of Southeast Asia, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry [[dominant minority|dominate]] the Filipino economy and commerce at every level of society.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto5">{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first=Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/3 3–4] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/3 }}</ref><ref name="Chua 60">{{Cite journal |last=Chua |first=Amy L. |date=January 1, 1998 |title=Markets, Democracy, and Ethnicity: Toward A New Paradigm For Law and Development |url=http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1340&context=fss_papers |journal=The Yale Law Journal |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=60|doi=10.2307/797471 |jstor=797471 }}</ref> Chinese Filipinos collectively wield and uniformly demonstrate a disproportionatly high level of economic achievement and clout relative to their small population size over their indigenous Filipino majority counterparts while also playing a critical role in maintaining the country's economic vitality and prosperity.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 518">{{Cite book |title=Under Beijing's Shadow: Southeast Asia's China Challenge |last= Hiebert |first=Murray |publisher=  [[Center for Strategic & International Studies]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1442281387 |pages=518}}</ref><ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto6">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4OJplHkpMcC&q=ethnic+chinese+are+estimated+to+control+percent+of+the+foreign+trade&pg=PA94 |title=Primal Management: Unraveling the Secrets of Human Nature to Drive High Performance |last=Herr |first=Paul |publisher=AMACOM |year=2009 |isbn=9780814413975 |access-date=May 7, 2012}}</ref> With their powerful economic prominence, the Chinese virtually make up the country's entire wealthy elite.<ref name="auto8">{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first=Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/37 37] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/37 }}</ref><ref name="Suryadinata 2014 276">{{Cite book |title=Southeast Asia's Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization: Coping with the Rise of China |last=Suryadinata |first= Leo |publisher= Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2014 |publication-date=January 2, 2014 |page=276}}</ref><ref name="auto7">{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first=Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/4 4] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/4 }}</ref> Chinese Filipinos, in the aggregate, represent a disproportionate wealthy, market-dominant minority not only form a distinct ethnic community, they also form, by and large, an economic class: the commercial middle and upper class in contrast to their poorer indigenous Filipino majority working and underclass counterparts around them.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto7"/> Entire posh Chinese enclaves have sprung up in major Filipino cities across the country, literally walled off from the poorer indigenous Filipino masses guarded by heavily armed, private security forces.<ref name="auto"/> Though the contemporary Chinese Filipino community albeit remains stubbornly insular, given their propensity to voluntarily segregate themselves from the indigenous Filipino populace through typically associating themselves with the Chinese community, their collective impacting presence nonetheless still remains powerfully felt throughout the country at large. In particular, given their dominant middleman minority status and ubiquitous economic influence and prosperity owing to their shrewd business acumen and astute investment savvy have prompted the community's acculturation into mainstream Filipino society and their maintenance of their exclusively unabashed distinctive cultural sense of ethnic identity, clannishness, community, kinship, [[Han nationalism|nationalism]], and socioethnic cohesion through [[Kongsi|clan associations]].<ref name=FJR152>{{Cite book |title=Business Networks in Asia: Promises, Doubts, and Perspectives |last=Richter |first=Frank-Jürgen |publisher=Praeger |year=1999 |isbn=978-1567203028 |pages=199}}</ref>

The Chinese have had a significant presence in Filipino business and industry, having been at the forefront of controlling the economy of the Philippines for many centuries long before the Spanish and American colonial eras.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Southeast Asia's Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |year= 2006 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |pages=258}}</ref> Long before the [[Spanish conquest of the Philippines]], Chinese merchants carried on trading activities with native communities along the coast of modern mainland China. By the time the Spanish arrived, the Chinese controlled all the commercial  trading activities across the Philippines, serving as retailers, artisans, and food providers for various Spanish settlements.<ref name="auto3"/> During the [[American colonial era in the Philippines|American colonial]] epoch, Chinese merchants controlled a significant percentage of the retail trade and internal commerce of the country. They predominated the retail trade and owned three-quarters of the 2500 rice mills interspersed along with the Filipino islands.<ref name="Hedman 2000 77">{{Cite book |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |url=https://archive.org/details/philippinepoliti00hedm |url-access=limited |last1= Hedman |first1= Eva-Lotta |last2=Sidel |first2= John |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=978-0415147903 |edition=1st |publication-date=November 9, 2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philippinepoliti00hedm/page/n93 77]}}</ref> Total resources of banking capital held by the Chinese was US$27 million in 1937 to a high of US$100 million in the estimated aggregate, making them second to the Americans in terms of total foreign capital investment held.<ref name="auto3"/> Under Spanish rule, the Chinese were willing to engage in trade and venture into other business activities where Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry were responsible for introducing sugar refining devices, new construction techniques, movable type printing, and bronze making into the Filipino economic landscape while also providing fishing, gardening, artisan, and other such trading services. Many poverty-stricken Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were drawn towards business ownership and investing as they were prohibited from owning land and saw the only path out of abject poverty was by going into commercial business, entrepreneurship, and investing as a sole recourse to alleviate themselves from extreme economic destitution and ameliorate the parlous state of their personal financial situations. Numerous budding Chinese-born and Filipino-bred entrepreneurs and investors, driven by their shrewd commercial instincts, have leveraged their business skills and entrepreneurial spirit to change the trajectory of the parlous state of their financial destinies in unshackling themselves from the debilitating stranglehold of poverty towards a pathway of financial prosperity and economic enlightenment. By assuming responsibility for their personal financial circumstances empowered and precipitated countless budding Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry to become self-employed as dealers, distributors, hawkers, marketers, peddlers, producers, retailers, sellers, and vendors of variegated goods and services catered to the Spanish and American colonizers as well as the masses of indigenous Filipino consumers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship |last1=Gomez |first1= Terence E. |last2=Hsiao |first2=Michael Hsin-Huang |publisher= Routledge |year=2013 |isbn= 978-0700714155 |pages=102}}</ref> Mainly attracted and lured by the promise of bountiful economic opportunities brought upon by the auspices of American colonial influence during the first four decades of the 20th century actuated the Chinese to vigorously assert and ultimately secure their domains of economic power fostered amongst their entrepreneurial activities and investment pursuits. The implementation of a free trade policy between the Philippines and the United States allowed the Chinese to capitalize on the growth of a burgeoning Filipino consumer market. As a result, Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry were able to capture a significant market share across the country by expanding their commercial business activities in which they were the key players who ventured into then newly emerging industries such as industrial manufacturing and financial services.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898–1941 |last=Huang |first= Kuo Chu |publisher=Ateneo University Press |year= 1999 |isbn=9789715503235 |pages=2}}</ref> The American and Spanish colonizers who saw the indispensable benefit of the enterprising Chinese, harnessed their commercial expertise, contacts, capital, and presence to serve and protect their colonial economic interests. Chinese-owned sari-sari stores that cropped up all over the Philippines were utilized to distribute and supply American and cheap Chinese-made Filipino goods and raw materials with the finished products purposed for the eventual export to the American and other foreign markets overseas. The conspicuous presence of the Chinese that permeated throughout the textual fabric of daily Filipino economic life incurred the volatile emotions and hostility of the indigenous Filipino masses manifested in the form of animosity, bitterness, envy, grievance, insecurity, and resentment.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The State, Development and Identity in Multi-Ethnic Societies: Ethnicity, Equity and the Nation |last1=  Gomez  |first1= Terence |last2=Tarling |first2=Nicholas  |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1134056811 |pages=158}}</ref>

