View source for Citizenship

{{Short description|Legal membership in a country}}
{{Redirect|Citizen}}
{{Legal status of persons}}

'''Citizenship''' is a membership and allegiance to a [[sovereign state]].<ref name="Leydet 2006 w138">{{cite web |last=Leydet |first=Dominique |date=2006-10-13 |title=Citizenship |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/citizenship/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>{{efn|[[Helen Irving]] has noted that the term ''allegiance'' came to be employed as a synonym for ''citizenship'' to reflect a status under law rather than to indicate an individual orientation but has argued that the attribution on the part of the citizen to the state has increasingly become intended.<ref>{{cite book | last=Irving | first=Helen |authorlink=Helen Irving | title=Allegiance, Citizenship and the Law: The Enigma of Belonging | publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Limited | series=Elgar Studies in Legal Theory | year=2022 | isbn=978-1-83910-254-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dB5sEAAAQBAJ |pages=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=dB5sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2-3]}}</ref>}}

Though citizenship is often conflated with [[nationality]] in today's English-speaking world,<ref name="Manual for Human Rights Education with Young people 2011 c993">{{cite web |date=2011-08-23 |title=Citizenship and Participation — Manual for Human Rights Education with Young people |url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/compass/citizenship-and-participation |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=Manual for Human Rights Education with Young people}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Votruba |first=Martin |title=Nationality, ethnicity in Slovakia. |url=http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/qsonhist/slovaknationalityethnicityenglishtranslation.html |work=Slovak Studies Program |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |access-date=2013-04-23 |archive-date=2014-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925102426/http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/qsonhist/slovaknationalityethnicityenglishtranslation.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://archive.ipu.org/PDF/publications/nationality_en.pdf |title=Nationality and Statelessness: A Handbook for Parliamentarians |publisher=[[UNHCR]] and [[Inter-Parliamentary Union|IPU]] |year=2005 |access-date=2020-07-16 |issue=11}}</ref> [[international law]] does not usually use the term ''citizenship'' to refer to [[nationality]];<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2019-06-19 |title=International Migration Law No. 34 - Glossary on Migration |url=https://publications.iom.int/books/international-migration-law-ndeg34-glossary-migration |format=PDF |journal=[[International Organization for Migration]] |language=en |pages=143–144 |issn=1813-2278}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Rütte |first=Barbara von |title=Citizenship and Nationality: Terms, Concepts and Rights |date=2022-12-19 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004517523/BP000002.xml |work=The Human Right to Citizenship |pages=11–57 |access-date=2023-11-27 |publisher=Brill Nijhoff |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-51752-3}}</ref> these two notions are conceptually [[Nationality#Nationality versus citizenship|different dimensions]] of collective membership.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sassen |first=Saskia |chapter=17. Towards Post-National and Denationalized Citizenship |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtiZqLcJYZEC&pg=PA277 |editor1-last=Isin |editor1-first=Engin F. |editor2-last=Turner |editor2-first=Bryan S. |title=Handbook of Citizenship Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtiZqLcJYZEC |year=2002 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-6858-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gtiZqLcJYZEC&pg=PA278 278] |access-date=2016-05-06 |archive-date=2021-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930072523/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtiZqLcJYZEC |url-status=live }}</ref>

Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to [[Right of abode|work]], [[Permanent residency|reside]] and [[Suffrage|vote]] in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring a [[passport]]. Though through [[discrimination|discriminatory]] laws, like [[disfranchisement]] and outright [[Crime of apartheid|apartheid]], citizens have been made [[second-class citizen]]s. Historically, [[population]]s of states were mostly [[commoner|subject]]s,<ref name="Leydet 2006 w138"/> while citizenship was a particular status which originated in the rights of urban populations, like the rights of the male [[public]] of [[city|cities]] and [[republic]]s, particularly [[Polis|ancient city-states]], giving rise to a [[civitas]] and the [[social class]] of the [[Burgher (social class)|burgher]] or [[bourgeoisie]]. Since then states have expanded the status of citizenship to most of their national [[people]], with the [[Citizen rights|extent of citizen rights]] differing between states.

