View source for Chinese grammar

{{Short description|Grammar of the Standard Chinese language}}
{{Hatnote|This article concerns [[Modern Standard Chinese]]. For the grammars of other forms or varieties of Chinese, see their respective articles via links on [[Chinese language]] and [[varieties of Chinese]].}}
[[File:Zhongwen yufa tc+sc.svg|150px|right|thumb|{{ruby-zh-p|中文|zhōngwén}} {{ruby-zh-p|语法|yǔfǎ}}<br/>&#91;{{zh|labels=no|t={{linktext|中文|語法}}|c=|s=|p=}}&#93;,<br/>meaning "Chinese grammar", written vertically in [[simplified Chinese character|simplified]] (left) and [[traditional Chinese character|traditional]] (right) forms]]

The [[grammar]] of [[Standard Chinese]] shares many features with other [[varieties of Chinese]]. The language almost entirely lacks [[inflection]]; words typically have only one grammatical form. Categories such as [[Grammatical number|number]] (singular or plural) and verb [[Grammatical tense|tense]] are often not expressed by grammatical means, but there are several [[Chinese particles|particles]] that serve to express verbal [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and, to some extent, [[grammatical mood|mood]].

The basic word order is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO), as in English. Otherwise, Chinese is chiefly a [[head-final]] language, meaning that modifiers precede the words that they modify. In a [[noun phrase]], for example, the [[head (linguistics)|head]] noun comes last, and all modifiers, including [[relative clause]]s, come in front of it. This phenomenon, however, is more typically found in [[subject–object–verb]] languages, such as [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

Chinese frequently uses [[serial verb construction]]s, which involve two or more verbs or [[verb phrase]]s in sequence. Chinese [[preposition]]s behave similarly to serialized verbs in some respects,{{Efn|Several of the common prepositions can also be used as full verbs.}} and they are often referred to as [[coverb]]s. There are also location markers, which are placed after nouns and are thus often called [[postposition]]s; they are often used in combination with coverbs. [[Predicate adjective]]s are normally used without a [[copular verb]] ("to be") and so can be regarded as a type of verb.

As in many other [[languages of East Asia|East Asian languages]], [[Chinese classifier|classifier]]s (or measure words) are required when [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s (and sometimes other words, such as [[demonstrative]]s) are used with nouns. There are many different classifiers in the language, and each countable noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it. Informally, however, it is often acceptable to use the general classifier {{zhp|p=gè|s={{linktext|个}}|t={{linktext|個}}}} in place of other specific classifiers.

==Word formation==
In Chinese, the difference between [[word]]s and [[Chinese characters]] is often not clear,{{efn|The first Chinese scholar to consider the concept of a ''word'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=词|p=cí|t=詞}}) as opposed to the ''[[Chinese character|character]]'' ({{zhi|c=字|p=zì}}) is claimed to have been Shizhao Zhang in 1907. However, defining the word has proved difficult, and some linguists consider that the concept is not applicable to Chinese at all. See {{cite book |last=San |first=Duanmu |title=The Phonology of Standard Chinese |publisher=Oxford University Press  |year=2000 |isbn=9780198299875}}}} this is one of the reasons the Chinese script does not use spaces to separate words. A string of characters can be translated as a single English word, but these characters have some kind of independence. For example, {{zhp|p=tiàowǔ|c=跳舞|l=jump-dance}}, meaning 'to dance', can be used as a single [[intransitive verb]], or may be regarded as comprising two single lexical words. However, it does in fact function as a compound of the verb {{zhp|p=tiào|c=跳|l=to jump}} and the object {{Zhp|p=wǔ|c=舞|l=a dance}}.<ref>However, like 'dance', {{lang|zh|舞}} can also be used as a verb: for example, {{zhi|c=「項莊舞劍」|tr=[[Xiang Zhuang]] danced with a sword}}</ref> Additionally, the [[present progressive]] aspect marker {{Zhp|p=zhe|c=着}} can be inserted between these two parts to form {{Zhp|p=tiàozhewǔ|c=跳着舞|l=to be dancing}}.

Chinese [[morpheme]]s (the smallest units of meaning) are mostly monosyllabic. In most cases, morphemes are represented by single characters. However, two or more monosyllabic morphemes can be translated as a single English word. These monosyllabic morphemes can be either free or bound – that is, in particular usage, they may or may not be able to stand independently. Most two-syllable compound [[noun]]s often have the [[head (grammar)|head]] on the right (e.g. {{zhi|c=蛋糕|p=dàngāo|l=egg-cake}} means "cake"), while compound verbs often have the head on the left (e.g. {{zhi|c=辩论|p=biànlùn|l=debate-discuss}} means "debate").{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=50}}

Some Chinese [[morpheme]]s are polysyllabic; for example, the [[loanword]]s {{Zhp|p=shāfā|s=沙发|t=沙發|l=sofa}} is the compound of {{Zhp|p=shā|c=沙|l=sand}} and {{Zhp|p=fā|s=发|t=發|l=to send, to issue}}, but this compound is actually simply a [[transliteration]] of "sofa". Many native disyllabic morphemes, such as {{Zhp|p=zhīzhū|c=蜘蛛|l=spider}}, have consonant [[alliteration]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Many monosyllabic words have alternative disyllabic forms with virtually the same meaning, such as {{Zhp|p=dàsuàn|s=大蒜|l=big-garlic}} for {{Zhp|p=suàn|s=蒜|l=garlic}}. Many disyllabic nouns are produced by adding the suffix {{Zhp|p=zi|s=子|l=child}} to a monosyllabic word or morpheme. There is a strong tendency for monosyllables to be avoided in certain positions; for example, a disyllabic verb will not normally be followed by a monosyllabic object. This may be connected with the preferred [[Standard Chinese phonology#Stress, rhythm and intonation|metrical structure of the language]].

===Reduplication===
[[Reduplication]] (i.e. the repetition of a syllable or word stem) is common in modern Chinese.

====Noun Reduplication====

* Family members: ex. {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=mā-ma|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=妈妈|t=媽媽}}, "mother"); ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=dì-di|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=弟弟}}, "younger brother"); ''mèi-mei''({{zh|labels=no|c=妹妹|p=}}, "younger sister")

* Fixed expression:  In modern Chinese, some nouns are necessarily replicated, but their [[morpheme]]s in [[Classical Chinese]] are often directly used without any replication. ex. ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xīng-xīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|星星}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "star"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|星}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "star"). The Classical Chinese expressions often become modern [[Chengyu]], such as ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=pī-xīng-dài-yuè|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|披星戴月}}|s=|t=|p=}}, literally "wearing stars like a coat and wearing moon like a hat", means "working day and night"<ref name=":0" />)

* [[Diminutive]] or childish expression: treating the noun as cute or endearing; often used with animals. ex. ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gǒu-gǒu|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=狗狗|s=|t=|p=}}, "puppy/doggy"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gǒu|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|狗}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "dog<nowiki/>"); ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Māo-māo|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=貓貓|s=|t=|p=}}, "kitty"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Māo|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|貓}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "cat").

==== Adjectives and Adverb Reduplication ====
(1) AA or AABB reduplication: to emphasize the state described by the adjective/adverb;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Melloni |first1=Chiara |last2=Basciano |first2=Bianca |date=2018 |title=Reduplication across boundaries: The case of Mandarin |url=https://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=1001683#page=343 |journal=The Lexeme in Theoretical and Descriptive Morphology |volume=4 |pages=331 |via=[[OAPEN]]}}</ref> can also make the expression childish. 
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=cháng-cháng|labels=no}}''({{zh|labels=no|s=常常}}, "often"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=cháng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=常}}, "constant, constantly");
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=hóng-hóng-de|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=红红的|t=紅紅的|c=}} "red"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=hóng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=红|t=紅}}, "red");
::ex. {{zh|labels=no|s=手心看起来'''红红的'''|t=手心看起來'''紅紅的'''|c=}}(''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Shǒuxīn kàn qǐlái '''hóng-hóng-de'''|labels=no}}'', "palm looks '''red'''")
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gāo-gāo-xìng-xìng-de|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=高高兴兴地|t=高高興興地}} "very happily"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gāo-xìng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=高兴|t=高興}}, "happy, happiness");
::ex. {{zh|labels=no|s='''高高兴兴地'''吃|t='''高高興興地'''吃}} (''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''Gāo-gāo-xìng-xìng-de''' chī|labels=no}}'', "eat '''happily'''")
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=bīng-bīng-liáng-liáng-de|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=|t=|c=冰冰凉凉的}}, "ice-cool" ), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=bīng-liáng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=|c={{linktext|冰凉}}|t=|p=}}, "ice-cool");
:ex. {{zh|labels=no|s='''冰冰凉凉的'''饮料|t='''冰冰涼涼的'''飲料}} (''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''Bīng-bīng-liáng-liáng de''' yǐnliào|labels=no}}'', "'''ice-cold''' drink")
(2) ABB reduplication: to emphasize the state described by the adjective/adverb.
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiāng-pēn-pēn|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=香喷喷|t=香噴噴}}, literally" good smell spray out", means "smell very good"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiāng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=香}}, "good smell/aromatic") and ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=pēn|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=喷|t=噴}}, "spray")
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=liàng-jīng-jīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=亮晶晶}}, "shining, bright and clear"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=liàng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=亮}}, "bright") and ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=jīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=晶}}, "shining")


====Verb Reduplication====
(1) To mark the [[delimitative aspect]] (i.e. do something for a while) or for general emphasis – see the {{Section link||Aspects}} section:
:{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiě-xiě-zuòyè|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=写写作业|t=寫寫作業|c=}} "do homework / do homework for a while"), from the verb {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiě|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=写|t=寫|c=}} "write") and the noun {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=zuò-yè|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=作业|t=作業|c=}} "homework")

====Reduplication of Chinese classifier====
(1) means "every":
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Nǐmen '''yī gè gè dōu''' zhǎng dé yī fù cōng-míng xiāng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=你們'''一個個都'''長得一副聰明相}}, "You '''all''' look smart", from [[Crystal Boys]]), where ordinarily ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''gè'''|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=|s=个|t=個}}) is the general classifier. Literally, the phrase ''{{Zh|c=一個個|s=|t=|p=yī gè gè|labels=no}}'' means "every", and the character ''{{Zh|c=都|s=|t=|p=dōu|labels=no}}'' means "all".
(2) means  "many":
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Yī-'''zuò-zuò''' qīng-shān|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=一'''座座'''青山}}, "many green hills"), where ordinarily ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''zuò'''|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=座}}) is a proper classifier for ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=shān|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=山}}, "hill").

