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{{Short description|High Qing-era dispute among Catholic missionaries}}
{{Distinguish|Great Rites Controversy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
[[File:Ricci Guangqi 2.jpg|thumb|[[Matteo Ricci]] (left) and [[Xu Guangqi]] (right) in the Chinese edition of ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' ({{zh|幾何原本}}) published in 1670]]
The '''Chinese Rites controversy''' ({{zh|s=中国礼仪之争|t=中國禮儀之爭|p=Zhōngguó lǐyí zhī zhēng}}) was a dispute among [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] missionaries over the religiosity of [[Confucianism]] and Chinese rituals during the 17th and 18th centuries. The debate discussed whether [[Chinese ritual practices]] of [[Chinese ancestor veneration|ancestor veneration]] and other formal rites qualified as religious, and thus incompatible with Catholic belief.{{sfn|Kuiper|2006}}{{sfn|Rule|2004}} The [[Jesuits]] argued that these Chinese rites were secular rituals that were compatible with Christianity, within certain limits, and should thus be tolerated. The [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and [[Franciscans]] disagreed and reported the issue to Rome.

Rome's [[Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]] sided with the Dominicans in 1645 by condemning the Chinese rites based on their brief. The same congregation sided with the Jesuits in 1656, thereby lifting the ban.{{sfn|Kuiper|2006}} It was one of the many disputes between the Jesuits and the Dominicans in China and elsewhere in Asia, including Japan{{sfn|Minamiki|1985|pp=99–158}} and India.{{sfn|Županov|Fabre|2018}} The conflict between the Jesuits and their opponents took on a historical dimension, with the former insisting that Europeans and the Chinese had a shared history, which was taken to legitimise the Jesuit "accommodation" of Chinese rites and names for the Christian God.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Giovannetti-Singh |first=Gianamar |date=March 2022 |title=Rethinking the Rites Controversy: Kilian Stumpf's Acta Pekinensia and the Historical Dimensions of a Religious Quarrel |journal=Modern Intellectual History |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=29–53 |doi=10.1017/S1479244320000426 |s2cid=228824560 |issn=1479-2443|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The controversy embroiled many European universities; the [[Kangxi Emperor]] and several [[pope]]s, including [[Clement XI]] and [[Clement XIV]], considered the case; the offices of the [[Holy See]] also intervened. Near the end of the 17th century, many Dominicans and Franciscans had shifted their positions in agreeing with the Jesuits' opinion, but Rome disagreed. Clement XI banned the rites in 1704. In 1742, [[Benedict XIV]] reaffirmed the ban and forbade debate.{{sfn|Kuiper|2006}}

In 1939, after two centuries, the Holy See re-assessed the issue. [[Pius XII]] issued a decree on 8 December 1939, authorizing [[Chinese Catholics]] to observe the ancestral rites and participate in Confucius-honoring ceremonies.{{sfn|Kuiper|2006}} The general principle of sometimes admitting native traditions even into the [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]] of the church, provided that such traditions harmonize with the true and authentic spirit of the liturgy, was proclaimed by the [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962–65).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html |title=Sacrosanctum concilium |at=para. 37|access-date=2008-02-09}}</ref>

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==Background==
{{See also|Jesuit China missions}}

===Early adaptation to local customs===
[[File:NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg|thumb|The Jesuits of the [[Jesuit China missions]] made efforts to adopt Chinese customs. Here [[Nicolas Trigault]] (1577–1628) in Chinese costume, by [[Peter Paul Rubens]].]]
Unlike the American [[landmass]], which had been conquered by military force by Spain and Portugal, European missionaries encountered in Asia united, literate societies that were as yet untouched by European influence or national endeavor.{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|pp=177-8}}

[[Alessandro Valignano]], Visitor of the [[Society of Jesus]] in Asia, was one of the first Jesuits to argue, in the case of [[Japan]], for an adaptation of Christian customs to the societies of Asia, through his ''Résolutions'' and ''Cérémonial''.{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=178}}