Up until the 1970s, many of the Philippines's biggest corporations and commercial economic activities had long been under the control of the Americans and Spaniards.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 110">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=110}}</ref> Since the 1970s, a significant shift has occurred in the commercial economic sector of the Philippines, whereby numerous Filipino enterprises previously owned by Americans and Spaniards came under the control of the Chinese, who have collectively emerged and established themselves as the country's most dominant economic force. Although the modern Chinese community in the Philippines amounts to 1 percent of the country's entire population, they are estimated to effectively control 60 to 70 percent of the modern Filipino economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Haley |first = G.T. |year = 1998|title = Boxing with Shadows: Competing Effectively with the Overseas Chinese and Overseas Indian Business Networks in the Asian Arena|url = https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/09534819810225878/full/html |journal = Journal of Organizational Change |volume = 11 |issue = 4 |publisher = [[Emerald Group Publishing]]  |location = Bingley |page = 303 |access-date = October 1, 2023 |doi=10.1108/09534819810225878 |url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Hot Commodities: How Anyone Can Invest Profitably in the World's Best Market |last=  [[Jim Rogers|Rogers]]  |first=Jim  |publisher=[[Wiley & Sons]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0470015322 |pages=105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Megatrends Asia: The Eight Asian Megatrends that are Changing the World |last= Naisbitt |first=John |year=1996 |publisher=Nicholas Brealey |pages=20 |isbn=978-1857881400}}</ref><ref name="Slezkine 2004 41">{{Cite book |title=The Jewish Century |last=Slezkine |first=Yuri  |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |page=41}}</ref><ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Chinese Diaspora: Space, Place, Mobility, and Identity (Why of Where) |last= Ma  |first=Laurence J. C. |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0742517561 |pages=98}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Does China Matter?: A Reassessment: Essays in Memory of Gerald Segal |last1=Buzan |first1= Barry |last2= Foot |first2=Rosemary |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0415304122 |publication-date=May 10, 2004 |pages=82}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The United States, China and Southeast Asian Security: A Changing of the Guard? |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstateschin00bert |url-access=limited |last= Bert |first= Wayne |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-0333995655 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstateschin00bert/page/n135 123]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/31223/ethnic-chinese-dominate-ph-economy |title=Ethnic Chinese dominate PH economy |last=Collas-Monsod |first=Solita |date=June 22, 2012 |website=The Inquirer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people4/Chua/chua-con2.html |title=Origins of an Idea |last=Kreisler |first=Harry |date=January 22, 2004 |website=Institute of International Studies}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wilsonquarterly.com/quarterly/winter-2014-four-decades-of-classic-essays/a-world-on-the-edge/ |title=A World On The Edge |last=Chua |first=Amy |year=2014 |website=The Wilson Quarterly}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Choice: Global Domination or Global Leadership |last=Brzezinski |first=Zbigniew |publisher=Basic Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0465008001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/choiceglobaldomi00brze/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/choiceglobaldomi00brze/page/174 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Asian Business Groups: Context, Governance and Performance |last=Carney |first=Michael |year=2008 |publisher=Chandos Publishing |isbn= 978-1843342441|page=238}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The China Information Technology Handbook |last=Pablos |first= Patricia |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |page=206}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_MZt3z92BkC&q=overseas+chinese+control+percent+of+the+largest+companies&pg=PA105 |title=Introduction to Globalization and Business: Relationships and Responsibilities |last=Parker |first=Barbara |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2005 |isbn=9780761944959 |access-date=May 9, 2012}}</ref> The enterprising Chinese minority, comprising 1 percent of the total population of the Philippines, control the country's largest and most lucrative department stores, supermarkets, hotels, shopping malls, airlines, and fast-food restaurants in addition to all of its major financial services providers, banks and stock brokerage houses, as well as dominating the nation's wholesale distribution networks, shipping lines, banks, construction, textiles, real estate, personal computer, semiconductors, pharmaceutical, mass media, and industrial manufacturing industries.<ref name="Ateneo de Manila University"/><ref name="Slezkine 2004 41"/><ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto8"/><ref name="Chua 2018 48">{{Cite book |title=Political Tribes: Group Instinct and the Fate of Nations |last=Chua |first=Amy |publisher=Penguin Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0399562853 |pages=48}}</ref> Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also control 40 percent of the Philippine's national corporate equity.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Asian Business Groups: Context, Governance and Performance (Chandos Asian Studies Series) |last= Carney  |first=Michael |publisher=  Chandos Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-1843342441 |pages=238}}</ref><ref name="Routledge">{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=8}}</ref> Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also involved in the processing and distribution of pharmaceutical products. More than 1000 companies are involved in this industry, with most being small and medium-sized businesses amounting to an aggregate capitalization of ₱1.2 billion.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=109}}</ref> Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also prominent players in the Filipino mass media sector, as the Chinese control six out of the ten English-language newspapers in Manila, including the one with the largest daily circulation.<ref name="auto8"/><ref name="Slezkine 2004 41"/> Many retail stores and restaurants presided by Filipino owners with Chinese ancestry are regularly featured in Manila newspapers which often attracted great public interest as such examples of high-profile business ownership were used to illustrate the Chinese community's strong economic influence that permeated throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiamarketresearch.com/philippines/ |title=Philippines Market Capsule Review |publisher=Asiamarketresearch.com |access-date=April 23, 2012 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427112442/http://www.asiamarketresearch.com/philippines/ |archive-date=April 27, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/type,CHRON,,THA,469f38e7c,0.html |title=Refworld &#124; Chronology for Chinese in Thailand |publisher=UNHCR |date=September 19, 1997 |access-date=April 23, 2012}}</ref> The Chinese also dominate the Filipino telecommunications industry, where one of the current significant players in the Filipino telecom sector was the business taipan [[John Gokongwei]], whose conglomerate [[JG Summit Holdings]] controlled 28 wholly owned subsidiaries with interests ranging from food and agro-industrial products, hotels, insurance agencies, financial services providers, electronic components, textiles and garment manufacturing, real estate, petrochemicals, power generation, printing, newspaper publishing, packaging materials, detergents, and cement mixing.<ref name="auto11">{{Cite book|title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia|last=Gambe|first=Annabelle|year= 2000|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=34|isbn=978-0312234966}}</ref> Gokongwei's family firm is one of the six largest and most well-known Filipino conglomerates that has been under the hands of an owner of Chinese lineage.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=107}}</ref> Gokongwei began his business career by starting out in food processing during the 1950s, venturing into textile manufacturing in the early 1970s, and then cornered the Filipino real estate development and hotel management industries by the end of the decade. In 1976, Gokongwei established Manila Midtown Hotels and has since then assumed the controlling interest of two other hotel chains, Cebu Midtown and Manila Galleria Suites respectively.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In addition, Gokongwei has also made forays into the Filipino financial services sector as he expanded his business interests by investing in two Filipino banks, [[Equitable PCI Bank|PCI Bank]] and [[Far East Bank]], in addition to negotiating the acquisition of one of the Philippines's oldest newspapers, ''[[The Manila Times]]''.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Words of Fire: Independent Journalists who Challenge Dictators, Drug Lords, and Other Enemies of a Free Press|url=https://archive.org/details/wordsfireindepen00coll|url-access=limited|last= Collings|first= Anthony|publisher=NYU Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0814716052|location=New York City|publication-date=June 1, 2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/wordsfireindepen00coll/page/n163 149]}}</ref> Gokongwei's eldest daughter became publisher of the newspaper in December 1988 at the age of 28, at which during the same time her father acquired the paper from the Roceses, a Spanish Mestizo family.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Philippine Democracy Agenda: Civil society making civil society|publisher=Third World Studies Center|year=1997|isbn= 978-9719111153|page=249}}</ref> Of the 66 percent remaining part of the economy in the Philippines held by either Chinese or indigenous Filipinos, the Chinese control 35 percent of all total sales.<ref name="Chang 1998 243">{{Cite book |title=The Labors of Sisyphus: The Economic Development of Communist China |last= Chang |first= Maria Hsia |year= 1998 |publisher=Routledge |page=243 |isbn= 9780765806611}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Bpr8TumVbUC&q=In+the+Philippines%2C+ethnic+Chinese+control+largest&pg=PA28 |title=The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism |last=Redding |first=S. G. |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1993 |isbn=9783110137941 |access-date=April 23, 2012}}</ref> Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control an estimated 50 to 60 percent of non-land share capital in the Philippines, and as much as 35 percent of total sales are attributed to the largest public and private firms owned by the Chinese.<ref name="Chang 1998 243"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Resilient States from a Comparative Regional Perspective Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia   |last=Bafoil  |first= François  |publisher=[[World Scientific Publishing]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-9814417464 |pages=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Baron |first=Barnett |title=FUNDING CIVIL SOCIETY IN ASIA |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN017810.pdf |publisher=THE ASIA FOUNDATION}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Asian Firms: History, Institutions and Management   |last=	 Tipton  |first=Frank B.  |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-1847205148|pages=277}}</ref> Many prominent Filipino companies that are Chinese-owned focus on diverse industry sectors such as semiconductors, chemicals, real estate, engineering, construction, fibre-optics, textiles, financial services, consumer electronics, food, and personal computers.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d95o_Rf_A0C&q=ethnic+chinese+make+up+but+account+for+southeast+asia+economy&pg=PA206 |title=The China Information Technology Handbook |last1=Pablos |first1=Patricia Ordóñez de |last2=Lytras |first2=Miltiadis D. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2010 |isbn=9780387777436 |access-date=April 23, 2012}}</ref> A third of the top 500 companies publicly listed on the [[Philippine Stock Exchange|Philippines Stock Exchange]] are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry.<ref name="Gomez 2013 108">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship |last1=Gomez |first1= Terence E. |last2=Hsiao |first2=Michael Hsin-Huang |publisher= Routledge |year=2013 |isbn= 978-0700714155 |pages=108}}</ref> Of the top 1000 firms, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control 36 percent of them and among the top 100 companies, 43 percent.<ref name="Gomez 2013 108"/><ref name="Nova Science Publishing Inc">{{Cite book |title=Dynamics and Dilemma: Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World |last1=Yu |first1=Bin |last2=Chung |first2=Tsungting |publisher=Nova Science Publishing Inc |year=1996 |isbn=978-1560723035 |publication-date=September 1, 1996 |pages=72}}</ref> Between 1978 and 1988, 146 of the country's 494 top companies were under Chinese ownership.<ref name="auto14"/> Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also estimated to control over one-third of the Philippines's 1000 largest corporations with the Chinese controlling 47 of the 68 locally owned companies publicly listed on the Manila Stock Exchange.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Chinese In Southeast Asia And Beyond, The: Socioeconomic And Political Dimensions: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions |last=Yen |first=Ching-Hwang |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-9812790477 |pages=321}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Globalisation of Chinese Business Firms |last1=Yeung |first1=Henry Wai-Chung |last2=Olds |first2=Kris |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1999 |isbn=978-0333716298 |pages=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Expansion of Trade and FDI in Asia: Strategic and Policy Challenges |last1= Chaisse|first1=Julien  |last2=  Gugler |first2= Philippe  |year=2009 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1135786755 |pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Economies of Southeast Asia: Before and After the Crisis |last=  Tongzon|first=  Jose L. |year=2002 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]]|isbn=978-1843767442 |pages=216}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in a Global Era: Towards a Hybrid Capitalism |last=Yeung |first= Henry Wai-Chung |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0415309899 |pages=15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/noseatattablehow0000bran |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/noseatattablehow0000bran/page/140 140] |quote=overseas chinese control percent of largest companies. |title=No Seat at the Table: How Corporate Governance and Law Keep Women Out of the Boardroom |last=Branson |first=Douglas M. |publisher=NYU Press |year=2007 |isbn=9780814799734 |access-date=April 23, 2012}}</ref> In 1990, the Chinese controlled 25 percent of the top 100 businesses in the Philippines and by 2014, the share of top 100 firms owned by them grew to 41 percent.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 110"/><ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/> Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are also responsible for generating 55 percent of overall Filipino private commercial business activity across the country.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHrZYiW3vV0C&q=overseas+chinese+control+percent+of+largest+companies&pg=PA185 |title=The Trillion-Dollar Enterprise: How the Alliance Revolution Will Transform ... – Cyrus F. Freidheim, Cyrus Freidheim – Google Books |date= December 13, 2007|access-date=April 23, 2012|isbn=9780465010561 |last1=Freidheim |first1=Cyrus |publisher=Basic Books }}</ref> In addition, Chinese-owned Filipino companies account for 66 percent of the sixty largest commercial entities.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDjoJNdZCuMC&q=overseas+chinese+control+percent+of+largest+companies&pg=PA23 |title=Telling Chinese History: A Selection of Essays |last=Wakeman |first=Frederic E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780520256064 |editor-last=Wakeman |editor-first=Lea H. |access-date=April 23, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tQy1OL2_DEC&q=overseas+chinese+control+percent+of+largest+companies&pg=PA33 |title=Understanding China: Center Stage of the Fourth Power |last1=Ju |first1=Yan'an |last2=Chü |first2=Yen-an |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780791431214 |access-date=April 23, 2012}}</ref> In 2008, among the top ten wealthiest Filipinos, 6 to 7 were of Chinese ancestry with Henry Sy Sr. having topped the list with an estimated net worth US$14.4 billion.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=103}}</ref> In 2015, the top 4 wealthiest people in the Philippines (with 9 being pure-blooded Han Chinese in addition to 10 out of the top 15) were of Chinese ancestry.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/><ref name="Chua 2018 48"/> In 2019, 15 of the 17 Filipino billionaires were of Chinese ancestry.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2020/05/28/south-east-asian-tycoons-high-wire-act |title=Southeast Asian Tycoons' High-wire Act| date =May 28, 2020 | newspaper = [[The Economist]] }}</ref>