==Definition==
{{Excerpt|Nationality#Nationality versus citizenship}}

==Determining factors==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2019}}
A person can be recognized as a citizen on a number of bases.
* Nationality. Nationality and citizenship are generally indissociable, citizenship being in most cases a consequence of nationality.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Koubi |first=Geneviève |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIxYDwAAQBAJ |title=De la citoyenneté |date=1994-12-31 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=978-2-402-10208-7 |language=fr}}</ref>
* Place of residence. In some countries, [[Non-citizen suffrage|non-citizens can vote]].<ref name=":1" /> In some countries [[Non-resident citizen voting|citizens residing outside of country of citizenship can vote]].<ref name="x226">{{cite journal | last1=Umpierrez de Reguero | first1=Sebastián | last2=Finn | first2=Victoria | title=Migrants' intention to vote in two countries, one country, or neither | journal=Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2 July 2024 | issn=1745-7289 | doi=10.1080/17457289.2023.2189727 | pages=466–489| hdl=1814/75483 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> 
* Citizenship by [[Honorary citizenship|honorary conferment]]. This type of citizenship is conferred to an individual as a sign of honour.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=keypoint |date=2022-09-14 |title=TYPES OF CITIZENSHIP — Civic Keypoint |url=https://keypoint.ng/types-of-citizenship-2/ |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=keypoint |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Excluded categories. In most countries, minors are not considered as full citizens. In the past, there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, land ownership status, and free status (not being a [[slave]]). Most of these exclusions no longer apply in most places. Modern examples include some [[Gulf countries]] which rarely grant citizenship to non-Muslims, e.g. [[Qatar]] is known for granting citizenship to foreign athletes, but they all have to profess the [[Islamic]] faith in order to receive citizenship. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationally adopted children born after February 27, 1983. Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before February 27, 1983, even though their parents meet citizenship criteria.

=== Responsibilities of a citizen ===
{{Main|History of citizenship}}
Every citizen has obligations that are enshrined by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ROLES, RIGHTS & RESPONSIBILITIES OF CITIZENS |url=https://ympacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Civics-EOC-Review-CATEGORY-2-ROLES-RIGHTS-AND-RESPONSIBILITIES-OF-CITIZENS.pdf |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref> Before the revolutionary ''[[liberté, égalité, fraternité]]'' was popularized in 1789, the [[Austria-Hungary|Austria-Hungary dual monarchy]] established imperial citizenship, potentially for all of its subjects, provided that the tax payer was independent of the local [[nobility]]. Legal equality was extended to subjects who were willing to comply in much of the Habsburg empire with the 1811 Civil Code.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Habsburg Empire: A New History |author1=Pieter M. Judson |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2016 |isbn=9780674047761 |page=7}}</ref>

=== ''Polis'' ===
{{Main|Polis}}
Many thinkers such as [[Giorgio Agamben]] in his work extending the biopolitical framework of [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]'s [[History of Sexuality]] in the book, ''Homo Sacer'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Agamben |first1=G. |last2=Heller-Roazen |first2=D. |title=Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life |publisher=Stanford University Press |series=Meridian: Crossing Aesthetics |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8047-3218-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hM9euhxDMs8C |access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref> point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early [[city-state]]s of [[ancient Greece]], although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first [[law]]s. ''Polis'' meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society.{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=32}} Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon.{{sfn|Zarrow|1997|p=4}} There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny.<ref name="tws2Y17"/> The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician [[Solon]] made reforms in the early Athenian state.<ref name=tws2Y12>{{harvnb|Heater|2004|p={{page needed|date=July 2020}}}}</ref> Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights.

An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of ''[[Homo Sacer]]'' or the bare life.

Historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]] in his 2005 ''Modern Scholar'' lecture course suggested that citizenship in [[ancient Greece]] arose from an appreciation for the importance of [[Political freedom|freedom]].<ref name=twsfjiui>{{Cite book |last = Hosking |first = Geoffrey |title = Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance |publisher = The Modern Scholar via [[Recorded Books]] |series = Lecture 3: Ancient Greece |year = 2005 |location = United Kingdom |pages = 1, 2 (tracks) |isbn =978-1-4025-8360-5}}</ref> Hosking explained:
{{Blockquote|It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men.|Geoffrey Hosking, 2005<ref name=twsfjiui/>}}

[[File:Arte greca, pietra tombale di donna con la sua assistente, 100 ac. circa.JPG|thumb|right|Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship. Sculpture: a Greek woman being served by a slave-child.]]
Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time and enabled participation in public life.<ref name=twsfjiui/> Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης ''politēs'' < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners ([[metic]]s).<ref name=tws2Y16/>{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=33}} The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected to one's everyday life in the polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of [[Egypt]] or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life could not be separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to the modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which [[Aristotle]] famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on the obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honor and respect. In Athens, citizens were both rulers and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.

===Roman ideas===
{{Main article|Roman citizenship}}
In the [[Roman Empire]], citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law.<ref>See [[Civis Romanus sum]].</ref> Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of [[equality under the law]], civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long",<ref name=twsffujfk>{{Cite book
  | last = Hosking
  | first = Geoffrey
  | title = Epochs of European Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance
  | publisher = The Modern Scholar via Recorded Books
  | series = Lecture 5: Rome as a city-state
  | year = 2005
  | location = United Kingdom
  | pages = tracks 1 through 9
  | isbn =978-1-4025-8360-5}}</ref> but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship.<ref name=twsffujfk/> If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things",{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=35}} the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained:

{{Blockquote|The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the possession of some person.|[[J. G. A. Pocock]], 1998{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=36}}}}

Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper-class [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] interests against the lower-order working groups known as the [[plebs|plebeian]] class.<ref name=twsffujfk/> A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community".{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=37}} Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason".{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=37}} The law itself was a kind of bond uniting people.{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=38}} Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications.{{sfn|Pocock|1998|p=38}}

===Middle Ages===
During the European [[Middle Ages]], citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns (see [[medieval commune]]), and applied mainly to middle-class folk. Titles such as [[Burgher (title)|burgher]], [[grand burgher]] (German ''Großbürger'') and the [[bourgeoisie]] denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens.

During this era, members of the [[nobility]] had a range of [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]]s above [[commoner]]s (see [[aristocracy]]), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the [[French Revolution]], abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship.

===Renaissance===
 <!-- linked from redirect [[Subject (monarchy)]] -->
{{anchor|Subject}}During the [[Renaissance]], people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation.<ref name=tws2Y14/>{{rp|p.161}} Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration.{{sfn|Weber|1998|p=44}} And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials.{{sfn|Weber|1998|p=44}} City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship.{{sfn|Weber|1998|p=46}} Membership in [[guild]]s was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially.{{sfn|Weber|1998|pp=46-47}} The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of [[republicanism]], according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power.{{Sfn|Zarrow|1997|p=3}} Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept,<ref name=tws2Y12/> and did not signify a submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having [[rights]] and duties.<ref name=tws2Y12/>

===Modern times===
The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through elaborate systems of political representation at a distance such as [[representative democracy]].<ref name=tws2Y17/> Modern citizenship is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act.<ref name=tws2Y17/> Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do.<ref name=tws2Y17/>

====United States====
{{Main|Citizenship of the United States}}
[[File: Oil on Canvas Portrait of Dred Scott (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portrait of Dred Scott, the plaintiff in the infamous ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' case at the Supreme Court of the United States, commissioned by a "group of Negro citizens" and presented to the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, in 1888]]
From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, [[Law of the United States|United States law]] used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become a naturalized citizen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-jul-04-mn-9708-story.html|title=A History of U.S. Citizenship|date=July 4, 1997|website=The Los Angeles Times|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> [[Naturalization Act of 1790|The Naturalization Act of 1790]], the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the [[United States]] for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming a citizen thereof."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=226|title=A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875|publisher=The Library of Congress|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref>

Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] case ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/60/393#writing-USSC_CR_0060_0393_ZO|title=Scott v. Sandford|date=1857|website=Legal Information Institute|publisher=Cornell University Law School|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref>