===Matteo Ricci's policy of accommodation===
In China, [[Matteo Ricci]] reused the ''Cérémonial'' and adapted it to the Chinese context. At one point the Jesuits even started to wear the gown of [[Buddhist]] monks, before adopting the more prestigious silk gown of [[Scholar-bureaucrats|Chinese literati]].{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=178}} In particular, Matteo Ricci's Christian views on Confucianism and Chinese rituals, often called the "{{interlanguage link|Directives of Matteo Ricci|zh|利瑪竇規矩}}" ({{zh|t=利瑪竇規矩}}), were followed by Jesuit missionaries in China and Korea.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chung |first1=David |title=Syncretism: the religious context of Christian beginnings in Korea |last2=O |first2=Kang-nam |date=2001 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4941-7 |location=Albany, NY |language=English |oclc=829792973}}</ref>{{sfn|Rule|2010}}

In a decree signed on 23 March 1656, [[Pope Alexander VII]] accepted practices "favorable to Chinese customs", reinforcing 1615 decrees which accepted the usage of the Chinese language in [[liturgy]], a notable exception to the contemporary Latin Catholic discipline which had generally forbidden the use of local languages.{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=179}}

In the 1659 instructions given by the [[Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]] (known as the ''Propaganda Fidei'') to new missionaries to Asia, provisions were clearly made to the effect that adapting to local customs and respecting the habits of the countries to be evangelized was paramount:{{sfn|MEP|2008|p=4}}

{{Blockquote|Do not act with zeal, do not put forward any arguments to convince these peoples to change their rites, their customs or their usages, except if they are evidently contrary to the religion [i.e., Catholic Christianity] and [[morality]].  What would be more absurd than to bring [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]] or any other European country to the Chinese?  Do not bring to them our countries, but instead bring to them the [[Faith]], a Faith that does not reject or hurt the rites, nor the usages of any people, provided that these are not distasteful, but that instead keeps and protects them.| Extract from the 1659 Instructions, given to Mgr [[François Pallu]] and Mgr [[Lambert de la Motte]] of the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]] by the [[Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]].{{sfn|MEP|2008|p=5}}{{sfn|Launay|Moussay|2008|pp=77–83}}}}

===Reception in China===
[[File:Jesuit astronome with Kangxi Emperor.jpg|thumb|The [[Kangxi Emperor]] with a Jesuit astronomer, [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell|Adam Schall]]. "Tapisserie de [[Beauvais]]", 1690–1705.]]
The Jesuit order was successful in penetrating China and serving at the Imperial court. They impressed the Chinese with their knowledge of [[astronomy]] and [[mechanics]], and in fact ran the Imperial Observatory.{{sfn|Brockey|2009|pp=126–132}} The [[Kangxi Emperor]] was at first friendly to the Jesuit Missionaries working in China. Their accurate methods allowed him to successfully predict [[eclipse]]s, one of his ritual duties. He was grateful for the services they provided to him, in the areas of [[astronomy]], [[diplomacy]] and artillery manufacture.{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=180}} Jesuit translators [[Jean-François Gerbillon]] and [[Thomas Pereira]] took part in the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] in 1689, where they assisted with translation.{{sfn|Launay|Moussay|2008|pp=77–83}} The Jesuits made an important contribution to the Empire's military, with the diffusion of European artillery technology, and they directed the castings of cannons of various calibers. The Kangxi Emperor also retained [[Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)|several Jesuits]] in his court as scientists and artists. By the end of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits had made many converts. They in turn were impressed by the knowledge and intelligence of the [[Han Chinese]] Confucian scholar elite, and adapted to their ancient [[Chinese intellectualism|Chinese intellectual]] lifestyle.{{sfn|Brockey|2009|pp=52–53}}

In 1692, Kangxi issued an [[edict of toleration]] of Christianity ({{zhi|t=容敎令}} or {{zhi|t=正敎奉傳}}).{{sfn|Marinescu|2008|p=240}}