Filipinos of Chinese ancestry exert a considerable influential foothold across the Filipino industrial manufacturing sector. With respect to delineating the parameters by industry distribution, Chinese-owned manufacturing establishments account for a third of the entirety of the Filipino industrial manufacturing sector.<ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/><ref name="auto14">{{Cite book |title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia |last=Gambe |first=Annabelle |year= 2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=32 |isbn=978-0312234966}}</ref><ref name="Nova Science Publishing Inc"/> The majority of Filipino industrial manufacturing establishments that produce the processing of coconut products, flour, food products, textiles, plastic products, footwear, glass, as well as heavy industry products such as metals, steel, industrial chemicals, paper products, paints, leatherwork, garments, sugar refining, timber processing, construction materials, food and beverages, rubber, plastics, semiconductors, and personal computers are controlled by Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry.<ref name="auto2"/><ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/><ref name="auto9">{{Cite book|title=Ethnic Business: Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia|last=Folk|first= Brian|publisher= Routledge|year=2003|isbn=978-1138811072|pages=94}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=107–109}}</ref> In the secondary industry, 75 percent of the country's 2500 rice mills were Chinese-owned. Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs were also dominant in wood processing, and accounted for over 10 percent of the capital invested in the lumber industry and controlled 85 percent of it as well as accounting for 40 percent of the industry's annual output propagated through their extensive control of nearly all the sawmills throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States-Philippines Relations, 1942–1960 |last= Cullather |first= Nick |publisher= Stanford University Press |year=1994 |isbn= 978-0804722803 |pages=130}}</ref> Emerging import-substituting light industries induced the active participation and ownership of Chinese entrepreneurs being involved in various several salt works in addition to a large number of small and medium-sized producers engaged in food processing as well as the production of leather and tobacco goods. The Chinese also hold enormous sway over the Filipino food processing industry with approximately 200 outlets being involved in this sector alone predominating the eventual export of their finished products to Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. More than 200 Chinese-owned companies are also involved in the production of paper, paper products, fertilizers, cosmetics, rubber products, and plastics.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> By the early 1960s, the Chinese presence in the manufacturing sector became even more significant. Of the industrial manufacturing establishments that employed 10 or more workers, 35 percent were Chinese-owned and among 284 enterprises employing more than 100 workers, 37 percent were likewise Chinese-owned. Of the 163 domestic industrial manufacturing companies operating throughout the Philippines, 80 were Chinese-owned and included the manufacturing of coconut oil, food products, tobacco, textiles, plastic products, footwear, glass, and certain types of metals such as tubes and pipes, wire rods, nails, bolts, and containers.<ref name="auto13">{{Cite book |title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia |last=Gambe |first=Annabelle |year= 2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=28 |isbn=978-0312234966}}</ref> In 1965, the Chinese controlled 32 percent of the country's top industrial manufacturing outlets.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=106}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Dynamics and Dilemma: Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World|last1=Yu|first1=Bin|last2=Chung|first2=Tsungting|publisher=Nova Science Publishing Inc|year=1996|isbn=978-1560723035|publication-date=September 1, 1996|pages=80}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Dynamics and Dilemma: Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World. Edited by Yu Bin and Chung Tsungting|last= Yu|first=Bin|publisher=Nova Science|year=1996|isbn= 978-1560723035|pages=721}}</ref> Of the 259 industrial manufacturing establishments belonging to the top 1000 that operated throughout the entire country, the Chinese owned 33.6 percent of the top manufacturing companies as well as 43.2 percent of the top commercial manufacturing outlets in 1980.<ref name="auto14"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dynamics and Dilemma: Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World |last1=Yu |first1=Bin |last2=Chung |first2=Tsungting |publisher=Nova Science Publishing Inc |year=1996 |isbn=978-1560723035 |publication-date=September 1, 1996 |pages=80}}</ref> By 1986, the Chinese controlled 45 percent of the country's top 120 domestic manufacturing companies.<ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/><ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Asian Management Systems: Chinese, Japanese and Korean Styles of Business|last=Chen|first= Min|publisher=Cengage|year=1995|page=64}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Booty Capitalism: The Politics of Banking in the Philippines|last = Hutchcroft|first = Paul|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0415309899|page=75}}</ref> These manufacturing establishments are mainly involved in the production of tobacco and cigarettes, soap and cosmetics, textiles and rubber footwear.<ref name="auto9"/>

[[File:Jollibee, Central, Hong Kong 1.jpg|thumb|right|345px|The Filipino fast food joint, [[Jollibee]], which makes Filipino-style hamburgers was founded by [[Tony Tan Caktiong]], a Filipino entrepreneur of Chinese ancestry.<ref name="auto15">{{Cite book|title=World On Fire|last=Chua|first=Amy|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0385721868|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/36 36]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/36}}</ref> The outlet today continues to remain as one of the country's most famous and beloved fast food franchises.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/>]]