It was not until the abolition of slavery following the [[American Civil War]] that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]], ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_amendments_11-27.html|title=Constitution of the United States: Amendment XIV|date=1868|website=The Charters of Freedom|publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> Two years later, the [[Naturalization Act of 1870]] would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870|title=Naturalization Act of 1870|website=Wikisource|publisher=U.S. Congress}}</ref>

Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], [[Asian Americans|Asians]], and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by the US Congress, such as laws in [[Naturalization Act of 1906|1906]], [[Immigration Act of 1917|1917]], and [[Immigration Act of 1924|1924]], would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://library.uwb.edu/static/USimmigration/1917_immigration_act.html|title=1917 Immigration Act|website=US Immigration Legislation Online|publisher=University of Washington-Bothell Library}}</ref> Supreme Court cases such as ''[[Ozawa v. United States|Ozawa v. the United States]]'' (1922) and ''[[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind|U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind]]'' (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law.

Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until the passage of the [[Indian Citizenship Act]] in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, [[New Mexico]] became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/elections/voters9.html|title=Elections: Native Americans|website=Library of Congress}}</ref>

It was not until the passage of the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952]] that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However, the act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/immigration-act|title=The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (The McCarran-Walter Act)|website=The Office of the Historian|publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> It was not until the passage of the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of a less discriminatory system.

====Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics====
{{Main|Soviet nationality law}}
The [[Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918|1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia]] granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]], so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/article2.htm|title=Article 2 (R.S.F.S.R. Constitution)|website=www.marxists.org|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref> It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to [[Soviet (council)|soviets]] for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/article4.htm|title=Article 4 (R.S.F.S.R. Constitution)|website=www.marxists.org|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref> The later constitutions of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all [[Republics of the Soviet Union|member republics]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons01.html|title=1936 Constitution of the USSR, Part I|website=www.departments.bucknell.edu|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/77cons02.html#chap06|title=1936 Constitution of the USSR, Part I|website=www.departments.bucknell.edu|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref> in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia.

====Nazi Germany====

[[Nazism]], the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship was conferred only on males of [[Germans|German]] (or so-called "[[Aryan]]") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The [[Reich Citizenship Law]] of 1935 established [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich]], and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/nurmlaw3.html|title=The Nuremberg Laws: The Reich Citizenship Law (September 15, 1935)|website=Jewish Virtual Library}}</ref>

The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see [[women in Nazi Germany]]).

The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights.

In 2021, the German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amt |first=Auswärtiges |title=Restoration of German citizenship (Article 116 II Basic Law) |url=https://uk.diplo.de/uk-en/02/citizenship/restoration-of-german-citizenship/2463592 |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=uk.diplo.de |language=en}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Title of cited sourse is confusing|date=September 2024}}

====Israel====
{{main article|Israeli citizenship law}}
The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is ''[[jus sanguinis]]'' (citizenship by descent) for Jews and ''[[jus soli]]'' (citizenship by place of birth) for others.<ref name="safran1997">{{cite journal|first=William|last=Safran|date=1997-07-01|title=Citizenship and Nationality in Democratic Systems: Approaches to Defining and Acquiring Membership in the Political Community|publisher=SAGE Publishing|journal=International Political Science Review|volume=18|issue=3|pages=313–335|doi=10.1177/019251297018003006|s2cid=145476893|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====India====
{{main article|Indian nationality law}}
Indian Citizenship Act, 1955,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Citizenship Act, 1955 |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1522/1/a1955-57.pdf |website=National Informatics Centre, India}}</ref> the first law in Indian history to establish rules for citizenship are ''[[jus soli]]'' (citizenship by place of birth), ''[[jus sanguinis]]'' (citizenship by descent), [[Indian nationality law#Voluntary acquisition|citizenship by registration]], [[Indian nationality law#Voluntary acquisition|citizenship by naturalization]] and citizenship by incorporation of territory.