{{Blockquote|The Europeans are very quiet; they do not excite any disturbances in the provinces, they do no harm to anyone, they commit no crimes, and their doctrine has nothing in common with that of the false sects in the empire, nor has it any tendency to excite sedition ... We decide therefore that all temples dedicated to the Lord of heaven, in whatever place they may be found, ought to be preserved, and that it may be permitted to all who wish to worship this God to enter these temples, offer him incense, and perform the ceremonies practiced according to ancient custom by the Christians. Therefore let no one henceforth offer them any opposition.{{sfn|Neill|1964|pp=189–190}}}}

This edict enabled Christianity to be perceived by the state with "positive neutrality" and acceptable in the eyes of Confucian orthodoxy.{{sfn|Brockey|2009|pp=167–169}}

==Controversy==
[[File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, or, Chinese Knowledge Explained in Latin'', compiled by [[Philippe Couplet]] and three other Jesuits and printed at Paris in 1687]]

The Jesuits gradually developed and adopted [[#Matteo Ricci’s policy of accommodation|a policy of accommodation]] on the issue of Chinese rites.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2006|p=463}} The Chinese scholar elite were attached to [[Confucianism]], and while [[Buddhism]] and [[Daoism]] were in decline and losing patronage, Confucianism was arguably at its golden age during this period of Chinese history; even the rich urban class of merchants pursued it. Despite this, all three provided the framework of both state and home life. Both Confucian and Taoist practices involved veneration of one's ancestors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brook |first=Timothy |title=The confusions of pleasure: commerce and culture in Ming China |date=1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21091-2 |location=Berkeley |language=English |oclc=36621759}}</ref>{{sfn|Minamiki|1985|pp=1–13}}

Besides the Jesuits, other religious orders such as the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], [[Franciscan]]s, and [[Augustinians]] started missionary work in China during the 17th century, often coming from the Spanish colony of the [[Philippines]].
Contrary to the Jesuits, they refused any adaptation to local customs and wished to apply in China the same ''[[tabula rasa]]'' principle they had applied in other places,{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=178}} and were horrified by the practices of the Jesuits.{{sfn|Launay|Moussay|2008|pp=77–83}} In his famous anti-Jesuit polemic, the ''[[Provincial Letters]]'', [[Blaise Pascal]] used the rites controversy as an example of what he considered the unprincipled and lax morality of the Jesuits.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Jesuits: A History |first= Markus |last = Friedrich |publisher = Princeton University Press |page = 584 |date= 2022}}</ref>

They ignited a heated controversy and brought it to [[Rome]].{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|pp=177–180}} They raised three main points of contention:{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=178}}
* Determination of the Chinese word for "God", which was generally accepted as 天主 ''[[Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)|Tiānzhǔ]]'' (Lord of Heaven), while Jesuits were willing to allow Chinese Christians to use 天 ''[[Tian|Tiān]]'' (Heaven) or 上帝 ''[[Shangdi|Shàngdì]]'' (Lord Above / Supreme Emperor)
* Prohibition of Christians from participating in the seasonal rites for [[Confucius]].
* Prohibition of Christians from using of tablets with the forbidden inscription {{clarify|date=May 2024}} "site of the soul"（靈位）, and from following the Chinese rites for the [[Veneration of the dead|ancestor worship]].

In Rome, the Jesuits tried to argue that these "Chinese Rites" were civic rituals, rather than religious, and that converts should be allowed to continue to participate.{{sfn|Mungello|2012|p=97}}{{sfn|Buc|2001|pp=179–188}} They maintained that Chinese folk religion and offerings to the Emperor and [[Veneration of the dead|departed ancestors]] were civil in nature and therefore not incompatible with Catholicism, while their opponents argued that these kinds of worship were an expression of native religion and thus incompatible with Catholic beliefs.{{sfn|Marinescu|2008|pp=35–36}}{{sfn|Lach|Van Kley|1998|p=195}}

==Pope Clement XI's decree==
[[File:Pope Clement XI – Pier Leone Ghezzi (c. 1708).jpg|thumb|right|170px|[[Pope Clement XI]], depicted here by [[Pier Leone Ghezzi]] in 1708]]
[[Pope Clement XI]] condemned the Chinese rites and Confucian rituals, and outlawed any further discussion in 1704,{{sfn|Marinescu|2008|p=29}} with the anti-rites decree {{lang|la|Cum Deus optimus}} of 20 November 1704.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2006|p=463}}
It forbade the use of "[[Tian]]" and "[[Shangdi]]", while approving "[[Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)|Tianzhu]]" ('Lord of Heaven').