=== Prefixes ===

*{{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|可}}|kě}} — "-able" 
**{{ruby-zh-p|可|kě}} {{ruby-zh-p|靠|kào}} — "reliable"
** {{ruby-zh-p|可|kě}} {{ruby-zh-p|敬|jìng}} — "respectable"
* {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} — "anti-"
** {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} {{ruby-zh-p|恐|kǒng}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=反恐}}&#93; — "anti-terror"
** {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} {{ruby-zh-p|教权的|jiàoquánde}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=反教權的}}&#93; — "anti-clerical"
** {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} {{ruby-zh-p|法西斯|fàxīsī}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=反法西斯}}&#93; — "anti-fascist"

=== Suffixes ===

*{{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|化}}|huà}} — "-ize" — used to form verbs from nouns or adjectives
**{{ruby-zh-p|国际|guójì}} {{ruby-zh-p|化|huà}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=國際化}}&#93; — "internationalize", from {{ruby-zh-p|国际|guójì}} ("international")
** {{ruby-zh-p|恶|è}} {{ruby-zh-p|化|huà}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=惡化}}&#93; — "worsen", from {{ruby-zh-p|恶|è}} ("bad")
* {{ruby-zh-p|性|xìng}} — "-ness" — for attributes
** {{ruby-zh-p|安全|ānquán}} {{ruby-zh-p|性|xìng}} — "safety", from {{ruby-zh-p|安全|ānquán}} ("safe")
** {{ruby-zh-p|有效|yǒuxiào}} {{ruby-zh-p|性|xìng}} — "effectiveness", from {{ruby-zh-p|有效|yǒuxiào}} ("effective")

=== Infixes ===
*{{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|得}}|de}} — "can" and {{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|不}}|bu}} — "cannot"
** {{ruby-zh-p|听得懂|tīngdedǒng }} — "can understand", from {{ruby-zh-p|听懂|tīngdǒng }} ("understand")
** {{ruby-zh-p|听不懂|tīngbudǒng }} — "cannot understand"

==Sentence structure==
Chinese, like Spanish or English, is classified as an [[subject–verb–object|SVO (subject–verb–object) language]]. Transitive verbs precede their [[object (grammar)|object]]s in typical simple clauses, while the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] precedes the verb. For example: {{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=147}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 打 人。
|tā dǎ rén
|He hit person
|He hits someone.}}

Chinese can also be considered a [[topic-prominent language]]:{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=184}} there is a strong preference for sentences that begin with the [[topic (linguistics)|topic]], usually "given" or "old" information, and end with the [[Topic and comment|comment]], or "new" information. Certain modifications of the basic subject–verb–object order are permissible and may serve to achieve topic-prominence. In particular, a direct or indirect object may be moved to the start of the clause to create [[topicalization]]. It is also possible for an object to be moved to a position in front of the verb for emphasis.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=185}}

Another type of sentence is what has been called an [[ergative verb|ergative]] structure,{{sfnp|Li|1990|p=234 ff.}} where the apparent subject of the verb can move to object position; the empty subject position is then often occupied by an [[#Locative phrases|expression of location]]. Compare [[Subject-verb inversion#Locative inversion|locative inversion]] in English. This structure is typical of the verb {{zhi|p=yǒu}} ({{zhi|c=有}}, "[[there is]]/are"; in other contexts the same verb means "have"), but it can also be used with many other verbs, generally denoting position, appearance or disappearance. An example:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|院子 里 停着 车。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=院子裡停著車。/ 院子裏停着車。}}&#93;
|yuànzi lǐ tíngzhe chē
|Courtyard in park vehicle
|In the courtyard is parked a vehicle.}}

Chinese is also to some degree a [[pro-drop language|pro-drop]] or [[null-subject language]], meaning that the subject can be omitted from a clause if it can be inferred from the context.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=161}} In the following example, the subject of the verbs for "hike" and "camp" is left to be inferred—it may be "we", "I", "you", "she", etc.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|今天 爬 山 明天 露 营。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=今天爬山，明天露營。}}&#93;
|jīntiān pá shān míngtiān lù yíng
|Today climb mountain, tomorrow outdoors camp
|Today hike up mountains, tomorrow camp outdoors.}}

In the next example the subject is omitted and the object is topicalized by being moved into subject position, to form a [[#Passive|passive]]-type sentence. For passive sentences with a marker such as {{Zh|c=被|s=|t=|p=bèi|labels=no}}, see the [[#Passive|passive section]].

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|glossing=link
|饭 做 好 了。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=飯做好了。}}&#93;
|fàn zuò hǎo le
|Food make complete PFV
|The food has been made '''or''' the food is ready.}}

[[Adverb]]s and adverbial phrases that modify the verb typically come after the subject but before the verb, although other positions are sometimes possible; see [[#Adverbs and adverbials|Adverbs and adverbials]]. For constructions that involve more than one verb or verb phrase in sequence, see [[#Serial verb constructions|Serial verb constructions]]. For sentences consisting of more than one [[clause (grammar)|clause]], see [[#Conjunctions|Conjunctions]].

===Objects===
Some verbs can take both an [[indirect object]] and a [[direct object]]. Indirect normally precedes direct, as in English:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|glossing=link
|我 给 了 她 六 本 书。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我給了她六本書。}}&#93;
|wǒ gěi le tā liù běn shū
|I give PFV her six book-CL books
|I gave her six books.}}

With many verbs, however, the indirect object may alternatively be preceded by [[#Coverbs|prepositional]] ''gěi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=给|t=給}}); in that case it may either precede or follow the direct object. (Compare the similar use of ''to'' or ''for'' in English.)

To emphasize the direct object, it can be combined with the [[Accusative case|accusative]] marker ''[[bǎ construction|bǎ]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=把}}, literally "hold") to form a "''bǎ'' + direct object" phrase.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=463–491}} This phrase is placed before the verb. For example:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|glossing=link
|我 打 破 了 盘子。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我打破了盤子。}}&#93;
|wǒ dǎ pò le pánzi
|I hit broken PFV plate
|I broke a plate.}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|glossing=link
|我 '''把''' 盘子 打 破 了。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我把盤子打破了。}}&#93;
|wǒ '''bǎ''' pánzi dǎ pò le
|I '''''ba''''' plate hit broken PFV
|I made the plate break.}}

Other markers can be used in a similar way as ''bǎ'', such as the formal ''jiāng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=将|t=將}},  literally "lead") :

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|glossing=link
|'''将''' 办理 情形 签 报 长官。|c1=&#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=將辦理情形簽報長官。}}&#93; 
|'''Jiāng''' bàn-lǐ qíng-xíng qiān bào zhǎng-guān
|'''Jiāng''' handle status sign report superior
|Submit the implementation status report to the superior (and ask for approval).}}

and colloquial ''ná'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=拿}}, literally "get")

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|glossing=link
|他 能 '''拿''' 我 怎样?|c1=&#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他能拿我怎樣?}}&#93; 
|Tā néng '''ná''' wǒ zěn-yàng
|he can '''ná''' me what
|What can he do to me? (He can't do anything to me.)}}

To explain this kind of usage, some linguists assume that some verbs can take two direct objects, called the "inner" and "outer" objects.{{sfnp|Li|1990|p=195}} Typically, the outer object will be placed at the start of the sentence (which is the topic) or introduced via the ''bǎ'' phrase. For example:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 '''把''' 橘子 剥 了 皮。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我把橘子剝了皮。}}&#93;
|wǒ '''bǎ''' júzi bō le  pí
|I '''''ba''''' tangerine peel PFV skin
|I made the tangerine peeled.{{efn|A more common way to express this would be ''wǒ bǎ júzi pí bō le'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我把橘子皮剥了|t=我把橘子皮剝了}}, "I BA tangerine's skin peeled"), or ''wǒ bō le júzi pí'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我剥了橘子皮|t=我剝了橘子皮}}, "I peeled tangerine's skin").}}}}

==Noun phrases==
The [[head (linguistics)|head]] noun of a noun phrase comes at the end of the phrase; this means that everything that modifies the noun comes before it. This includes attributive [[adjective]]s, [[determiner]]s, [[quantifier (linguistics)|quantifier]]s, [[possessive]]s, and [[relative clause]]s.

Chinese does not have [[article (grammar)|article]]s as such; a noun may stand alone to represent what in English would be expressed as "the ..." or "a&#91;n&#93; ...". However the word ''yī'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=一}}, "one"), followed by the appropriate classifier, may be used in some cases where English would have "a" or "an". It is also possible, with many classifiers, to omit the ''yī'' and leave the classifier on its own at the start of the noun phrase.

The [[demonstrative]]s are ''zhè'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=这|t=這}}, "this"), and ''nà'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=那}}, "that"). When used before a noun, these are often followed by an appropriate classifier (for discussion of classifiers, see [[#Classifiers|Classifiers]] below and the article [[Chinese classifiers]]). However this use of classifiers is optional.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=159}} When a noun is preceded by a [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]] (or a demonstrative followed by a numeral), the use of a classifier or measure word is in most cases considered mandatory. (This does not apply to nouns that function as measure words themselves; this includes many units of measurement and currency.)