Today, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control all of the Philippines's largest and most lucrative department stores, supermarkets, and fast-food restaurants.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto8"/> In the fast-food industry, Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry have been behind the Philippines's biggest fast-food restaurant franchises. A wave of big-name of domestically homegrown restaurant chains such as [[Chowking]], [[Greenwich Pizza]], [[Mang Inasal]], [[Red Ribbon Bakeshop|Red Ribbon]] in addition to the mainland Chinese-based establishment [[Yonghe Dawang]] (永和大王) have made headway into the Filipino restaurant industry with their various constiuent outlets being cropped up across various cities around the country. There are roughly 3000 fast-food outlets and restaurants controlled by Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry around the country, especially eating establishments specializing in Chinese cuisine have attracted an influx of foreign capital investments from Hong Kong and Taiwan.<ref name="Gomez 2013 110"/><ref name="auto18"/> The banker and business taipan [[George Ty]] was responsible for securing and franchising the rights of the famous publicly traded American hamburger franchise [[McDonald's]] across the Philippines and the [[Jollibee]] fast-food joint, whose founder [[Tony Tan Caktiong]] is a Filipino restaurateur of Chinese ancestry.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/><ref name="auto15"/><ref name=Marketing>{{cite book |last=Go |first=Josiah |title=Fundamentals of Marketing: In The Philippine Setting |year=2001 |publisher=Design Plus |location=Philippines |isbn=978-971-91860-5-2 |pages=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jollibee.com.ph/index.php?/about_us/contents/5|title=Jollibee Foods Corporation|website=www.jollibee.com.ph}}</ref> Jollibee's popularity around the country has since then led to the expansion of its corporate presence throughout the world by establishing subsidiaries in the Middle East, Hong Kong, Guam, and other Southeast Asian countries such as Brunei and Indonesia.<ref name="auto11"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship |last1=Gomez |first1= Terence E. |last2=Hsiao |first2=Michael Hsin-Huang |publisher= Routledge |year=2013 |isbn= 978-0700714155 |pages=32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Report: Philippines 2009 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2009 |isbn=9781902339122 |pages=158}}</ref> The chain has since evolved into the [[Jollibee Foods Corporation]] with the company having expanded gradually its corporate operating presence throughout mainland China as evidenced by its foreign acquisition of the Chinese fast food chain Dim Sum in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|title=Overview and Trends of Ethnic Chinese Companies|url=https://www.mitsui.com/mgssi/en/report/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/12/19/1811c_takahashi.pdf |pages=1 |newspaper=[[Mitsui & Co.]]|date=November 28, 2018}}</ref> In the beverage sector, [[San Miguel Corporation]] is among the Philippines's most prominent beverage providers. The company was founded in 1851 by Enrique María Barretto de Ycaza y Esteban and is responsible for supplying the country's entire beverage needs. Two Chinese-owned Filipino beverage companies, namely Lucio Tan's [[Asia Brewery]] and John Gokongwei's [[Universal Robina]], along with several lesser-known beverage companies are also now competing with each other to capture the largest share in the Filipino beverage market.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Southeast Asia's Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |year= 2006 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |pages=275–276}}</ref>

In 1940, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were estimated to control 70 percent of the country's entire retail trade and 75 percent of the nation's rice mills.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrgNAAAAQAAJ&q=rice+mills&pg=PA288 |title=The Changing Map of Asia: A Political Geography |last1=East |first1=William Gordon |last2=Spate |first2=Oskar Hermann Khristian |publisher=Methuen |year=1966 |access-date=April 22, 2012}}</ref> By 1948, the economic standing of the Chinese community began to elevate even further allowing them to wield considerable influence by expanding their commercial business presence across the Filipino retail industry. As the Chinese community exercised a considerable percentage of the total commercial investment, including the command of 55 percent of the Filipino retail trade and 85 percent of the country's lumber industry at this time.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gtj94zEWL_8C&q=ethnic+chinese+are+estimated+to+control+percent+of+the+lumber+sector&pg=PA130 |title=Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States-Philippines Relations, 1942–1960 |last=Cullather |first=Nick |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=9780804722803 |access-date=May 7, 2012}}</ref> After the end of the [[Second Sino-Japanese war]], Chinese Filipinos controlled 85 percent of the nation's retail trade.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia |last=Gambe |first=Annabelle |year= 2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=26 |isbn=978-0312234966}}</ref> The Chinese also presided over 40 percent of the retailing imports coupled with substantial controlling interests in banking, oil refining, sugar milling, cement, tobacco, flour milling, glass, dairy farming, automobile manufacturing, and consumer electronics.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-oK4ZetPIAC&q=ethnic+chinese+control+percent+of+retail+trade&pg=PA58 |title=Filipino Politics: Development and Decay |last=Wurfel |first=David |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0801499265 |access-date=May 6, 2012}}</ref> Although the Filipino Hacienderos owned an extensive array of businesses, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry greatly augmented their economic power coinciding with the pro-market reforms of the late 1980s and 1990s initiated by the [[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos]] administration. As a result, the Chinese gradually increased their commanding role in the domestic Filipino commercial retail sector over time by acting as an intermediary in connecting Chinese-owned Filipino retailers to the masses of indigenous Filipino consumers through the exchange of various goods and services. The Chinese Filipino business community accomplished such commercial feats as a tight-knit group in an enclosed system via [[vertical integration]] by setting up their own supply chains, distribution networks, locating key competitors, making use of geographical coverage, attributes and characteristics, business strategies, staff recruitment, store proliferation, and establishing their own independent trade organizations.<ref name="auto20"/> Chinese-owned Filipino retail outlets also exercised a vast disproportionate share of several local goods such as rice, lumber products, and alcoholic drinks.<ref name="auto20"/> Some Chinese Filipino merchant traders even branched into retailing these products in addition to rice milling, logging, saw-milling, distillery, tobacco, coconut oil processing, footwear making, and agricultural processing. Over time, the domestic Filipino economy began to broaden by the multitudinous expansion of commercial business activities long held by the Chinese which also ushered in new forms of entrepreneurship with the Chinese having assiduously devoted and directed their corporate efforts, energies, and capital into cultivating new industries and growth areas over other well-established and matured sectors.<ref name="auto20"/>

Since the 1950s, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have controlled the entirety of the Filipino retail industry.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World On Fire|last=Chua|first=Amy|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0385721868|pages=153-154 [https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/154]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/154}}</ref> Every [[Small and medium-sized enterprises|small, medium]], and [[big business|large enterprise]] in the Filipino retail sector is now completely under Chinese hands as they have been at the forefront at pioneering the modern and contemporary development of the Philippines's retail sector.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World On Fire|last=Chua|first=Amy|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0385721868|pages=154 [https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/154]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/154}}</ref> From the 1970s onward, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have re-established themselves as the dominant players in the Filipino retail industry with the community having achieved a collective corporate feat of presiding an estimated 8500 Chinese-owned retail and wholesale outlets that predominate across various metropolitan areas the country.<ref name="auto2"/><ref name="Gomez 2013 110"/> On a microscopic scale, the Hokkien community have a proclivity to run capital intensive businesses such as banks, commercial shipping lines, rice mills, dry goods, and [[Sari-sari store|general stores]] while the Cantonese gravitated towards hotels, restaurants, and laundromats.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=103}}</ref><ref name="auto20">{{Cite book |title=The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898–1941 |last= Wong |first=Kwok-Chu |publisher= Ateneo De Manila University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-9715503235 | pages = 178 }}</ref> Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry control 35 percent to upwards to two-thirds of the domestic sales among the country's 67 largest commercial retail outlets.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Political Communications in Greater China: The Construction and Reflection of Identity |last=Rawnsley|first=    Gary D.  |year=2003 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1135786755 |pages=34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Entrepreneurial Excellence |last=  Goossen |first=  Richard J.  |publisher=ReadHowYouWant.com |isbn=978-1412837545 |pages=199|edition= EasyRead Large Bold }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Labors of Sisyphus: The Economic Development of Communist China |last= Chang |first= Maria Hsia |year= 1998 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=243 |isbn= 9780765806611}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Understanding China: Center Stage of the Fourth Power |last=Ju |first=Yanan |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0791431221 |page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingchi0000chuy/page/33 33] |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingchi0000chuy/page/33 }}</ref> By the 1980s, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry began to expand their business activities by venturing into large-scale retailing.

Chinese-owned Filipino retail outlet's today are among the single largest owners of department store chains in the Philippines with one prominent example being [[Rustan's]], which is one of the country's most prestigious department store brands.<ref name="auto10">{{Cite book|title=Chinese business in Malaysia|last=Gomez|first=Edmund|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-51737-9|page = 106}}</ref> Other prime retailers such as [[SM Prime Holdings|Shoe Mart]] owned by [[Henry Sy]] and John Gokongwei's [[Robinsons Magnolia|Robinson's]] percolated rapidly throughout major cities around the country, with the products that they retailed having made their way into the shopping malls situated across various parts of the Manila Metropolitan area.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Another prominent business figure in Philippines's retail industry is the Fujian-born and Filipino-bred [[Tai-pan|taipan]], [[Lucio Tan]]. Tan started off his business career in the cigarette distribution industry and then catapulted himself into entrepreneurial prominence within the major leagues of elite Filipino business circles after masterminding the corporate takeover of General Bank and Trust Company in 1977 and later renamed it as the [[Allied Banking Corporation|Allied Bank]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Tan, whose flagship cigarette manufacturing company [[Fortune Tobacco]] (now a Philippine affiliate of [[Philip Morris International]]) controls the largest market share of cigarette distribution in the country and has since then emerged as of one richest men in the Philippines.<ref name="auto16">{{Cite book |title=Chinese business in Malaysia |last=Gomez |first=Edmund |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-51737-9 | page = 106}}</ref> Aside from taking over the Philippines's tobacco distribution networks, Tan has since parlayed his business interests into a corporate conglomerate behemoth of his own [[LT Group|LT Group Inc.]]. His corporate empire presides over a portfolio of diversified business interests including chemicals, sports, education, brewing, financial services, real estate, hotels ([[Century Park Hotel]]), in addition to his company having purchased a majority controlling interest in [[Philippine Airlines|PAL]], one of the Philippines's largest airlines.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=107–108}}</ref> In terms of industry distribution, small and medium size Chinese-owned retailers account for half of the Philippines retail trade, with 49.45 percent of the retail sector alone being controlled by Henry Sy's Shoemart, and the remaining share of the retail trade being dominated by a few larger Chinese-owned Filipino umbrella retail outlets that include thousands of smaller retail subsidiaries.<ref name="Gomez 2013 110"/><ref name="auto14"/><ref name="auto17"/> Sy built his business empire from scratch out of his Shoe Mart department store chain, and has since made forays into banking and real estate development after purchasing a controlling interest of [[Banco de Oro]], a private commercial bank as well as acquiring a substantial block of [[China Banking Corporation]], another privately Chinese-owned Filipino commercial bank and wealth management house whose services are specifically catered and tailored to the [[business banking|banking]] and [[seed capital|financing]] needs of up-and-coming Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=108}}</ref>