In 1705, Clement sent a legate to the [[Kangxi Emperor]] to communicate the interdiction of Chinese rites. The mission, led by [[Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon]],<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09558b.htm#:~:text=On%206%20November%2C%201703%2C%20Charles,especially%20China%2C%20landed%20at%20Pondicherry.    New Advent website, ''Malabar Rites'']</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=3CNeEAAAQBAJ&dq=MAILLARD+DE+TOURNON%2C+Charles+Thomas+%281668-1710%29&pg=PT2669   Google Books, ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', edited by Andrew Louth]</ref> communicated the prohibition of Chinese rites in January 1707, but as a result was banished to [[Macao]].{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=180}}

Clement issued the bull {{lang|la|Ex illa die}} on 19 March 1715, which officially condemned the Chinese rites:{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|p=180}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.peterpoon.idv.hk/history/conflict.htm |title=中國教會的禮儀之爭（1715年） |access-date=4 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924072008/http://www.peterpoon.idv.hk/history/conflict.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.lixue.org/Leibniz/L2.2/L2.2.html 现代欧洲中心论者对莱布尼茨的抱怨] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704194853/http://www.lixue.org/Leibniz/L2.2/L2.2.html |date=4 July 2009 }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Pope Clement XI wishes to make the following facts permanently known to all the people in the world&nbsp;...

I. The West calls Deus [God] the creator of Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe. Since the word Deus does not sound right in the Chinese language, the Westerners in China and Chinese converts to Catholicism have used the term "Heavenly Lord" (''Tiānzhǔ'') for many years. From now on such terms as "Heaven" [''Tiān''] and "''Shàngdì''" should not be used: Deus should be addressed as the Lord of Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe. The tablet that bears the Chinese words "Reverence for Heaven" should not be allowed to hang inside a Catholic church and should be immediately taken down if already there.

II. The spring and autumn worship of Confucius, together with the worship of ancestors, is not allowed among Catholic converts. It is not allowed even though the converts appear in the ritual as bystanders, because to be a bystander in this ritual is as pagan as to participate in it actively.

III. Chinese officials and successful candidates in the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural examinations, if they have been converted to Roman Catholicism, are not allowed to worship in Confucian temples on the first and fifteenth days of each month. The same prohibition is applicable to all the Chinese Catholics who, as officials, have recently arrived at their posts or who, as students, have recently passed the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural examinations.

IV. No Chinese Catholics are allowed to worship ancestors in their familial temples.

V. Whether at home, in the cemetery, or during the time of a funeral, a Chinese Catholic is not allowed to perform the ritual of ancestor worship. He is not allowed to do so even if he is in company with non-Christians. Such a ritual is heathen in nature regardless of the circumstances.

Despite the above decisions, I have made it clear that other Chinese customs and traditions that can in no way be interpreted as heathen in nature should be allowed to continue among Chinese converts. The way the Chinese manage their households or govern their country should by no means be interfered with.  As to exactly what customs should or should not be allowed to continue, the papal legate in China will make the necessary decisions. In the absence of the papal legate, the responsibility of making such decisions should rest with the head of the China mission and the Bishop of China. In short, customs and traditions that are not contradictory to Roman Catholicism will be allowed, while those that are clearly contradictory to it will not be tolerated under any circumstances.{{sfn|Mantienne|1999|pp=177–182}}}}

Clement's decree was reiterated by [[Benedict XIV]] in the 1742 bull {{lang|la|Ex quo singulari}}. Benedict demanded that missionaries in China take an oath forbidding them to discuss the issue again.{{sfn|MacCaffrey|2004|p=202}}