The plural marker  ''xiē'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=些}}, "some, several"; also used to pluralize demonstratives) is used without a classifier. However  ''jǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=几|t=幾}}, "some, several, how many") takes a classifier.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=165}}

For adjectives in noun phrases, see the [[#Adjectives|Adjectives section]]. For noun phrases with pronouns rather than nouns as the head, see the [[#Pronouns|Pronouns section]].

Possessives are formed by adding ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=的}})—the same particle that is used after relative clauses and sometimes after adjectives—after the noun, noun phrase or pronoun that denotes the possessor.

==Relative clauses==
Chinese [[relative clause]]s, like other noun modifiers, precede the noun they modify. Like possessives and some adjectives, they are marked with the final particle ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=的}}). A [[free relative clause]] is produced if the modified noun following the ''de'' is omitted. A relative clause usually comes after any determiner phrase, such as a numeral and classifier. For emphasis, it may come before the determiner phrase.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=188}}

There is usually no [[relative pronoun]] in the relative clause. Instead, a gap is left in subject or object position as appropriate. If there are two gaps—the additional gap being created by [[pro-drop]]ping—ambiguity may arise. For example, ''chī de'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=吃的}}) may mean "&#91;those&#93; who eat" or "&#91;that&#93; which is eaten". When used alone, it usually means "things to eat".

If the relative item is governed by a preposition in the relative clause, then it is denoted by a pronoun, e.g. ''tì tā'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=替他}}, "for him"), to explain "for whom". Otherwise the whole prepositional phrase is omitted, the preposition then being implicitly understood.

For example sentences, see [[Relative clause#Mandarin|Relative clause → Mandarin]].

== Classifiers ==
{{main|Chinese classifier}}
{{see also|List of Chinese classifiers}}

Some English words are paired with specific nouns to indicate their counting units. For example, ''Bottle'' in "two bottles of wine" and ''sheet'' in "three sheets of paper". Most English nouns can be counted directly without specifying units, while most Chinese nouns '''must''' be associated with a specific ''[[classifier (linguistics)|classifier]]'', namely ''{{zh|labels=no|s=|t=|l=|p=liàng-cí}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=量词|t=量詞|l=}}, "[[measure word]]s"), to represent their '''counting units'''.<ref>However, classifiers are not commonly used in [[Classical Chinese]], for example {{zh|labels=no|t=三人行}} ({{zh|labels=no|t=|p=sān-rén-xíng}}, literally "three-person-walk", means "three persons walk together", from [[Analects]]).</ref> Every Chinese noun can only be associated with a '''limited''' number of classifiers. For example

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|一 '''瓶''' 酒|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=一瓶酒}}&#93;
|yī '''píng''' jiǔ
|one bottle wine
|a bottle of wine}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|两 '''杯''' 酒|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=兩杯酒}}&#93;
|liǎng '''bēi''' jiǔ
|two cup wine
|two glasses of wine}}

{{zh|labels=no|s=|p=píng}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=|p=|c=瓶}}, "bottle") and {{zh|labels=no|s=|p=bēi}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=|p=|c=杯}}, "cup") are both proper classifiers of the countable noun {{zh|labels=no|s=|p=jiǔ}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=|p=|c=酒}}), while {{zh|labels=no|s=|p=liǎng '''zuò''' jiǔ}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=两'''座'''酒|p=}}) and {{zh|labels=no|s=|p=liǎng-jiǔ}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=两酒|p=}}) are '''unacceptable'''.

While there are dozens of classifiers, the general classifier ''gè'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=个|t=個}}) is colloquially (i.e. in informal conversations) acceptable for most nouns. However, there are still some exceptions. For example, {{zh|labels=no|s=|p=liǎng '''gè''' jiǔ}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=两'''个'''酒|p=}}) is unacceptable.

Most classifiers originated as independent words in [[Classical Chinese]], so they are generally associated with certain groups of nouns with common properties related to their own classical meaning, for example:<ref name=":0">Etymologically, it was "''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=披星<b>帶</b>月|p=pī-xīng-dài-yuè|labels=no}}''(literally "wearing stars like a coat and '''bringing''' moon" ). It first appears in a religious poem of [[Lü Dongbin]]([https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E4%B8%83%E8%A8%80_(%E5%91%82%E6%B4%9E%E8%B3%93)]).</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Classifier
(Original meaning)
!Common Properties
!Examples
|-
|''tiáo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=条|t=條}}, "twig")
|long or thin
(ropes are long and thin)
|''yī-'''tiáo'''-shéngzi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=一'''条'''绳子|t=一'''條'''繩子}}, "a rope")
''liǎng-'''tiáo'''-shé'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=两'''条'''蛇|t=兩'''條'''蛇}}, "two snakes")
|-
|''bǎ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=把}}, "hold")
|with a handle
(a handle to hold)
|''yī-'''bǎ'''-dāo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=|t=|c=一'''把'''刀}}, "a knife") 
''liǎng-'''bǎ'''-sǎn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=两'''把'''伞|t=兩'''把'''傘}}, "two umbrellas")
|-
|''zhāng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=张|t=張}}, "draw a bow")
|flat or sheet-like
("extended" like a bow)
|''yī '''zhāng''' zhào-piàn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=一'''张'''照片|t=一'''張'''照片}}, "a photograph")
''liǎng '''zhāng''' máo-pí'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=两'''张'''毛皮|t=兩'''張'''毛皮}}, "two furs")
|}
Therefore, [[collocation]] of classifiers and noun sometimes depends on how native speakers realize them. For example, the noun ''zhuōzi'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=桌子}}, "table") is associated with the classifier ''zhāng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=张|t=張}}), due to the sheet-like table-top. Additionally, ''yǐ-zi'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=椅子}}, "chair") is associated with ''bǎ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=把}}, "hold"), because a chair can be moved by holding its top like a handle. Furthermore, due to the invention of the folding chair, ''yǐ-zi'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=椅子}}, "chair") is also associated with the classifier ''zhāng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=张|t=張}}) to express a folding chair can be "extended" (unfolded).

Classifiers are also used optionally after [[demonstrative]]s, and in certain other situations. See the [[#Noun phrases|Noun phrases section]], and the article [[Chinese classifier]].

==Numerals==
{{main|Chinese numerals}}

==Pronouns==
{{main|Chinese pronouns}}
The Chinese [[personal pronoun]]s are ''wǒ'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=我}}, "I, me"), ''nǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=你|t=你/妳}},{{efn|{{zh|labels=no|t=妳}} is an alternative character for ''nǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=你|t=你}}, "you") when referring to a female; it is used mainly in script written in [[traditional Chinese characters|traditional characters]].}} "you"), and ''tā'' ({{zh|labels=no|s={{linktext|他}}/{{linktext|她}}/{{linktext|它}}}}, "he/him, she/her, it (inanimate objects)". Plurals are formed by adding ''men'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=们|t=們}}): ''wǒmen'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我们|t=我們}}, "we, us"), ''nǐmen'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=你们|t=你們}}, "you"), ''tāmen'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=他们/她们/它们|t=他們/她們/它們}}, "they/them"). There is also ''nín'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=您}}), a formal, polite word for singular "you", as well as a less common plural form, ''nínmen'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=您们}}). Some northern dialects have a third-person formal, polite word {{zh|labels=no|c=怹}} ({{zh|labels=no|c=他}}+{{zh|labels=no|c=心}}, he/him + heart) similar to {{zh|labels=no|c=您}} ({{zh|labels=no|c=你}}+{{zh|labels=no|c=心}}, you + heart).<ref>{{cite web |title=“怹”字的解释 {{!}} 汉典 |url=https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E6%80%B9 |website=www.zdic.net |access-date=14 May 2023 |language=zh-cn}}</ref> The alternative [[clusivity|inclusive]] word for "we/us"—''zán'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=咱}}) or ''zá&#91;n&#93;men'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=咱们|t=咱們}}), specifically including the listener<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.zhihu.com/question/22461478 |title=汉语我们和咱们有区别吗？ |access-date=2022-01-08}}</ref> —is used colloquially. The third-person pronouns are not often used for inanimates, with [[demonstratives]] used instead.

Possessives are formed with ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=的}}), such as ''wǒde'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我的}}, "my, mine"), ''wǒmende'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我们的|t=我們的}}, "our&#91;s&#93;"), etc. The ''de'' may be omitted in phrases denoting [[inalienable possession]], such as ''wǒ māma'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我妈妈|t=我媽媽}}, "my mom").

The [[demonstrative]] pronouns are  ''zhè'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=这|t=這}}, "this", colloquially pronounced ''zhèi'' as a shorthand for {{zh|labels=no|s=这一|t=這一}}<ref>{{cite web |title=“这”字的解释 {{!}} 汉典 |url=https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E8%BF%99 |website=www.zdic.net |language=zh-cn}}</ref>) and ''nà'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=那}}, "that", colloquially pronounced ''nèi'' as a shorthand for {{zh|labels=no|c=那一}}<ref>{{cite web |title=“那”字的解释 {{!}} 汉典 |url=https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E9%82%A3 |website=www.zdic.net |language=zh-cn}}</ref>). They are optionally pluralized by the addition of plural quantifiers ''xiē'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=些}}) or ''qún'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=群}}). There is a [[reflexive pronoun]]  ''zìjǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=自己}}) meaning "oneself, myself, etc.", which can stand alone as an object or a possessive, or may follow a personal pronoun for emphasis. The [[reciprocal pronoun]] "each other" can be translated from ''bǐcǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=彼此}}), usually in adverb position. An alternative is ''hùxiāng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=互相}}, "mutually").