From small trade cooperatives clustered by hometown pawnbrokers, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry would go on to establish and incorporate the largest financial services institutions in the country. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry have been the chief pioneering influence in the Filipino financial sector as they dominated the country's financial services domain and have had a presence in the country's banking industry since the early part of the 20th century. The two earliest Chinese-founded Filipino banks were [[China Bank]] and the Mercantile Bank of China, established in 1920 and 1924 respectively.<ref name="Gomez 2013 110">{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=110}}</ref> [[Dee C. Chuan]], one of the most high-profile Filipino businessmen of Chinese ancestry at the time, played a key role in initiating the establishment of [[Chinabank]], as he remained adamant in establishing a financial services institution that was specifically tailored to serve the needs of the Chinese Filipino business community. Following the country's rapid parallel economic shift at the time towards the burgeoning industrial manufacturing sector prompted the Chinese business community to concurrently venture into the nascent banking and financial services sector.<ref name="Tipton 2008 279">{{Cite book |title=Asian Firms: History, Institutions and Management|last=Tipton |first=Frank B.|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-1847205148|page=279}}</ref> In 1956, there were four Chinese-owned Filipino banks, nine by 1971, sixteen in 1974, with the Chinese holding majority stakes in 10 of the 26 private commercial Filipino banks by the early 1990s.<ref name="Tipton 2008 279"/> Today, the overwhelming majority of the Philippines's principal banks have come under Chinese ownership with Filipinos of Chinese ancestry owning six of the top ten banks in the country.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/><ref name="Santasombat 2017 112">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=112}}</ref> Of these six banks, the Chinese collectively control 63 percent of the aggregate assets among the top ten banks in the country.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 112"/> Chinese-controlled Filipino banks include the [[China Banking Corporation]], [[Bank of the Philippine Islands]], [[Philippine Savings Bank]], the [[Philippine National Bank]] (owned by [[LT Group, Inc.]]), and most notably [[Metropolitan Bank and Trust Company|Metrobank Group]] that was owned by banker and businessman George Ty, which has been the country's second-largest and most aggressive financial services conglomerate.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 518"/><ref name="auto8"/> Lesser-known private commercial banks established in the 1950s and 1960s are also owned and controlled by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Economies of the ASEAN Countries: Indonesia, Malaya, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand|last=Wawn|first=Brian|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1982|isbn=978-0333324813|pages=97}}</ref><ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/> The lone exception of a non-Chinese and non-foreign owned Filipino bank was the Spanish Filipino Lopez-owned [[Philippine Commercial International Bank]], which has since been taken over by Henry Sy's holding and investment company [[SM Investments Corporation]], and later reemerged itself as a subsidiary of [[Banco de Oro]] in 2007.<ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/> Banco De Oro, which saw its beginnings as a mere savings bank in 1980, catapulted itself into the ranks of prominence in the Filipino financial services sector when it subsumed [[Equitable PCI Bank|Equitable-PCI Bank]] in July 2005 under the aegis of Sy.<ref name="Suryadinata 2006 275">{{Cite book |title=Southeast Asia's Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |year= 2006 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |pages=275}}</ref> With Sy having assumed majority ownership of Banco de Oro, a commercial bank as well as acquiring a 14 percent stake in the [[Chinabank|China Banking Corporation]], he also took a controlling interest in the [[Philippine National Bank]], and 7 percent of the [[Far East Bank]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Business Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia |last1=Folk|first1 =    Brian C. |last2 = Jomo |first2=  K. S.  |year=2013 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1134389308 |pages=96–97}}</ref> By 1970, among the Philippines's five largest banks holding almost 50 percent of all assets in the industry, namely [[China Banking Corporation]], [[Citibank]], the [[Bank of the Philippine Islands]], [[Equitable PCI Bank]], in addition to the formerly government-owned [[Philippine National Bank]] came under the control of Chinese shareholders.<ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/> Among the top ten private commercial banks in 1993, Chinese-Filipino business families were in full control of four of them, namely the [[Metrobank (Philippines)|Metropolitan Bank]], [[Allied Banking Corporation|Allied Bank]], [[Equitable PCI Bank|Equitable Banking]], and [[Chinabank|China Banking]]. George Ty's Metropolitan Bank generated the industry's highest share of gross revenues and net income in addition to holding the Filipino banking industry's largest amount of total assets during that year.<ref name="Taylor & Francis">{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Business Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia |last1=Folk|first1 =    Brian C. |last2 = Jomo |first2=  K. S.  |year=2013 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1134389308 |pages=97}}</ref> In 1993, Chinese-owned Filipino banks controlled 38.43 percent of the total assets in the private Filipino commercial banking sector.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Business Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia |last1=Folk|first1 = Brian C. |last2 = Jomo |first2=  K. S.  |year=2013 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1134389308 |pages=97}}</ref> By 1995, banks owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry had captured an even greater market share of the Philippines's financial services sector after the formerly government-owned [[Philippine National Bank]] was partially privatized, along with four of the top five banks that were substantially controlled by Chinese shareholders claiming 48 percent of all bank assets and over 60 percent of all those held by private domestic commercial banks.<ref name="Hedman 2000 77"/> At the turn of the 20th century, among the plethora of mergers and acquisitions that occurred within the Filipino banking sector due to major industry realignments that were set in motion with regards to how private commercial banks were owned, sparked a flurry of mergers and acquisitions that continued to consolidate the Chinese community's grip on the Philippines's private commercial banking sector. Among the most notable transactions that took place was George Ty's Metrobank, which at this time acquired Asian Bank and Global Business Bank and with Lucio Tan in 1992 having assumed a 67 percent controlling ownership of the privatized [[Philippine National Bank]], which was once the Philippines's foremost government bank following the aftermath of the country's national privatization program in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Rise of the Corporate Economy in Southeast Asia |last= Brown  |first=Rajeswary Ampalavanar |year= 2007 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=9781134157549 |pages=322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Business Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia |last1=Folk|first1 =    Brian C. |last2 = Jomo |first2=  K. S.  |year=2013 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1134389308 |pages=96}}</ref> Tan has since then solidified a commanding presence in the Filipino banking sector towards the beginning of the new millennium when he continued his corporate onslaught through the buyout, absorption, and subsequent merger of Philippine National Bank with his own bank, [[Allied Banking Corporation|Allied Bank]].<ref name="Suryadinata 2006 275"/> Fellow taipan John Gokongwei was also a major shareholder in the Far East Bank, [[Equitable PCI Bank|Philippine Commercial and International Bank]], and controlled a 19 percent stake in the [[Philippine Trust Company]]. During the 1999 Filipino banking mergers and acquisition frenzy, Gokongwei realized an immense windfall gain following the high-profit sale of his shares in PCIB and the Far East Bank in the process.<ref name="Taylor & Francis"/> In terms of industry distribution, Chinese-owned firms account for a quarter of the Filipino financial services sector.<ref name="auto14"/> Today, the overwhelming majority of the Philippines's nine principal banks in addition to the formerly state-owned [[Philippine National Bank]] are now under the ownership of Chinese shareholders, including the [[Allied Banking Corporation]], [[Banco de Oro Universal Bank|Banco de Oro Group]], [[China Banking Corporation]] (Chinabank), [[East West Bank (Philippines)|East West Banking Corporation]], [[Metropolitan Bank and Trust Company|Metrobank group]], [[Philtrust Bank|Philippine Trust Company]] (Philtrust Bank), [[Rizal Commercial Banking Corporation|Rizal Commercial Banking group]], [[Security Bank|Security Bank Corporation]] (Security Bank) and the [[United Coconut Planters Bank]].<ref name="Gomez 2013 110"/> Most of these banks comprise a larger part of an umbrella owned [[family business|family conglomerate]] with assets exceeding ₱100 billion.<ref name="Gomez 2013 110"/> The total combined assets of all the Philippines's commercial banks under Chinese ownership account for 25.72 percent of all the aggregate assets in the entire Filipino commercial banking system.<ref name="auto2"/> Among the Philippines's 35 banks, shareholders of Chinese ancestry on average control 30 percent of the total banking equity.<ref name="Hedman 2000 165">{{Cite book |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |url=https://archive.org/details/philippinepoliti00hedm |url-access=limited |last1= Hedman |first1= Eva-Lotta |last2=Sidel |first2= John |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=978-0415147903 |edition=1st |publication-date=November 9, 2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/philippinepoliti00hedm/page/n93 165]}}</ref> There are also 23 Filipino insurance agencies that are Chinese-owned, with some branches operating overseas and in Hong Kong.<ref name="Gomez 2013 110"/>

Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also wield enormous clout over the Philippines's real estate sector with much of the modern industry's grip being commercially grasped in their shrewdly enterprising and investment-savvy clutches. The line of revenue-generating business and income-producing investment opportunities that allowed the Chinese to expand their economic predominance into the Filipino real estate industry presented themselves occurred when they were finally conferred full-fledged Filipino citizenship during the [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|Martial Law Period]] in order to gain the privilege to buy, sell, and own land.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 114">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=114}}</ref> Initially, the Chinese were not allowed to own land until formally acquiring Filipino citizenship in the 1970s, which eventually permitted them to be granted with the same economic rights, freedoms, and privileges as their indigenous Filipino counterparts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Southeast Asia's Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |year= 2006 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |pages=273}}</ref> In the aftermath of such a historically significant legal change that occurred throughout the Filipino geopolitical landscape at this time, its reverberating ramifications afterwards soon led to an upsurge of massive land purchases throughout the country predominated by Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry which started by the next decade following the country's political transition from a dictatorship to a democracy.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 114"/> The acquisition of Filipino citizenship during the 1970s allowed the Chinese to expand their economic presence even more greatly by venturing into larger-scale investment-grade commercial real estate ventures and delving into other property investment opportunities that inevitably augmented and galvanized their economic grip on the Filipino real estate markets while elevating their respective socioeconomic positions in the process.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The State, Development and Identity in Multi-Ethnic Societies Ethnicity, Equity and the Nation |last1=  Gomez  |first1= Terence |last2=Tarling |first2=Nicholas  |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1134056811 |pages=161}}</ref> Since the 1980s, Filipino businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry have cornered much of the Philippines's real estate investment markets, land, and property development sectors, when much of the industry's grasp had long been held by the Spaniards.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=114–116}}</ref> Chinese-owned Filipino real estate companies have devoured large swathes of prime commercial and residential real estate across Metro Manila and other urban Filipino cities utilized for the exploitative purposes of profit through commercial property development and investment.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 114"/> Since 1990, the Filipino real estate markets have been primarily controlled by both Chinese and non-Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs and investors alike, all strategically vying for lucrative opportunities in key property developments and prime real estate investments across the country. The competitive landscape amongst these entrepreneurs and investors alike have been positioning themselves to capitalize on the promising potential for profitability. Notably through cash flow generation and capital appreciation in rapidly growing real estate markets around the country, leading to intense competition among these stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=114–115}}</ref> Presently, many of the biggest real estate development operators in the Philippines are owned by Filipino businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry following the exodus of the Spanish Filipino Mestizo landowning elites such as the Araneta's, Ayala's, Lopez's, and Ortiga's.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 116">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=116}}</ref> Of the 500 real estate companies operating in the Philippines, 120 are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry with the firms mostly specializing in real estate investment, land, and property development, in addition to construction having much of their commercial presence mainly being concentrated in the Manila Metropolitan area.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=111}}</ref> Well-known real estate companies controlled by some of the Philippines's most high-profile businessmen and investors include [[SM Development Corporation|SMDC]] owned by the Sy's, [[Megaworld Corporation|Robinsons Land]] by the Gokongwei's, [[Megaworld Corporation#Properties|Megaworld Properties & Holdings Inc.]] which is controlled by [[Andrew Tan]], [[Filinvest]] that is commanded by the Gotianun's, and [[DoubleDragon Properties]], presided by businessman [[Edgar Sia|Edgar Sia II]] of [[Mang Inasal]] fame.<ref name="Santasombat 2017 116"/> Large scale commercial real estate projects such as the [[Eton Centris]] in Pinyahan, the [[Shangri-La Plaza]] in Mandaluyong and the [[Tagaytay Highlands]] Golf Club and Resort development in Tagaytay City were testaments of such joint projects undertaken by Filipino real estate developers of Chinese ancestry in cooperation with other fellow Overseas Chinese dealmakers operating throughout the Southeast Asian real estate markets. These corporate partnerships were largely forged by Overseas Chinese business tycoons such as the investor [[Liem Sioe Liong]], businessman [[Robert Kuok]] and dealmakers [[Andrew Gotianun]], Henry Sy, George Ty and Lucio Tan.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Southeast Asia's Chinese Businesses in an Era of Globalization |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |year= 2006 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |pages=276}}</ref> Besides being responsible for spearheading the pioneering development and growth of the Philippines's modern real estate industry, both Sy and Tan have been generous patrons of the mainland Chinese on top of the local Chinese Filipino community, ardently extending their philanthropic hospitality by actively investing in the economic development and revitalization of their ancestral hometowns back in China.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 519">{{Cite book |title=Under Beijing's Shadow: Southeast Asia's China Challenge |last= Hiebert |first=Murray |publisher=  [[Center for Strategic & International Studies]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1442281387 |pages=519}}</ref> With Sy constructing supermalls in Chengdu, Chongqing, and Suzhou and Tan developing a 30-story banking center in Xiamen.<ref name="Hiebert 2020 519"/>

The Chinese also pioneered the Filipino shipping industry which eventually germinated into a major industry sector as a means of transporting goods cheaply and quickly between the islands. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have remained dominant in the Philippines's maritime shipping and  sea transport industry as it was one of the few efficient methods of transporting goods cheaply and quickly across the country, with the Philippines geographically being an archipelago, comprising more than 1000 islands and inlets.<ref name="auto13"/> There are 12 Filipino business families of Chinese ancestry engaged in inter-island transport and shipping, particularly with the shipping of food products requiring refrigeration amounting to an aggregate capitalization of ₱10 billion. Taiwanese expatriate investors have participated in various joint ventures by opening up new shipping lanes on the route between Manila and Cebu.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Prominent shipping lines owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry include [[Cokaliong Shipping Lines]], [[Gothong Lines]], [[Lite Shipping Corporation]], [[Sulpicio Lines]] which was infamously associated with a tragedy that led to the deaths of hundreds and [[Trans-Asia Shipping Lines]].<ref name="Kwok-Chu Wong" /> One enterprising and pioneering Filipino businessman of Chinese ancestry was William Chiongbian, who established William Lines in 1949, which by the end of 1993, became the most profitable inter-island Filipino shipping line ranking first in terms of gross revenue generated as well as net income among the country's seven biggest shipping companies at that time.<ref name="auto13"/> Currently, the Filipino inter-island shipping industry is dominated by four Chinese-owned shipping lines led by William Chiongbian's William Lines.<ref name="auto2"/> Likewise, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also own all of the major airlines in the country, including the flagship carrier [[Philippine Airlines]], [[AirphilExpress]], [[Cebu Pacific]], [[South East Asian Airlines]], [[Air Manila]] and [[Zest Air]].<ref name="auto2"/>

As Filipino businesspeople of Chinese ancestry became more financially prosperous, they often coalesced their financial resources and pooled large amounts of seed capital together to forge joint business ventures with expatriate Mainland and Overseas Chinese businessmen and investors from all over the world. Like other Chinese-owned businesses operating throughout the Southeast Asian markets, Chinese-owned businesses in the Philippines often link up with Greater Chinese and other Overseas Chinese businesses and networks across the globe to focus on new business opportunities to collaborate and concentrate on. Common industry sectors of focus include real estate, engineering, textiles, consumer electronics, financial services, food, semiconductors, and chemicals.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The China Information Technology Handbook |last=Pablos |first= Patricia |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |page=205}}</ref> Besides sharing a common ancestry, cultural, linguistic, and familial ties, many Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry are particular strong adherents of the Confucian paradigm of [[guanxi|interpersonal relationships]] when doing business with each other, as the Chinese believed that the underlying source for entrepreneurial and investment success relied on the nurturing of personal relationships.<ref name="auto9"/> Moreover, Filipino businesses that are Chinese-owned form a part of the larger [[bamboo network]], an umbrella business network of Overseas Chinese companies operating in the markets of Greater China and Southeast Asia that share common family, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties.<ref name="Routledge"/><ref name="Weidenbaum">{{cite book|author=Murray L Weidenbaum|title=The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid|url-access=registration|date=January 1, 1996|publisher=Martin Kessler Books, Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-82289-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid/page/4 4]–8}}</ref> With the spectacular growth of varying success stories witnessed by a number of individual Chinese Filipino business tycoons and investors have allowed them to expand their traditional corporate activities beyond the Philippines to forge international partnerships with increasing numbers of expatriate Mainland and Overseas Chinese investors on a global scale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices |last=Santasombat |first=Yos |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=978-9811046957 |pages=11}}</ref> Instead of quixotically diverting excess profits elsewhere, many Filipino businesspeople of Chinese ancestry are known for their penurious and parsimonious ways by eschewing improvident lavish extravagances and frivolous [[conspicuous consumption]] but instead adhere to the Chinese paradigm of being [[frugality|frugal]] by pragmatically, productively, and methodically reinvesting substantial surpluses of their business profits devoted for the purpose of commercial business expansion and performing the  acquisition of cash flow producing and income-generating assets. A sizable percentage of the conglomerates managed by capable Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry that are armed with the necessary managerial capabilities, enterprising disposition, commercial expertise, entrepreneurial acumen, investment savvy, and visionary foresight were able to germinate from small budding enterprises to making headway into gargantuan corporate leviathans garnering widespread economic influence across the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and the global financial markets.<ref name="auto6" /> Such massive corporate expansions engendered the term "Chinoy", which is colloquially used in Filipino newspapers to denote Filipino individuals with a degree of Chinese ancestry who either speak a Chinese dialect or adhere to Chinese customs.