==Imperial ban and papal suppression==
In the early 18th century, Rome's challenge to the Chinese Rites led to the expulsion of Catholic missionaries from China. In July 1706, the [[Papal Legate]] [[Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon]] angered the Kangxi Emperor, who issued an order that all missionaries, in order to obtain an imperial permit to stay in China, would have to declare that they would follow [[#Matteo Ricci's policy of accommodation|the rules of Matteo Ricci]].{{sfn|Tiedemann|2006|p=463}}

In 1721, the Kangxi Emperor disagreed with Clement's decree and banned Christian missions in China. In the ''Decree of Kangxi'', he stated,
{{Blockquote|Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that the Westerners are petty indeed. It is impossible to reason with them because they do not understand larger issues as we understand them in China. There is not a single Westerner versed in Chinese works, and their remarks are often incredible and ridiculous. To judge from this proclamation, their religion is no different from other small, bigoted sects of Buddhism or Taoism. I have never seen a document which contains so much nonsense. From now on, Westerners should not be allowed to preach in China, to avoid further trouble.{{sfn|Li|1969|p=22}}}}

Chinese converts were also involved in the controversy through letters of protest, books, pamphlets, etc.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2006|p=463}} The Controversy debate was most intense between a group of Christian literati and a Catholic bishop (named Charles Maigrot de Crissey) in Fujian province, with the Chinese group of converts supporting the Jesuits and the bishop supported by less accommodating Iberian mendicants (Dominicans and Franciscans).{{sfn|Mungello|2012|p=28}}

In 1724 the [[Yongzheng Emperor]] ({{reign|1722|1735}}) proscribed the [[Catholic Church in China|Heavenly Lord sect]] (the name given to Catholicism during  that period). Persecution steadily increased during the reign of the [[Yongzheng Emperor]]. While the Yongzheng Emperor appreciated and admired the Jesuit [[Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit)|Giuseppe Castiglione]]'s artwork and western technologies, he also reinforced anti-Christian policies in 1737.{{sfn|Marinescu|2008|p=265}}

==Pope Pius XII's decision==
[[File:Pius XII with tabard, by Michael Pitcairn, 1951.png|right|180px|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]]]]
{{Further|Pope Pius XII and China}}
The Rites controversy continued to hamper Church efforts to gain converts in China. In 1939, a few weeks after his election to the papacy, [[Pope Pius XII]] ordered the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] to relax certain aspects of Clement XI's and Benedict XIV's decrees.{{sfn|Minamiki|1985|pp=195–203}} After the Apostolic Vicars had received guarantees from the [[Manchukuo]] Government that confirmed the mere "civil" characteristics of the so-called "Chinese rites", the Holy See released, on 8 December 1939, a new decree, known as ''Plane Compertum'', stating:
{{Blockquote|It is abundantly clear that in the regions of the Orient some ceremonies, although they may have been involved with pagan rites in ancient times, have—with the changes in customs and thinking over the course of centuries—retained merely the civil significance of piety towards the ancestors or of love of the fatherland or of courtesy towards one's neighbors.{{sfn|Minamiki|1985|p=197}}}}
Overall, ''Plane Compertum'' asserted:
* Catholics are permitted to be present at ceremonies in honor of Confucius in Confucian temples or in schools;
* Erection of an image of Confucius or tablet with his name on is permitted in Catholic schools.
* Catholic magistrates and students are permitted to passively attend public ceremonies which have the appearance of superstition.
* It is licit and honorable to bow and otherwise demonstrate civil respect before the deceased or their images.
* The oath on the Chinese rites, which was prescribed by Benedict XIV, is not fully in accord with recent regulations and is superfluous.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Plane compertum|title=Acta Apostolicae Sedis|volume=32|location=Rome|publisher=Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis|year=1940|pages=24–26|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/aas/documents/AAS-32-1940-ocr.pdf}}</ref>{{efn|In the original text, this reads: Argumentis itaque hinc inde attente perpensis, prudentium atque
experientium virorum sententia exquisita, iidem Emi Patres, quae sequuntur censuerunt esse declaranda :