==Adjectives==
{{main|Chinese adjectives}}
[[Adjective]]s can be used attributively, before a noun. The relative marker ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=的}}){{efn|Also used after possessives and relative clauses}} may be added after the adjective, but this is not always required; "black horse" may be either ''hēi mǎ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=黑马|t=黑馬}}) or ''hēi de mǎ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=黑的马|t=黑的馬}}). When multiple adjectives are used, the order "quality/size – shape – color" is followed, although this is not necessary when each adjective is made into a separate phrase with the addition of ''de''.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|pp=152, 160}}

Gradable adjectives can be modified by words meaning "very", etc.; such modifying adverbs normally precede the adjective, although some, such as ''jíle'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=极了|t=極了}}, "extremely"), come after it.

When adjectives co-occur with classifiers, they normally follow the classifier. However, with most common classifiers, when the number is "one", it is also possible to place adjectives like "big" and "small" before the classifier for emphasis.

{{fs interlinear|number=ex:|italics2=no|italics3=yes|glossing4=yes
|一 大 个 西瓜
|一 大 個 西瓜
|yí dà ge xīguā
|one big CL watermelon|c4={{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=165}}
|}}

Adjectives can also be used predicatively. In this case they behave more like verbs; there is no need for a [[Chinese copula|copular]] verb in sentences like "he is happy" in Chinese; one may say simply ''tā gāoxìng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=他高兴|t=他高興}}, "he happy"), where the adjective may be interpreted as a verb meaning "is happy". In such sentences it is common for the adjective to be modified by a word meaning "very" or the like; in fact the word ''hěn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=很}}, "very") is often used in such cases with gradable adjectives, even without carrying the meaning of "very".

It is nonetheless possible for a copula to be used in such sentences, to emphasize the adjective. In the phrase ''tā shì gāoxìng le'', ({{zh|labels=no|s=他是高兴了|t=他是高興了}}, "he is now truly happy"),  ''shì'' is the copula meaning "is", and ''le'' is the inceptive marker discussed later.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=151}} This is similar to the [[#Cleft sentences|cleft sentence]] construction. Sentences can also be formed in which an adjective followed by ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=的}}) stands as the complement of the copula.

==Adverbs and adverbials==
Adverbs and adverbial phrases normally come in a position before the verb, but after the subject of the verb. In sentences with auxiliary verbs, the adverb usually precedes the auxiliary verb as well as the main verb. Some adverbs of time and attitude ("every day", "perhaps", etc.) may be moved to the start of the clause, to modify the clause as a whole. However, some adverbs cannot be moved in this way. These include three words for "often", ''cháng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=常}}),  ''chángcháng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=常常}}) and ''jīngcháng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=经常|t=經常}}); ''dōu'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=都}}, "all");  ''jiù''  ({{zh|labels=no|c=就}}, "then"); and ''yòu'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=又}}, "again").{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=154}}

Adverbs of manner can be formed from adjectives using the clitic ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=地}}).{{efn|Not the same character as the ''de'' used to mark possessives and relative clauses.}} It is generally possible to move these adverbs to the start of the clause, although in some cases this may sound awkward, unless there is a qualifier such as ''hěn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=很}}, "very") and a pause after the adverb.

Some verbs take a prepositional phrase following the verb and its direct object. These are generally obligatory constituents, such that the sentence would not make sense if they were omitted. For example:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|放 本 书 '''在''' 桌子 '''上'''|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=放本書在桌子上}}&#93;
|fàng běn shū '''zài''' zhuōzi '''shàng'''
|put book-CL book '''in''' table '''on'''
|Put a book on the table{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=163}}}}

There are also certain adverbial "stative complements" which follow the verb. The character ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=得}}){{efn|This is a different character again from the two types of ''de'' previously mentioned.}} followed by an adjective functions the same as the phrase "-ly" in English, turning the adjective into an adverb. The second is ''hǎo le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=好了}}, "complete"). It is not generally possible for a single verb to be followed by both an object and an adverbial complement of this type, although there are exceptions in cases where the complement expresses duration, frequency or goal.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=203}} To express both, the verb may be repeated in a special kind of [[#Serial verb constructions|serial verb construction]]; the first instance taking an object, the second taking the complement. Aspect markers can then appear only on the second instance of the verb.

The typical Chinese word order "XVO", where an oblique complement such as a locative prepositional phrase precedes the verb, while a direct object comes after the verb, is very rare cross-linguistically; in fact, it is only in varieties of Chinese that this is attested as the typical ordering.<ref>{{cite web | title = Chapter 84: Order of Object, Oblique, and Verb | url = http://wals.info/chapter/84 | work = [[World Atlas of Language Structures]] | year = 2011}}</ref>

===Locative phrases===
[[File:Machine translation in Bali 2.jpg|150px|right|thumb|"嚴禁站在", a grammatically incorrect Chinese sentence caused by [[machine translation]] of the phrase "forbidden to stand on". An object should follow the preposition of location ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在}}).]]
Expressions of location in Chinese may include a [[preposition]], placed before the noun; a postposition, placed after the noun; both preposition and postposition; or neither. Chinese prepositions are commonly known as [[coverb]]s – see the [[#Coverbs|Coverbs section]]. The postpositions—which include ''shàng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=上}}, "up, on"), ''xià'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=下}}, "down, under"), ''lǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=里|t=裡}}, "in, within"),  ''nèi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=内}}, "inside") and ''wài'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=外}}, "outside")—may also be called ''locative particles''.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=81 ff}}

In the following examples locative phrases are formed from a noun plus a locative particle:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|桌子 '''上'''
|zhuōzi '''shàng'''
|table '''on'''
|on the table}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|房子 '''里'''|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=房子裡}}&#93;
|fángzi '''lǐ'''
|house '''in'''
|in the house}}

The most common preposition of location is ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=在}}, "at, on, in"). With certain nouns that inherently denote a specific location, including nearly all place names, a locative phrase can be formed with ''zài'' together with the noun:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|'''在''' 美国|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=在美國}}&#93;
|'''zài''' měiguó
|'''in''' America
|in America}}

However other types of nouns still require a locative particle as a postposition in addition to ''zài'':

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|'''在''' 报纸 '''上'''|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=在報紙上}}&#93;
|'''zài''' bàozhǐ '''shàng'''
|'''in''' newspaper '''on'''
|in the newspaper}}

If a noun is modified so as to denote a ''specific'' location, as in "this &#91;object&#93;...", then it may form locative phrases without any locative particle. Some nouns which can be understood to refer to a specific place, like ''jiā'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=家}}, home) and ''xuéxiào'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=学校|t=學校}}, "school"), may optionally omit the locative particle. Words like ''shàngmiàn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=上面}}, "top") can function as specific-location nouns, like in ''zài shàngmiàn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在上面}}, "on top"), but can also take the role of locative particle, not necessarily with analogous meaning. The phrase ''zài bàozhǐ shàngmiàn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=在报纸上面|t=在報紙上面|l=in newspaper-top}}), can mean either "in the newspaper" or "on the newspaper".{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=85}}

In certain circumstances ''zài'' can be omitted from the locative expression. Grammatically, a noun or noun phrase followed by a locative particle is still a noun phrase. For instance, ''zhuōzi shàng'' can be regarded as short for ''zhuōzi shàngmiàn'', meaning something like "the table's top". Consequently, the locative expression without ''zài'' can be used in places where a noun phrase would be expected – for instance, as a modifier of another noun using ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=的}}), or as the object of a different preposition, such as ''cóng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=从|t=從}}, "from"). The version with ''zài'', on the other hand, plays an adverbial role. However, ''zài'' is usually omitted when the locative expression begins a sentence with the ergative structure, where the expression, though having an adverbial function, can be seen as filling the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] or noun role in the sentence. For examples, see [[#Sentence structure|sentence structure section]].

The word ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在}}), like certain other prepositions or coverbs, can also be used as a verb. A locative expression can therefore appear as a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] without the need for any additional [[copular verb|copula]]. For example, "he is at school" ({{zh|labels=no|s=他在学校|t=他在學校|p=tā zài xuéxiào}}, literally "he at school").

==Comparatives and superlatives==
[[Comparative]] sentences are commonly expressed simply by inserting the standard of comparison, preceded by ''bǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=比}}, "than"). The adjective itself is not modified. The ''bǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=比}}, "than") phrase is an adverbial, and has a fixed position before the verb. See also the section on [[#Negation|negation]].

If there is no standard of comparison—i.e., a ''than'' phrase—then the adjective can be marked as comparative by a preceding adverb ''bǐjiào'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=比较|t=比較}}), ''jiào'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=较|t=較}}) or ''gèng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=更}}), all meaning "more". Similarly, [[superlative]]s can be expressed using the adverb  ''zuì'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=最}}, "most"), which precedes a predicate verb or adjective.

Adverbial phrases meaning "like &#91;someone/something&#93;" or "as &#91;someone/something&#93;" can be formed using  ''gēn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=跟}}), ''tóng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=同}}) or ''xiàng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=像}}) before the noun phrase, and ''yīyàng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=一样|t=一樣}}) or ''nàyàng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=那样|t=那樣}}) after it.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=199}}

The construction ''yuè ... yuè ...'' {{zh|labels=no|s=越...越...}} can be translated into statements of the type "the more ..., the more ...".

==Copula==
{{further|Chinese copula}}
The Chinese [[copular verb]] is ''shì'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=是}}). This is the equivalent of English "to be" and all its forms—"am", "is", "are", "was", "were", etc.  However, ''shì'' is normally only used when its complement is a noun or noun phrase. As noted above, predicate adjectives function as verbs themselves, as does the locative preposition  ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在}}), so in sentences where the predicate is an adjectival or locative phrase, ''shì'' is not required.