As Chinese economic might grew, much of the indigenous Filipino majority were gradually driven out and displaced into poorer land on the hills, on the outskirts of major Filipino cities, or into the mountains.<ref name="auto5"/> Disenchantment grew among the displaced indigenous Filipinos who felt they were unable compete with Chinese-owned businesses.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship|last1=Gomez|first1= Terence E.|last2=Hsiao|first2=Michael Hsin-Huang|publisher= Routledge|year=2013|isbn= 978-0700714155|pages=105}}</ref> Underlying resentment and bitterness from the impoverished Filipino majority has been accumulating as there has been no existence of indigenous Filipino having any substantial business equity in the Philippines.<ref name="auto5"/> Decades of free market liberalization brought virtually no economic benefit to the indigenous Filipino majority but rather the opposite resulting a subjugated indigenous Filipino majority underclass, where the vast disproportion of indigenous Filipinos still engage in rural peasantry, menial labor or [[Domestic worker#Philippines|domestic service]] and [[Squatting in the Philippines|squatting]].<ref name="auto8"/><ref name="auto5"/> The Filipino government has dealt with this wealth disparity by establishing socialist and communist dictatorships or authoritarian regimes while pursuing a systematic and ruthless [[affirmative action]] campaigns giving privileges to allow the indigenous Filipino majority to gain a more equitable economic footing during the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name="auto21">{{Cite book|title=Chinese business in Malaysia|last=Gomez|first=Edmund|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-51737-9|page = 105}}</ref><ref name="auto22">{{Cite book|title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia|last=Gambe|first=Annabelle|year= 2000|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=26–27|isbn=978-0312234966}}</ref> The rise of economic nationalism among the impoverished indigenous Filipino majority prompted by the Filipino government resulted in the passing of the Retail Trade Nationalization Law of 1954, where ethnic Chinese were barred and pressured to move out of the retail sector restricting engagement to Filipino citizens only.<ref name="auto22"/> In addition, the Chinese were prevented from owning land by restricting land ownership to Filipinos only. Other restrictions on Chinese economic activities included limiting Chinese involvement in the import-export trade while trying to increase the indigenous Filipino involvement to gain a proportionate presence. In 1960, the Rice and Corn Nationalization Law was passed restricting trading, milling, and warehousing of rice and corn only to Filipinos while barring Chinese involvement, in which they initially had a significant presence.<ref name="auto21"/><ref name="auto22"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Asian Firms: History, Institutions and Management|last=Tipton|first=Frank B.|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-1847205148|pages=279}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Dynamics and Dilemma: Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|year=1996|isbn=978-1560723035|editor-last=Yu|editor-first=Bin|location=New York|pages=71–72|editor-last2=Chung|editor-first2=Tsungting}}</ref> These policies ultimately backfired on the government as the laws had an overall negative impact on the government tax revenue which dropped significantly because the country's biggest source of taxpayers were Chinese, who eventually took their capital out of the country to invest elsewhere.<ref name="auto21"/><ref name="auto22"/> The increased economic clout held in the hands of the Chinese has triggered bitterness, suspicion, resentment, envy, insecurity, grievance, instability, ethnic hatred, and outright anti-Chinese hostility among the indigenous native Filipino majority towards the Chinese minority.<ref name="Chua 60"/> Such hostility has resulted in the kidnapping of hundreds of Chinese Filipinos by indigenous Filipinos since the 1990s.<ref name="Chua 60"/> Many victims, often children are brutally murdered, even after a ransom is paid.<ref name="auto5"/><ref name="Chua 60"/> Numerous incidents of crimes such kidnap-for-ransom, extortion, and other forms of harassment were committed against the Chinese Filipino community starting from the early 1990s continues to this very day.<ref name="google.com" /><ref name="Chua 60"/> Thousands of displaced Filipino hill tribes and aborigines continue to live in [[Slums in Metro Manila|satellite shantytowns on the outskirts of Manila]] in economic destitution where two-thirds of the country's indigenous Filipinos live on less than 2 dollars per day in [[Poverty in the Philippines|extreme poverty]].<ref name="auto5"/> Such animosity, antagonmism, bitterness, envy, grievance, hatred, insecurity, and resentment is ready at any moment to be catalyzed as a form of vengeneance by the downtrodden indigenous Filipino majority as many Chinese Filipinos are subject to kidnapping, vandalism, murder, and violence.<ref name="auto23">{{Cite book|title=World On Fire|last=Chua|first=Amy|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0385721868|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/47 47]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/47}}</ref> Anti-Chinese sentiment among the indigenous Filipino majority is deeply rooted in poverty but also feelings of resentment and exploitation are also exhibited among native and mestizo Filipinos blaming their socioeconomic failures on the Chinese.<ref name="Chua 60"/><ref name="auto23"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=World On Fire|last=Chua|first=Amy|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0385721868|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/38 38]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/38}}</ref>

==Future trends==
Most of the younger generations of ''pure'' Chinese Filipinos are descendants of Chinese who migrated during the 1800s onward – this group retains much of Chinese culture, customs, and work ethic (though not necessarily language), whereas almost all Chinese mestizos are descendants of Chinese who migrated even before the Spanish colonial period and have been integrated and assimilated into the general Philippine society as a whole.

There are four trends that the Chinese Filipino would probably undertake within a generation or so:
*assimilation and integration, as in the case of [[Thai Chinese|Chinese Thais]] who eventually lost their genuine Chinese heritage and adopted Thai culture and language as their own
*separation, where the Chinese Filipino community can be clearly distinguished from the other ethnic groups in the Philippines; reminiscent of most [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese Malaysians]]
*returning to the ancestral land, which is the current phenomenon of overseas Chinese returning to China
*emigration to North America and Australasia, as in the case of some [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese Malaysians]] and many Chinese Vietnamese ([[Hoa people]])

During the 1970s, Fr. Charles McCarthy, an expert in Philippine-Chinese relations, observed that "the peculiarly Chinese content of the Philippine-Chinese subculture is further diluted in succeeding generations" and he made a prediction that "the time will probably come and it may not be far off, when, in this sense, there will no more 'Chinese' in the Philippines". This view is still controversial however, with the constant adoption of new cultures by Filipinos contradicting this thought.

===Integration and assimilation===

Assimilation is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture, while integration is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin.

As of the present day, due to the effects of globalization in the Philippines, there has been a marked tendency to assimilate to Filipino lifestyles influenced by the US, among ethnic Chinese. This is especially true for younger Chinese Filipino living in [[Metro Manila]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0119/p07s01-woap.html|title=Christians in Manila decry mall's Muslim prayer room|last=Montlake|first=Simon|date=January 19, 2005|work=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=February 16, 2008|archive-date=April 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417200050/https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0119/p07s01-woap.html|url-status=live}}</ref> who are gradually shifting to English as their preferred language, thus identifying more with Western culture, at the same time speaking Chinese among themselves. Similarly, as the cultural divide between Chinese Filipino and other Filipinos erode, there is a steady increase of intermarriages with native and mestizo Filipinos, with their children completely identifying with the Filipino culture and way of life. [[Cultural assimilation|Assimilation]] is gradually taking place in the Philippines, albeit at a slower rate as compared to Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keyes |first=Charles |url=http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/CIES/KeyesPaper.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20030405095201/http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/CIES/KeyesPaper.htm|date=2003 |title=Ethnicity and the Nation-State: Asian Perspectives |journal=North Carolina State University CIES Spring 2003 Symposium: Contextualizing Ethnicity |place=North Carolina |archive-date=April 5, 2003}}</ref>

On the other hand, the largest Chinese Filipino organization, the ''Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran'' openly espouses eventual integration but not assimilation of the Chinese Filipino with the rest of Philippine society and clamors for maintaining Chinese language education and traditions.

Meanwhile, the general Philippine public is largely neutral regarding the role of the Chinese Filipino in the Philippines, and many have embraced Chinese Filipino as fellow Filipino citizens and even encouraged them to assimilate and participate in the formation of the Philippines' destiny.

===Separation===

Separation is defined as the rejection of the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin, often characterized by the presence of [[ethnic enclave]]s.

The recent rapid economic growth of both China and Taiwan as well as the successful business acumen of Overseas Chinese have fueled among many Chinese Filipino a sense of pride through immersion and regaining interest in Chinese culture, customs, values and language while remaining in the Philippines.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

Despite the community's inherent ethnocentrism – there are no active proponents for political separation, such as autonomy or even independence, from the Philippines, partly due to the small size of the community relative to the general Philippine population, and the scattered distribution of the community throughout the archipelago, with only half residing in Metro Manila.