1. Cum Sinense Gubernium pluries aperteque enuntiaverit omnibus
esse liberum quam malint religionem profiteri et alienum esse a sua
mente de rebus religiosis leges aut iussa edere ; ideoque caeremonias, quae
in honorem Confucii a publicis Auctoritatibus sive peraguntur sive
iubentur, non fieri animo tribuendi religiosum cultum, sed hunc solum
in finem ut foveatur et expromatur in virum clarissimum dignus honor
et in traditiones patrum debitus cultus : licitum est catholicis adesse
actibus honoris, qui ante Confucii imaginem vel tabellam, in monumentis
confucianis vel in scholis perficiuntur.

2. Ideoque non habendum est illicitum imaginem Confucii, vel
etiam tabellam eius nomine inscriptam, in scholis catholicis collocari,
praesertim si Auctoritates id iusserint, aut eam capitis inclinatione
salutare. Si quando timeatur scandalum, declaretur recta catholicorum
intentio.

3. Tolerandum ut catholici magistratus et alumni, si publicis caeremoniis adsistere iubeantur quae speciem praeseferant superstitionis, intersint quidem, dummodo, ad mentem can. 1258, passive se habeant signaque illius tantum obsequii faciant, quod ut mere civile iure haberi possit; declarata, ut supra, sua intentione, si quando hoc necessarium
apparuerit ad falsas interpretationes sui actus remo vendas.

4. Inclinationes capitis atque aliae civilis observantiae manifestationes ante defunctos vel defunctorum imagines, et etiam ante tabellam defuncti, simplici nomine inscriptam, uti licitae et honestae habendae sunt.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Plane compertum|title=Acta Apostolicae Sedis|volume=32|location=Rome|publisher=Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis|year=1940|pages=24–26|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/aas/documents/AAS-32-1940-ocr.pdf}}</ref>}}

According to Pope Pius XII's biographer, Jan Olav Smit, this meant that Chinese customs were no longer considered superstitious, but were an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives and therefore permitted by Catholic Christians.{{sfn|Smit|1951|pp=186–7}} [[Confucianism]] was also thus recognized as a philosophy and an integral part of Chinese culture rather than as a heathen religion in conflict with Catholicism. Shortly afterwards, in 1943, the Government of China established diplomatic relations with the [[Holy See|Vatican]]. The Papal decree substantially changed the ecclesiastical situation in China.{{sfn|Smit|1951|p=188}}