For another use of ''shì'', see ''shì ... &#91;de&#93;'' construction in the section on [[#Cleft sentences|cleft sentences]]. The English [[Existential clause|existential]] phrase "[[there is]]" &#91;"there are", etc.&#93; is translated using the verb ''yǒu'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=有}}), which is otherwise used to denote [[possession (linguistics)|possession]].

== Aspects ==
Chinese does not have grammatical markers of [[grammatical tense|tense]]. The time at which action is conceived as taking place—past, present, future—can be indicated by expressions of time—"yesterday", "now", etc.—or may simply be inferred from the context. However, Chinese does have markers of [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], which is a feature of grammar that gives information about the temporal flow of events. There are two aspect markers that are especially commonly used with past events: the [[perfective|perfective-aspect]] ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}) and the [[experiential aspect|experiential]]  ''guo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=过|t=過}}). Some authors, however, do not regard ''guo'' (or ''zhe''; see below)  as markers of aspect.{{sfnp|Yip|Rimmington|2004|p=107}} Both ''le'' and ''guo'' immediately follow the verb. 

There is also a sentence-final [[inchoative aspect|inchoative]] ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}), which is an aspect-marking particle that indicates a change in state. Following a convention used by some textbooks, it is listed with the [[#Particles|modal particles below]], even though it does not indicate a [[grammatical mood]].

The perfective ''le'' presents the viewpoint of "an event in its entirety".{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=185}} It is sometimes considered to be a past tense marker, although it can also be used with future events, given appropriate context. Some examples of its use:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 当 '''了''' 兵。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我當了兵。}}&#93;
|wǒ dāng '''le''' bīng
|I {serve as} '''''le''''' soldier.
|I became a soldier.}}

Using ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}) shows this event that has taken place or took place at a particular time.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 看 '''了''' 三 场 球赛。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他看了三場球賽。}}&#93;
|tā kàn '''le''' sān chǎng qiúsài
|He watch '''''le''''' three sports-CL ballgames.
|He watched three ballgames.}}

This format of ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}) is usually used in a time-delimited context such as "today" or "last week".

The above may be compared with the following examples with ''guo'', and with the examples with sentence-final ''le'' given under [[#Particles|Particles]].

The experiential ''guo'' "ascribes to a subject the property of having experienced the event".{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=70}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 当 '''过''' 兵。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我當過兵。}}&#93;
|wǒ dāng '''guo''' bīng
|I serve-as '''''guo''''' soldier.
|I have been a soldier before.}}

This also implies that the speaker no longer is a soldier.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 看 '''过''' 三 场 球赛。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他看過三場球賽。}}&#93;
|tā kàn '''guo''' sān chǎng qiúsài
|He watch '''''guo''''' three sports-CL ballgames.
|He has watched three ballgames as of now.}}

There are also two [[imperfective aspect]] markers:  ''zhèngzài'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=正在}}) or  ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=在}}), and  ''zhe'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=着|t=著}}), which denote ongoing actions or states. ''Zhèngzài'' and ''zài'' precede the verb, and are usually used for ongoing actions or dynamic events – they may be translated as "&#91;be&#93; in the process of &#91;-ing&#93;" or "&#91;be&#93; in the middle of &#91;-ing&#93;". ''Zhe'' follows the verb, and is used mostly for static situations.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 {'''&#91;正&#93; 在'''} 挂 画。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我&#91;正&#93;在掛畫。}}&#93; 
|wǒ {'''zhèng zài'''} guà huà
|I '''in-middle-of''' hang pictures
|I'm hanging pictures up.}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|墙 上 挂 '''着''' 一 幅 画。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=牆上掛著一幅畫。}}&#93;
|qiáng shàng guà '''zhe''' yì<!--(not yī or yí (see sandhi))--> fú huà
|Wall on hang '''ongoing''' one picture-CL picture
|A picture is hanging on the wall.}}

Both markers may occur in the same clause, however. For example, ''tā zhèngzai dǎ [zhe] diànhuà'', "he is in the middle of telephoning someone" ({{zh|labels=no|s=他正在打[着]电话|t=他正在打[著]電話|l=he [in-middle-of] [verb form] [ongoing] telephone}}).{{sfnp|Yip|Rimmington|2004|p=109}}

The [[delimitative]] aspect denotes an action that goes on only for some time, "doing something 'a little bit'".{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=29, 234}} This can be expressed by [[#Reduplication|reduplication]] of a monosyllabic verb, like the verb  ''zǒu'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=走}} "walk") in the following sentence:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 到 公园 '''走''' '''走'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我到公園走走。}}&#93;
|wǒ dào gōngyuán '''zǒu''' '''zǒu'''
|I to park '''walk''' '''walk'''
|I'm going for a walk in the park.}}

An alternative construction is reduplication with insertion of "one" ({{zh|labels=no|c=一}} ''yī''). For example,  ''zǒu yi zǒu'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=走一走}}), which might be translated as "walk a little walk". A further possibility is reduplication followed by ''kàn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=看}} "to see"); this emphasizes the "testing" nature of the action. If the verb has an object, ''kàn'' follows the object.

Some compound verbs, such as restrictive-resultative and coordinate compounds, can also be reduplicated on the pattern ''tǎolùn-tǎolùn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=讨论讨论|t=討論討論}}), from the verb  ''tǎolùn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=讨论|t=討論}}), meaning "discuss". Other compounds may be reduplicated, but for general emphasis rather than delimitative aspect. In compounds that are [[#Word formation|verb–object combinations]], like ''tiào wǔ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=跳舞|l=to jump a dance}}, "dance"), a delimitative aspect can be marked by reduplicating the first syllable, creating ''tiào-tiào wǔ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=跳跳舞}}), which may be followed with ''kàn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=看}}).

==Passive==
As mentioned [[#Sentence structure|above]], the fact that a verb is intended to be understood in the [[passive voice]] is not always marked in Chinese. However, it may be marked using the passive marker 被 ''bèi'', followed by the agent, though ''bèi'' may appear alone if the agent is not to be specified.{{efn|This is similar to the English "by", though it is always followed by an agent.}} Certain causative markers can replace ''bèi'', such as those mentioned in the [[#Other cases|Other cases section]],  ''gěi'', ''jiào'' and ''ràng''. Of these causative markers, only ''gěi'' can appear alone without a specified agent. The construction with a passive marker is normally used only when there is a sense of misfortune or adversity.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=211}} The passive marker and agent occupy the typical adverbial position before the verb. See the [[#Negation|Negation section]] for more. Some examples:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我们 '''被''' 他 骂 了。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我們被他罵了。}}&#93;
|wǒmen '''bèi''' tā mà le
|We '''by''' him scolded PFV
|We were scolded by him.}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 '''被''' 我 打 了 一 顿。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他被我打了一頓。}}&#93;
|tā '''bèi''' wǒ dǎ le yí dùn
|He '''by''' me beaten PFV one event-CL
|He was beaten up by me once.}}

==Negation==
The most commonly used [[negation (linguistics)|negating]] element is ''bù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=不}}), [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones on special syllables|pronounced with second tone]] when followed by a fourth tone. This can be placed before a verb, preposition or adverb to negate it. For example: "I don't eat chicken" ({{zh|labels=no|s=我不吃鸡|t=我不吃雞|p=wǒ bù chī jī|l=I not eat chicken}}). For the double-verb negative construction with ''bù'', see [[#Complement of result|Complement of result]], below. However, the verb ''yǒu'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=有}})—which can mean either [[possession (linguistics)|possession]], or "there is/are" in [[existential clause]]s—is negated using ''méi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=没|t=沒}}) to produce ''méiyǒu'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=没有|t=沒有|l=not have}}).

For negation of a verb intended to denote a completed event, ''méi'' or ''méiyǒu'' is used instead of ''bù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=不}}), and the [[#Aspects|aspect marker]] ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}) is then omitted. Also, ''méi&#91;yǒu&#93;'' is used to negate verbs that take the aspect marker ''guo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=过|t=過}}); in this case the aspect marker is not omitted.{{sfnp|Yip|Rimmington|2004|p=110}}

In [[#Coverbs|coverb]] constructions, the negator may come before the coverb (preposition) or before the full verb, the latter being more emphatic. In constructions with a [[#Passive|passive]] marker, the negator precedes that marker; similarly, in [[#Comparatives and superlatives|comparative]] constructions, ''the negator precedes the ''bǐ'' phrase''<sup>Not clear</sup> (unless the verb is further qualified by ''gèng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=更}}, "even more"), in which case the negator may follow the ''gèng'' to produce the meaning "even less").{{sfnp|Sun|2006|pp=209–211}}

The negator ''bié'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=别}}) precedes the verb in negative commands and negative requests, such as in phrases meaning "don't ...", "please don't ...".

The negator ''wèi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=未}}) means "not yet". Other items used as negating elements in certain compound words include ''wú'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=无|t=無}}),''wù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=勿}}), ''miǎn'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=免}}) and ''fēi'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=非}}).

A [[double negative]] makes a positive, as in sentences like ''wǒ bú shì bù xǐhuān tā'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我不是不喜欢她|t=我不是不喜歡她}}, "It's not that I don't like her" ). For this use of ''shì'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=是}}), see the [[#Cleft sentences|Cleft sentences section]].

==Questions==
In [[wh-questions|''wh''-questions]] in Chinese, the question word is not [[wh-fronting|fronted]]. Instead, it stays in the position in the sentence that would be occupied by the item being asked about. For example, "'''What''' did you say?" is phrased as ''nǐ shuō shé&#91;n&#93;me'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=你说'''什么'''?|t=你說'''什麼'''？|c=|p=}}, literally "you say what"). The word ''shénme'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=什么|t=什麼}}, "what" or "which"), remains in the [[object (grammar)|object]] position after the verb.