===Returning to the ancestral land===

Many Chinese-Filipino entrepreneurs and professionals have flocked to their ancestral homeland to partake of business and employment opportunities opened up by China's emergence as a global economic superpower.<ref>{{Citation|last=Yong|first=Wu|title=Lucio C. Tan: Truly a man for all seasons|date=May 8, 2005|url=http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/fortune2005/ft050518p14n.pdf|work=China Daily|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920135325/http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/fortune2005/ft050518p14n.pdf|series=General Bank and Trust Company|access-date=May 7, 2012|archive-date=September 20, 2011}}</ref>

As above, the fast economic growth of China and the increasing popularity of Chinese culture has also helped fan pro-China patriotism among a majority of Chinese Filipino who espouse 愛國愛鄉 (ài guó ài xiāng) sentiments (love of ancestral country and hometown). Some Chinese Filipino, especially those belonging to the older generation, still demonstrate ''ài guó ài xiāng'' by donating money to fund clan halls, school buildings, Buddhist temples and parks in their hometowns in China.{{cn|date=August 2024}}

===Emigration to North America and Australasia===

During the 1990s to the early 2000s, Philippine economic difficulties and more liberal immigration policies in destination countries have led to well-to-do Chinese Filipino families to acquire North American or Australasian passports and send their children abroad to attend prestigious North America or [[Australasia]]n universities.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/be/be002894.htm |title=The New Breed of RP Businessmen |last=Lee Flores |first=Wilson |date=July 27, 2004 |work=Philippine Star |via=newsflash.org |access-date=December 19, 2007 |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201732/http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/be/be002894.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Many of these children are opting to remain after graduation to start professional careers in North America or Australasia, like their Chinese brethren from other parts of Asia.

Many Philippine-educated Chinese Filipino from middle-class families are also migrating to North America and Australasia for economic advantages. Those who have family businesses regularly commute between North America (or Australasia) and the Philippines. In this way, they follow the well-known pattern of other Chinese immigrants to North America who lead "astronaut" lifestyles: family in North America, business in Asia.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Chen |first1=Wenhong |last2=Wellman |first2=Barry |url=http://www.asiapacific.ca/analysis/pubs/pdfs/can_in_asia/cia_doing_business.pdf |date=April 2007 |title=Doing Business at Home and Away, Policy Implications of Chinese-Canadian Entrepreneurship |series=Canada in Asia |publisher=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada |place=Vancouver, British Columbia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409133215/http://www.asiapacific.ca/analysis/pubs/pdfs/can_in_asia/cia_doing_business.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2008 }}</ref>

==Notable people==
{{See also|List of Chinese Filipinos}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Philippines|China|Taiwan|Society
}}

*[[China–Philippines relations]]
*[[Chinatowns in Latin America#Mexico|Chinese Filipinos who migrated to Mexico during the galleon trade]]
*[[CHInoyTV]], a TV program featuring the Chinese community in the Philippines
*[[Filipinos in China]]
*[[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines]]
*[[Manila Chinese Cemetery]]
*[[Sangley]]
*[[Hispanized Filipino-Chinese surnames]]
{{clear right}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="auto17">{{Cite book |title=Chinese business in Malaysia |last=Gomez |first=Edmund |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-51737-9 |page=110}}</ref>
<ref name="auto18">{{Cite book |title=Chinese business in Malaysia |last=Gomez |first=Edmund |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-51737-9}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}</ref>
<!--<ref name="Senate 2013">{{Cite press release |title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as a special working holiday |date=January 21, 2013 |publisher=Senate of the Philippines |url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |access-date=January 25, 2013}}</ref> -->
<ref name="ocac.gov.tw">{{cite web |url=http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |title=Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. |publisher=Ocac.gov.tw |access-date=April 22, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123193905/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |archive-date=November 23, 2013}}</ref>
<!--<ref name="Amy Chua, pp. 3 & 43">Amy Chua, "World on Fire", 2003, Doubleday, pp. 3 & 43.</ref> -->
<!--
<ref name="blair-tpi-15">{{cite book |editor1-last=Blair| editor1-first=Emma Helen |editor1-link=Emma Helen Blair |editor2-last=Robertson |editor2-first=James Alexander |editor2-link=James Alexander Robertson |title=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 |language=es |series=Vol. 15 of 55 (1609) |publisher=[[Arthur H. Clark Company]] |oclc=769945706 |location=Cleveland, Ohio |isbn={{Format ISBN|978-1231213940}} |date=1904 |page=138 |quote=Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth century.—From their discovery by Magellan in 1521 to the beginning of the XVII Century; with descriptions of Japan, China and adjacent countries, by [[Antonio de Morga|Dr. ANTONIO DE MORGA]], ''[[Oidor#Spanish America and the Philippines|Alcalde of Criminal Causes]], in the [[Audiencia Real#Audiencias in the Indies|Royal Audiencia of Nueva Espana]], and Counsel for the [[Spanish Inquisition|Holy Office of the Inquisition]]''. |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>
-->
<ref name="Weightman 1960">Weightman, George H. (February 1960) ''The Philippine Chinese: A Cultural History of A Marginal Trading Company''. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Information Service.</ref>
<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 57">Teresita Ang-See, "Chinese in the Philippines", 1997, Kaisa, p. 57.</ref>
<ref name="Teresita Ang-See, p. 60">Teresita Ang-See, "Chinese in the Philippines", 1997, Kaisa, p. 60.</ref>
<ref name="alipem-2">{{cite book
| title = Ten Centuries of Philippine–Chinese Relations; historical, political, social, economic
| first = Eufronio Melo
| last = Alip
| location = Manila
| oclc = 1848041
| publisher = Alip & Sons
| year = 1959
}}</ref>
<ref name="mccarthy">{{Cite book |title=Philippine-Chinese profiles: essays and studies |editor-last=McCarthy |editor-first=Charles F. |publisher=Pagkakaisa sa Pag-Unlad |year=1974}}</ref>
<ref name="blair-tpi-52">{{cite book |editor1-last=Blair |editor1-first=Emma Helen |editor1-link=Emma Helen Blair |editor2-last=Robertson |editor2-first=James Alexander |editor2-link=James Alexander Robertson |title=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFK2830.0001.052 |series=Vol. 52 of 55 (1841–1898) |year=1907 |publisher=[[Arthur H. Clark Company]] |location=Cleveland, Ohio |oclc=769944926 |isbn=978-1-150-93418-6 |page=86 |quote=Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth century. |name-list-style=amp |access-date=April 27, 2015 |archive-date=April 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422215434/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFK2830.0001.052 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!--<ref name="Amy Chua">{{cite web |last=Chua |first=Amy |title=World on Fire |url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/ch1and5.pdf |archive-date=August 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825223730/http://www.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/ch1and5.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="yeung2000">{{cite book |last=Yeung |first=Henry |author2=Tse Min Soh |title=Corporate Governance and the Global Reach of Chinese Family Firms in Singapore |publisher=Department of Geography, National University of Singapore. |url=http://147.46.167.195/~ecores/activity/00sympo/yeung_soh.pdf |access-date=May 7, 2012}}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>
<ref name="google1">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcK2DHa91-MC&pg=PA8&dq=largest+firms+are+controlled+by+ethnic+chinese+southeast+asia |title=Chinese Business in Malaysia: Accumulation, Ascendance, Accommodation |last=Gomez |first=Edmund Terence |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1999 |isbn={{Format ISBN|0824821653}} |location=Honolulu |access-date=April 23, 2012 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WE8KciD9FdYC&pg=PA26 |title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia |last=Gambe |first=Annabelle |date=2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |via=Google Books}}</ref>
<ref name="K. S. Jomo">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-4GQNpBjJMC&pg=PA92 |title=Ethnic Business: Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia |last=Folk |first=Brian C. |last2=Jomo |first2=K. S. |date=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |via=Google Books}}</ref> -->
<ref name="Kwok-Chu Wong">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZQ0aAAAZ4cC&q=Chinese+retail+grocers+and+Sari-Sari+stores+in+various+Filipino+cities+and+municipalities.&pg=PA60|title=The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898–1941|first=Kwok-Chu|last=Wong|date=August 28, 1999|publisher=Ateneo University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-971-550-323-5|access-date=November 9, 2020|archive-date=July 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722080717/https://books.google.com/books?id=QZQ0aAAAZ4cC&q=Chinese+retail+grocers+and+Sari-Sari+stores+in+various+Filipino+cities+and+municipalities.&pg=PA60|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
*Amyot, Jacques, S.J. ''The Chinese Community of Manila: A Study of Adaptation of Chinese Familism to the Philippine Environment''. Philippine Studies Program, Research Series No. 2, [[University of Chicago]] Department of Anthropology (mimeographed), 1960.

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Chinese diaspora in the Philippines}}

{{Ethnic groups in the Philippines}}
{{Overseas Chinese2}}

[[Category:Chinese diaspora in the Philippines| ]]
[[Category:Filipino people of Chinese descent| ]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of the Philippines]]