As the Church began to flourish, Pius XII established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy, and, on 18 February 1946, named [[Thomas Tien Ken-sin]], who was from 18 July 1939 [[Apostolic Vicar]] of [[Qingdao]], as the first Chinese national in the Sacred College of Cardinals{{sfn|Smit|1951|p=188}} and later that year – on 10 May 1946 – appointed him to the [[Archdiocese of Beijing]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/btienk.html|title=Thomas Cardinal Tien Ken-hsin (Tienchensing), S.V.D.|publisher= David M. Cheney|date=18 November 2020|access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|History|Catholicism|Politics}}
* [[Ancestral hall]]
* [[Ancestral tablet]]
* [[Kirishitan]]
* [[Malabar rites]]
* [[Rite (Christianity)]]
* [[Ritual family]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Kuiper |first=Kathleen |title=Chinese Rites Controversy (Roman Catholicism) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2006 |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Chinese-Rites-Controversy}}
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* {{cite book |first1=Marcel |last1=Launay |first2=Gérard |last2=Moussay |title=Les Missions étrangères: Trois siècles et demi d'histoire et d'aventure en Asie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOXYAAAAMAAJ |date=2008 |publisher=Librairie Académique Perrin |isbn=978-2-262-02571-7}}
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* {{cite book |first=James |last=MacCaffrey |title=The History of the Catholic Church From The Renaissance to the French Revolution |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYo5lbxy0SoC&pg=PA202 |date=2004 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-1-4191-2406-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Mantienne |first=Frédéric |year=1999 |title=Monseigneur Pigneau de Béhaine |publisher=Editions Eglises d'Asie |location=Paris |issn=1275-6865 |isbn=2-914402-20-1}}
* {{cite thesis |first=Jocelyn M. N. |last=Marinescu |title=Defending Christianity in China: The Jesuit defense of Christianity in the "Lettres édifiantes et curieuses" & "Ruijianlu" in relation to the Yongzheng proscription of 1724 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304548512 |year=2008 |id={{ProQuest|304548512}} |institution=Kansas State University}}
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* {{cite book |first=George |last=Minamiki|author-link=George H. Minamiki, S.J. |title=The Chinese rites controversy: From its beginning to modern times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fzYAAAAMAAJ |year=1985 |publisher=Loyola University Press |isbn=978-0-8294-0457-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Mungello |first=David E. |title=The Great Encounter of China and the West: 1500–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpjhlG9QDg8C&pg=PA97 |date=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-1975-5}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Neill |title=History of Christian Missions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HRv4zAEACAAJ |year=1964 |location=London |publisher=[[Penguin Books]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rule |first=Paul A. |title=The Chinese Rites Controversy: A Long Lasting Controversy in Sino-Western Cultural History |journal=Pacific Rim Report |issue=32 |year=2004 |url=https://dgfmssnschws7.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/pdfs/report-32-feb-2004.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202065304/https://dgfmssnschws7.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/pdfs/report-32-feb-2004.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2017}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rule |first=Paul A. |title=What Were "The directives of Matteo Ricci" Regarding the Chinese Rites? |journal=Pacific Rim Report |issue=54 |access-date=2013-03-04 |year=2010 |url=http://www.ricci.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/prr54.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910083605/http://www.ricci.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/prr54.pdf |archive-date=10 September 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last=Smit |first=Jan Olav |year=1951 |title=Pope Pius XII |publisher=Burns Oates & Washburne |location=London & Dublin}}
* {{cite book |first=R. G. |last=Tiedemann |author-link=R. G. Tiedemann |chapter=Christianity in East Asia |editor-first1=Stewart J. |editor-last1=Brown |editor-first2=Timothy |editor-last2=Tackett |title=Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 7, Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1660-1815 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLG0mqIZ55IC&pg=PA463 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-81605-2 |pages=451–474}}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Ines G. |editor-last1=Županov |editor-first2=Pierre Antoine |editor-last2=Fabre |title=The Rites Controversies in the Early Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ret5DwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2018 |isbn=9789004366299}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|editor-last=Mungello|editor-first=David E.|title=The Chinese rites controversy: Its history and meaning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9VBAQAAIAAJ|location=Nettetal, Germany|publisher=Steyler|year=1994|isbn=9783805003483 }}
* Wu, Huiyi. (2017). ''[https://www.honorechampion.com/fr/champion/10420-book-08533182-9782745331823.html Traduire la Chine au XVIIIe siècle: Les Jésuites traducteurs de textes chinois et le renouvellement des connaissances sur la Chine (1687 – ca. 1740)]''. Paris: Honoré Champion. ISBN 978-2-7453-3182-3

{{Christianity and China}}
{{Qing dynasty topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Rites Controversy}}
[[Category:17th-century Catholicism]]
[[Category:18th-century Catholicism]]
[[Category:Controversies in China]]
[[Category:17th-century controversies]]
[[Category:18th-century controversies]]
[[Category:17th century in China]]
[[Category:18th century in China]]
[[Category:Catholicism-related controversies]]
[[Category:Catholicism in China]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in Asia]]
[[Category:Jesuit China missions]]
[[Category:Jesuit history in Asia]]
[[Category:Pope Pius XII foreign relations]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in China]]
[[Category:Confucian rites]]
[[Category:Theological controversies]]
[[Category:Religion in the Qing dynasty]]
[[Category:17th-century Confucianism]]
[[Category:18th-century Confucianism]]