Other interrogative words include:
*"Who": ''shuí/shéi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=谁|t=誰}})
*"What": ''shénme'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=什么|t=什麼}}); ''shá'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=啥}}, informal)
*"Where": ''nǎr'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=哪儿|t=哪兒}}); ''nǎlǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=哪里|t=哪裡}}); ''héchù'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=何处|t=何處}})
*"When": ''shénme shíhòu'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=什么时候|t=什麼時候}});  ''héshí'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=何时|t=何時}})
*"Which": ''nǎ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=哪}})
**When used to mean "which ones", ''nǎ'' is used with a classifier and noun, or with ''xiē'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=些}}) and noun. The noun may be omitted if understood through context.
*"Why": ''wèishé&#91;n&#93;me'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=为什么|t=為什麼}}); ''wèihé'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=为何|t=為何}}); ''gànmá'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=干吗|t=幹嘛}})
*"How many": ''duōshǎo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=多少}})
**When the number is quite small, ''jǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=几|t=幾}}) is used, followed by a classifier.
*"How": ''zěnme&#91;yang&#93;'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=怎么&#91;样&#93;|t=怎麼&#91;樣&#93;}}); ''rúhé'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=如何}})

[[Disjunctive question]]s can be made using the word ''háishì'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=还是|t=還是}}) between the options, like English "or". This differs from the word for "or" in statements, which is ''huòzhě'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=或者}}).

[[Yes–no question]]s can be formed using the sentence-final [[#Particles|particle]]  ''ma'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=吗|t=嗎}}), with word order otherwise the same as in a statement. For example, ''nǐ chī jī ma?'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=你吃鸡吗?|t=你吃雞嗎？|l=you eat chicken MA}}, "Do you eat chicken?").

An alternative is the [[A-not-A question|A-not-A]] construction, using phrases like ''chī bu chī'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=吃不吃}}, "eat or not eat").{{efn|Either the verb or the whole verb phrase may be repeated after the negator ''bù''; it is also possible to place ''bù'' after the verb phrase and omit the repetition entirely.}} With two-syllable verbs, sometimes only the first syllable is repeated: ''xǐ-bu-xǐhuān'' ( {{zh|labels=no|s=喜不喜欢|t=喜不喜歡}}, "like or not like"), from  ''xǐhuān'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=喜欢|t=喜歡}}, "like"). It is also possible to use the A-not-A construction with prepositions ([[#Coverbs|coverbs]]) and phrases headed by them, as with full verbs.

The negator ''méi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=没|t=沒}}) can be used rather than ''bù'' in the A-not-A construction when referring to a completed event, but if it occurs at the end of the sentence—i.e. the repetition is omitted—the full form ''méiyǒu'' ({{nowrap|{{zh|labels=no|s=没有|t=沒有}}}}) must appear.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=181}}

For answering yes–no questions, Chinese has words that may be used like the English [[yes and no|"yes" and "no"]] – ''duì'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=对|t=對}}) or ''shì de'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=是的}}) for "yes"; ''bù'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=不}}) for "no" – but these are not often used for this purpose; it is more common to repeat the verb or verb phrase (or entire sentence), negating it if applicable.

==Imperatives==
Second-person [[imperative mood|imperative]] sentences are formed in the same way as statements, and like in English, the subject "you" is often omitted.

Orders may be softened by preceding them with an element such as ''qǐng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=请}}, "to ask"), in this use equivalent to English "please". See [[#Particles|Particles]] for more. The sentence-final particle ''ba'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=吧}}) can be used to form [[Imperative mood#Formation|first-person imperatives]], equivalent to "let's...".

== Serial verb constructions ==
Chinese makes frequent use of [[serial verb construction]]s, or verb stacking, where two or more verbs or [[verb phrase]]s are concatenated together. This frequently involves either verbal complements appearing after the main verb, or [[coverb]] phrases appearing before the main verb, but other variations of the construction occur as well.

=== Auxiliaries ===
A main verb may be preceded by an [[auxiliary verb]], as in English. Chinese auxiliaries include ''néng'' and ''nénggòu'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=能}} and {{zh|labels=no|s=能够|t=能夠}}, "can"); ''huì'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=会|t=會}}, "know how to"); ''kéyǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=可以}}, "may"); ''gǎn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=敢}}, "dare"); ''kěn'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=肯}}, "be willing to"); ''yīnggāi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=应该|t=應該}}, "should"); ''bìxū'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=必须|t=必須}}, "must"); etc. The auxiliary normally follows an adverb, if present. In [[Verb phrase ellipsis|shortened sentences]] an auxiliary may be used without a main verb, analogously to English sentences such as "I can."

=== Verbal complements ===
The active verb of a sentence may be suffixed with a second verb, which usually indicates either the result of the first action, or the direction in which it took the subject. When such information is applicable, it is generally considered mandatory. The phenomenon is sometimes called ''double verbs''.

==== Complement of result ====
A complement of result, or resultative complement ({{zh|labels=no|s=结果补语|t=結果補語|p=jiéguǒ bǔyǔ}}) is a verbal suffix which indicates the outcome, or possible outcome, of the action indicated by the main verb. In the following examples, the main verb is ''tīng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=听|t=聽}} "to listen"), and the complement of result is ''dǒng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=懂}}, "to understand/to know").

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|听 懂|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=聽懂}}&#93;
|tīng dǒng
|hear understand
|to understand something you hear}}

Since they indicate an absolute result, such double verbs necessarily represent a completed action, and are thus [[#Negation|negated]] using ''méi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=没|t=沒}}):

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|'''没''' 听 懂|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=沒聽懂}}&#93;
|'''méi''' tīng dǒng
|'''not''' hear understand
|to have not understood something you hear}}

The morpheme ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=得}}) is placed between the double verbs to indicate possibility or ability. This is not possible with "restrictive" resultative compounds such as ''jiéshěng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=节省}}, literally "reduce-save", meaning "to save, economize").{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=52}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|听 '''得''' 懂|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=聽得懂}}&#93;
|tīng '''de''' dǒng
|hear '''possible/able''' understand
|to be able to understand something you hear}}

This is equivalent in meaning to  ''néng tīng dǒng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=能听懂|t=能聽懂}}), using the [[#Auxiliaries|auxiliary]] ''néng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=能}}), equivalent to "may" or "can".{{efn|''Néng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=能}}) does not mean "may" or "can" in the sense of "know how to" or "have the skill to".}}

To negate the above construction, ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=得}}) is replaced by ''bù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=不}}):

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|听 '''不''' 懂|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=聽不懂}}&#93;
|tīng '''bù''' dǒng
|hear '''impossible/unable''' understand
|to be unable to understand something you hear}}

With some verbs, the addition of ''bù'' and a particular complement of result is the standard method of negation. In many cases the complement is ''liǎo'', represented by the same character as the perfective or modal particle ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=了}}). This verb means "to finish", but when used as a complement for negation purposes it may merely indicate inability. For example:  ''shòu bù liǎo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=受不了}}, "to be unable to tolerate").

The complement of result is a highly productive and frequently used construction. Sometimes it develops into idiomatic phrases, as in ''è sǐ le'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=饿死了|t=餓死了}}, literally "hungry-until-die already",  meaning "to be starving") and ''qì sǐ le'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=气死了|t=氣死了}}, literally "mad-until-die already", meaning "to be extremely angry"). The phrases for "hate/disdain" ({{zh|labels=no|c=看不起|p=kànbùqǐ}}), "sorry" ({{zh|labels=no|s=对不起|t=對不起|p=duìbùqǐ}}), and "too expensive to buy" ({{zh|labels=no|s=买不起|t=買不起|p=mǎi bùqǐ}}) all use the character ''qǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=起|t=起}}, "to rise up") as a complement of result, but their meanings are not obviously related to that meaning. This is partially the result of metaphorical construction, where ''kànbùqǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=看不起}}) literally means "to be unable to look up to"; and ''duìbùqǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=对不起|t=對不起}}) means "to be unable to face someone".

Some more examples of resultative complements, used in complete sentences:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 把 盘子 '''打''' '''破''' 了。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他把盤子打破了。}}&#93;
|tā bǎ pánzi '''dǎ''' '''pò''' le
|he object-CL plate '''hit''' '''break''' PRF
|He hit/dropped the plate, and it broke.}}

Double-verb construction where the second verb, "break", is a suffix to the first, and indicates what happens to the object as a result of the action.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|这 部 电影 我 '''看''' '''不''' '''懂'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=這部電影我看不懂。}}&#93;
|zhè(i) bù diànyǐng wǒ '''kàn''' '''bù''' '''dǒng'''
|this {} movie I '''watch''' '''impossible/unable''' '''understand'''
|I can't understand this movie even though I watched it.}}

Another double-verb where the second verb, "understand", suffixes the first and clarifies the possibility and success of the relevant action.

==== Complement of direction ====
A complement of direction, or directional complement ({{zh|labels=no|s=趋向补语|t=趨向補語|p=qūxiàng bǔyǔ}}) indicates the direction of an action involving movement.  The simplest directional complements are  ''qù'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=去}}, "to go") and ''lái'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=来|t=來}}, "to come"), which may be added after a verb to indicate movement away from or towards the speaker, respectively.  These may form compounds with other verbs that further specify the direction, such as ''shàng qù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=上去}}, "to go up"), ''gùo lái'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=过来|t=過來}}, "to come over"), which may then be added to another verb, such as ''zǒu'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=走}}, "to walk"), as in ''zǒu gùo qù'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=走过去|t=走過去}}, "to walk over"). Another example, in a whole sentence:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 走 '''上''' '''来''' 了。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他走上來了。}}&#93;
|tā zǒu '''shàng''' '''lái''' le
|he walk '''up''' '''come''' PRF
|He walked up towards me.}}
: The directional suffixes indicate "up" and "towards".

If the preceding verb has an object, the object may be placed either before or after the directional complement(s), or even between two directional complements, provided the second of these is not ''qù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=去}}).{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=53}}

The structure with inserted ''de'' or ''bù'' is not normally used with this type of double verb. There are exceptions, such as "to be unable to get out of bed" ({{zh|labels=no|s=起不来床|t=起不來床|p=qǐ bù lái chuáng}} or {{zh|labels=no|t=起床不來|s=起床不来|p=qǐ chuáng bù lái}}).

=== Coverbs ===
Chinese has a class of words, called [[coverb]]s, which in some respects resemble both verbs and [[preposition]]s. They appear with a following [[object (grammar)|object]] (or [[complement (grammar)|complement]]), and generally denote relationships that would be expressed by prepositions (or postpositions) in other languages. However, they are often considered to be lexically verbs, and some of them can also function as full verbs. When a coverb phrase appears in a sentence together with a main verb phrase, the result is essentially a type of serial verb construction. The coverb phrase, being an [[#Adverbs and adverbials|adverbial]], precedes the main verb in most cases.  For instance:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 '''帮''' 你 找 他。|c1=  &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我幫你找他。}}&#93;
|wǒ '''bāng''' nǐ zhǎo tā.
|I '''help''' you find him
|I will find him for you.}}

Here the main verb is ''zhǎo'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=找|t=找}}, "find"), and ''bāng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=帮|t=幫}}) is a coverb. Here ''bāng'' corresponds to the English preposition "for", even though in other contexts it might be used as a full verb meaning "help".

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 '''坐''' 飞机 '''从''' 上海 '''到''' 北京 去。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我坐飛機從上海到北京去。}}&#93;
|wǒ '''zuò''' fēijī '''cóng''' Shànghǎi '''dào''' Běijīng qù.
|I '''sit''' airplane '''from''' Shanghai '''arrive(to)''' Beijing go
|I'll go from Shanghai to Beijing by plane.}}

Here there are three coverbs: ''zuò'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=坐}} "by"), ''cóng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=从|t=從}}, "from"), and ''dào'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=到}}, "to"). The words ''zuò'' and ''dào'' can also be verbs, meaning "sit" and "arrive &#91;at&#93;" respectively. However, ''cóng'' is not normally used as a full verb.

A very common coverb that can also be used as a main verb is ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在}}), as described in the [[#Locative phrases|Locative phrases]] section. Another example is ''gěi'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=给}}), which as a verb means "give". As a preposition, ''gěi'' may mean "for", or "to" when marking an [[#Objects|indirect object]] or in certain other expressions.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 '''给''' 你 打 电话。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我給你打電話。}}&#93;
|wǒ '''gěi''' nǐ dǎ diànhuà
|I '''to''' you strike telephone
|I'll give you a telephone call}}

Because coverbs essentially function as prepositions, they can also be referred to simply as prepositions. In Chinese they are called ''jiè cí'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=介词|t=介詞}}), a term which generally corresponds to "preposition", or more generally, "[[adposition]]". The situation is complicated somewhat by the fact that [[#Locative phrases|location markers]]—which also have meanings similar to those of certain English prepositions—are often called "postpositions".

Coverbs normally cannot take [[#Aspects|aspect markers]], although some of them form fixed compounds together with such markers, such as  ''gēnzhe'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=跟着; 跟著|l=with +[aspect marker]}}), ''ànzhe'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=按着; 按著}}, "according to"), ''yánzhe'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=沿着; 沿著}}, "along"), and ''wèile'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=为了; 為了}} "for").{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=208}}

===Other cases===
Serial verb constructions can also consist of two consecutive verb phrases with parallel meaning, such as ''hē kāfēi kàn bào'', "drink coffee and read the paper" ({{zh|labels=no|s=喝咖啡看报|t=喝咖啡看報|l=drink coffee read paper}}). Each verb may independently be negated or given the ''le'' aspect marker.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=200}} If both verbs would have the same object, it is omitted the second time.

Consecutive verb phrases may also be used to indicate consecutive events. Use of the ''le'' aspect marker with the first verb may imply that this is the main verb of the sentence, the second verb phrase merely indicating the purpose. Use of this ''le'' with the second verb changes this emphasis, and may require a sentence-final ''le'' particle in addition. On the other hand, the progressive aspect marker ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在}}) may be applied to the first verb, but not normally the second alone. The word ''qù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=去}}, "go") or  ''lái'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=来|t=來}}, "come") may be inserted between the two verb phrases, meaning "in order to".

For constructions with consecutive verb phrases containing the same verb, see under [[#Adverbs and adverbials|Adverbs]]. For immediate repetition of a verb, see [[#Reduplication|Reduplication]] and [[#Aspects|Aspects]].

Another case is the causative or pivotal construction.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=205}} Here the object of one verb also serves as the subject of the following verb. The first verb may be something like  ''gěi'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=给}}, "allow", or "give" in other contexts), ''ràng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=让|t=讓}}, "let"), ''jiào'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=叫}}, "order" or "call") or ''shǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=使}}, "make, compel"), ''qǐng'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=请|t=請}}, "invite"), or ''lìng'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=令}}, "command"). Some of these cannot take an aspect marker such as ''le'' when used in this construction, like ''lìng'', ''ràng'', ''shǐ''. Sentences of this type often parallel the equivalent English pattern, except that English may insert the [[infinitive]] marker "to". In the following example the construction is used twice:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 要 我 '''请''' 他 喝 啤酒。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他要我請他喝啤酒。}}&#93;
|tā yào wǒ '''qǐng''' tā hē píjiǔ
|he want me '''invite''' him drink beer
|He wants me to treat him &#91;to&#93; beer.}}

== Particles ==
{{see also|Chinese particles|Chinese exclamative particles}}

Chinese has a number of sentence-final [[grammatical particle|particles]] – these are [[Standard Chinese phonology#Full and weak syllables|weak syllables]], spoken with [[Standard Chinese phonology#Neutral tone|neutral tone]], and placed at the end of the sentence to which they refer. They are often called [[modal particle]]s or ''yǔqì zhùcí'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=语气助词|t=語氣助詞}}), as they serve chiefly to express [[grammatical mood]], or how the sentence relates to reality and/or intent. They include:{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=76 ff}}

* ''ma'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=吗|t=嗎}}), which changes a statement into a [[#Questions|yes–no question]]
* ''ne'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=呢}}), which expresses surprise, produces a question "with expectation", or expresses a currently ongoing event when answering a question
* ''ba'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=吧}}), which serves as a [[tag question]], e.g. "don't you think so?"; produces a suggestion e.g. "let's..."; or lessens certainty of a decision.
* ''a'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=啊}}),{{efn|alternately ''ya'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=呀}}), ''wa'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=哇}}), etc. [[Standard Chinese phonology#Syllable reduction|depending on the preceding sound]]}} which reduces forcefulness, particularly of an order or question. It can also be used to add positive connotation to certain phrases or inject uncertainty when responding to a question.
* ''ou'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=呕|t=噢}}), which signals a friendly warning
* ''zhe'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=着|t=著}}), which marks the [[inchoative aspect]], or need for change of state, in imperative sentences. Compare the imperfective aspect marker ''zhe'' in the [[#Aspects|section above]]) 
* ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}), which marks a "currently relevant state". This precedes any other sentence-final particles, and can combine with ''a'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=啊}}) to produce ''la'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=啦}}); and with ''ou'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=呕|t=噢}}) to produce ''lou'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=喽|t=囉}}).

This sentence-final ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}) should be distinguished from the verb suffix ''le'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=了}}) discussed in the [[#Aspects|Aspects section]]. Whereas the sentence-final particle is sometimes described as an [[inceptive]] or as a marker of [[perfect aspect]], the verb suffix is described as a marker of [[perfective aspect]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Li|Thompson|1981}}, quoted in {{harvtxt|Sun|2006}}, p. 80.</ref> Some examples of its use:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 没 钱 '''了'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我沒錢了。}}&#93;
|wǒ méi qián '''le'''
|I no money '''PRF'''
|I have no money now '''or''' I've gone broke.}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 当 兵 '''了'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我當兵了。}}&#93;
|wǒ dāng bīng '''le'''
|I work soldier '''PRF'''
|I have become a soldier.}}

The position of ''le'' in this example emphasizes his present status as a soldier, rather than the event of becoming. Compare with the [[#Aspects|post-verbal ''le'' example given in the Aspects section]], ''wǒ dāng le bīng''. However, when answering a question, the ending should be '''呢''' instead of '''了'''. For example, to answer a question like "你现在做什么工作？" (What's your job now?), instead of using ''le'', a more appropriate answer should be 

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|我 当 兵 '''呢'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=我當兵呢。}}&#93;
|wǒ dāng bīng '''ne'''
|I work soldier ongoing
|I am being a soldier.}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 看 三 场 球赛 '''了'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他看三場球賽了。}}&#93;
|tā kàn sān chǎng qiúsài '''le'''
|He watch three sports-CL ballgames '''PRF'''
|He &#91;has&#93; watched three ballgames.}}

Compared with the post-verbal ''le'' and ''guo'' [[#Aspects|examples]], this places the focus on the number three, and does not specify whether he is going to continue watching more games.

The two uses of ''le'' may in fact be traced back to two entirely different words.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=296–300}}{{sfnp|Chao|1968|p=246}} The fact that they are now written the same way in Mandarin can cause ambiguity, particularly when the verb is not followed by an object. Consider the following sentence:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|妈妈 来 '''了'''！|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=媽媽來了！}}&#93; 
|māma lái '''le'''
|Mom come '''''le'''''}}

This ''le'' might be interpreted as either the suffixal perfective marker or the sentence-final perfect marker. In the former case it might mean "mother has come", as in she has just arrived at the door, while in the latter it might mean "mother is coming!", and the speaker wants to inform others of this fact. It is even possible for the two kinds of ''le'' to co-occur:{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=80}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 吃 '''了''' 饭 '''了'''。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他吃了飯了}}&#93;。
|tā chī '''le''' fàn '''le'''
|He eat '''PFV''' food '''PRF'''
|He has eaten.}}

Without the first ''le'', the sentence could again mean "he has eaten", or it could mean "he wants to eat now". Without the final ''le'' the sentence would be ungrammatical without appropriate context, as perfective ''le'' cannot appear in a semantically unbounded sentence.

===Plural===
Chinese nouns and other parts of speech are not generally marked for [[grammatical number|number]], meaning that [[plural]] forms are mostly the same as the singular. However, there is a plural marker ''men'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=们|t=們}}), which has limited usage. It is used with [[Chinese pronouns|personal pronouns]], as in ''wǒmen'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=我们|t=我們}}, "we" or "us"), derived from ''wǒ'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=我}}, "I, me"). It can be used with nouns representing humans, most commonly those with two syllables, like in ''péngyoumen'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=朋友们|t=朋友們}}, "friends"), from ''péngyou'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=朋友}}, "friend"). Its use in such cases is optional.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=64}} It is never used when the noun has indefinite reference, or when it is qualified by a numeral.{{sfnp|Yip|Rimmington|2004|p=8}}

The demonstrative pronouns ''zhè'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=这|t=這}}, "this"), and ''nà'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=那}}, "that") may be optionally pluralized by the addition of ''xiē'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=些}}，"few"), making  ''zhèxiē'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=这些|t=這些}}, "these") and ''nàxiē'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=那些}}, "those").

==Cleft sentences==
There is a construction in Chinese known as the ''shì ... &#91;de&#93;'' construction, which produces what may be called [[cleft sentence]]s.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=190}} The copula  ''shì'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=是}}) is placed before the element of the sentence which is to be emphasized, and the optional possessive particle ''de'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=的}}) is placed at the end of the sentence if the sentence ends in a verb, or after the last verb of the sentence if the sentence ends with a complement of the verb. For example:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 '''是''' 昨天 来  &#91;'''的'''&#93;。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他是昨天來&#91;的&#93;。}}&#93;
|tā '''shì''' zuótiān lái  &#91;'''de'''&#93;
|He '''''shi''''' yesterday come &#91;'''''de'''''&#93;.
|It was yesterday that he came.}}

Example with a sentence that ends with a complement:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 '''是''' 昨天 买  &#91;'''的'''&#93; 菜。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他是昨天買&#91;的&#93;菜。}}&#93;
|tā '''shì''' zuótiān mǎi  &#91;'''de'''&#93; cài
|He '''''shi''''' yesterday buy &#91;'''''de'''''&#93; food
|It was yesterday that he bought food.}}

If an object following the verb is to be emphasized in this construction, the ''shì'' precedes the object, and the ''de'' comes after the verb and before the ''shì''.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|他 昨天 买 '''的''' '''是''' 菜。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=他昨天買的是菜。}}&#93;
|tā zuótiān mǎi '''de''' '''shì''' cài
|He yesterday buy '''''de''''' '''''shi''''' vegetable.
|What he bought yesterday was vegetable.}}

Sentences with similar meaning can be produced using [[#Relative clauses|relative clauses]]. These may be called pseudo-cleft sentences.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|昨天 是 他 买 菜 '''的''' 时间。|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=昨天是他買菜的時間。}}&#93;
|zuótiān shì tā mǎi cài '''de''' shíjiān
|yesterday is he buy food '''''de''''' time
|Yesterday was the time he bought food.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=191}}}}

==Conjunctions==
Chinese has various [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunction]]s ({{zh|labels=no|s=连词|t=連詞|p=liáncí}}) such as ''hé'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=和}}, "and"), ''dànshì'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=但是}}, "but"), ''huòzhě'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=或者}}, "or"), etc. However, Chinese quite often uses no conjunction where English would have "and".{{sfnp|Yip|Rimmington|2004|p=12}}

Two or more nouns may be joined by the conjunctions ''hé'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=和}}, "and") or ''huò'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=或}} "or"); for example ''dāo hé chā'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=刀和叉}}, "knife and fork"), ''gǒu huò māo'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=狗或貓}}, "dog or cat").

Certain adverbs are often used as [[correlative conjunction]]s, where correlating words appear in each of the linked clauses, such as ''búdàn ... érqiě'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=不但 ... 而且|l=not only ... (but) also}}), ''suīrán ... háishì'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=虽然 ... 还是|t=雖然...還是|l=although ... still}}), ''yīnwèi ... suǒyǐ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=因为 ... 所以|t=因為...所以|l=because ... therefore}}). Such connectors may appear at the start of a clause or before the verb phrase.{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=197}}

Similarly, words like ''jìrán'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=既然}}, "since/in response to"), ''rúguǒ'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=如果}}) or ''jiǎrú'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=假如}}) "if", ''zhǐyào'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=只要}} "provided that") correlate with an adverb ''jiù'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=就}}, "then") or ''yě'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=也}}, "also") in the main clause, to form [[conditional sentence]]s.

In some cases, the same word may be repeated when connecting items; these include ''yòu ... yòu ...'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=又...又...}}, "both ... and ..."),  ''yībiān ... yībiān ...'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=一边...一边...}}, "... while ..."), and ''yuè ... yuè ...'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=越...越...}}, "the more ..., the more ...").

Conjunctions of time such as "when" may be translated with a construction that corresponds to something like "at the time (+relative clause)", where as usual, the Chinese relative clause comes before the noun ("time" in this case). For example:{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=198}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|当 我 回 家 '''的''' 时候...|c1= &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=當我回家的時候...}}&#93;
|dāng wǒ huí jiā '''de''' shíhòu...
|At I return home '''''de''''' time
|When I return&#91;ed&#93; home...}}

Variants include ''dāng ... yǐqián'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=当...以前|t=當...以前}} "before ...") and ''dāng ... yǐhòu'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=当...以后|t=當...以後}}, "after ..."), which do not use the relative marker ''de''. In all of these cases, the initial ''dāng'' may be replaced by ''zài'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=在}}), or may be omitted. There are also similar constructions for conditionals: ''rúguǒ /jiǎrú/zhǐyào ... dehuà'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=如果/假如/只要...的话|t=如果/假如/只要...的话}}, "if ... then"), where ''huà'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=话|t=話}}) literally means "narrative, story".

== See also ==
*[[Classical Chinese grammar]]
*[[Cantonese grammar]]

{{Portal|China}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
  | last = Chao | first = Yuen Ren | author-link = Chao Yuen Ren
  | title = A Grammar of Spoken Chinese
  | url = https://archive.org/details/grammarofspokenc0000chao | url-access = registration | location = Berkeley | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1968
  | isbn = 978-0-520-00219-7
  }}
* {{cite book
  | first1 = Charles N. | last1 = Li
  | first2 = Sandra A. | last2 = Thompson | author-link2 = Sandra Thompson (linguist)
  | title = Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar
  | location = Berkeley | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1981
  | isbn = 978-0-520-06610-6
  }}
* {{cite book
  | first1 = Yen-hui Audrey | last1 = Li
  | title = Order and Constituency in Mandarin Chinese
  | publisher = Springer | year = 1990
  | isbn = 978-0-792-30500-2
  }}
* {{cite book
  | first = Helen T. | last = Lin
  | title = Essential Grammar for Modern Chinese
  | publisher = Cheng & Tsui | year = 1981
  | isbn = 978-0-917056-10-9
  }}
* {{cite book
  | first1 = Claudia | last1 = Ross
  | first2 = Jing-Heng Sheng | last2 = Ma
  | title = Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: A Practical Guide
  | publisher = Routledge | year = 2006
  | isbn = 978-0-415-70009-2
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last = Sun | first = Chaofen
  | title = Chinese: A Linguistic Introduction
  | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006
  | isbn = 978-0-521-82380-7
  }}
* {{cite book
  | title = Chinese: A Comprehensive Grammar
  | last1 = Yip | first1 = Po-Ching | first2 = Don | last2 = Rimmington
  | publisher = Routledge | year = 2004
  | isbn = 0-415-15031-0
  }}
* {{cite book
  | title = Chinese: An Essential Grammar
  | last1 = Yip | first1 = Po-Ching | first2 = Don | last2 = Rimmington
  | edition = 2nd
  | publisher = Routledge | year = 2006
  | isbn = 978-0-203-96979-3
  }}
*{{cite book |author=Lü Shuxiang ({{lang|zh|吕叔湘}}) |date=1957 |title=Zhongguo wenfa yaolüe |script-title=zh:中国文法要略 |trans-title=Summary of Chinese grammar |publisher=Shangwu yinshuguan |oclc=466418461}}
*{{cite book |author-link=Wang Li (linguist)|author=Wang Li |date=1955 |title=Zhongguo xiandai yufa |trans-title=Modern Chinese grammar |script-title=zh:中国现代语法 |publisher=Zhonghua shuju}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6tFAAAAcAAJ|title=Grammar of the Chinese language: in two parts, Volume 2|author=W. Lobscheid|year=1864|publisher=Office of Daily Press|pages=178|access-date=2011-07-06}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s48PAAAAYAAJ|title=Elements of Chinese grammar: with a preliminary dissertation on the characters, and the colloquial medium of the Chinese, and an appendix containing the Tahyoh of Confucius with a translation|author=Joshua Marshman, Confucius|year=1814|publisher=Printed at the Mission press|pages=622|access-date=2011-07-06}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Chinese (Mandarin)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090720194207/http://chinesenotes.com/grammar.php A Summary of Chinese Grammar]
{{Chinese language}}
{{Language grammars}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Grammar}}
[[Category:Chinese grammar| ]]
[[Category:Sino-Tibetan grammars]]
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