==Different senses==
Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and a political one. For further information, see [[History of citizenship#Competing senses of citizenship|History of citizenship]]. Citizenship status, under [[social contract]] theory, carries with it both [[Social rights (social contract theory)|rights]] and [[duties]]. In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations."<ref name=twsJun16>{{cite book|first=Virginia|last=Leary|editor-first1=Alan C. |editor-last1=Cairns |editor-first2=John C. |editor-last2=Courtney |editor-first3=Peter |editor-last3=MacKinnon |editor-first4=Hans J. |editor-last4=Michelmann |editor-first5=David E.|editor-last5=Smith|title=Citizenship, Diversity, and Pluralism: Canadian and Comparative Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIKz0oJxGSgC|year=2000|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1893-3|pages=247–264|chapter=Citizenship. Human rights, and Diversity|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIKz0oJxGSgC&pg=PA247|quote=The concept of 'citizenship' has long acquired the connotation of a bundle of rights...}}</ref> Citizenship is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time.<ref name=tws2Y17>{{Cite book
  |editor-last = Isin
  |editor-first = Engin F.
 |editor-first2=Bryan S.
  |editor-last2=Turner
  | title = Handbook of Citizenship Studies
  | publisher = Sage
  | series = Chapter 5 -- David Burchell -- Ancient Citizenship and its Inheritors; Chapter 6 -- Rogers M. Smith -- Modern Citizenship
  | year = 2002
  | location = London
  | pages = 89–104, 105
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gtiZqLcJYZEC&q=%22history+of+citizenship%22&pg=PA89
  | isbn = 978-0-7619-6858-0 }}</ref> In [[China]], for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship", argued by an academic article.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Y|date=2013|title=China's peopleship education: Conceptual issues and policy analysis|journal=Citizenship Teaching and Learning |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=21–39 |doi=10.1386/ctl.8.1.21_1}}</ref>

How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As a bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government.

It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as the [[family]], [[military service]], the individual, [[political freedom|freedom]], [[religion]], ideas of [[ethics|right, and wrong]], [[ethnicity]], and patterns for how a person should behave in society.<ref name=tws2Y14/> When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond that unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a "broad bond" linking "a person with the state" and gives people a universal identity as a legal member of a specific nation.<ref name=tws2Y15>{{Cite book
  | last = Gross
  | first = Feliks 
  | title = Citizenship, and ethnicity: the growth and development of a democratic multiethnic institution
  | publisher = Greenwood Press
  | year = 1999
  | location = Westport, Connecticut
  | pages = xi, xii, xiii,4
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=I6wM4X9UQ8QC&q=%22history+of+citizenship%22&pg=PR8
  | isbn = 978-0-313-30932-8
  }}</ref>

Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:<ref name=tws2Y18>{{Cite book
  | editor-last = Beiner
  | editor-first = Ronald
  | title = Theorizing Citizenship
  | publisher = State University of New York, Albany
  | series = J. G. A. Pocock, Michael Ignatieff
  | year = 1995
  | location = US
  | pages = 29, 54
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=N8kI2WCUML0C&q=%22history+of+citizenship%22&pg=PA54
  | isbn = 978-0-7914-2335-6 }}</ref>

* The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizens should have entitlements necessary for [[human dignity]].<ref name=tws2Y14qwea>{{Cite book
  | last = Oldfield
  | first = Adrian
|editor-first=Bryan |editor-last=Turner |editor-first2=Peter
  |editor-last2=Hamilton
  | title = Citizenship: Critical Concepts
  | publisher = Routledge
  | year = 1994
  | location = United States and Canada
  | pages = 476 pages total; source: ''The Political Quarterly'', 1990 vol.61, pp. 177–187; in the book, pages 188+
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hX-mbqrZeHsC&q=%22history+of+citizenship%22&pg=PA137
  | isbn =9780415102452}}</ref> It assumes people act for the purpose of [[enlightened self-interest]]. According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it comes under attack,<ref name=tws2Y14qwea/> but are essentially passive politically,<ref name=tws2Y18/> and their primary focus is on economic betterment. This idea began to appear around the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and became stronger over time, according to one view.<ref name=tws2Y12/> According to this formulation, the state exists for the benefit of citizens and has an obligation to respect and protect the rights of citizens, including civil rights and political rights.<ref name=tws2Y12/> It was later that so-called social rights became part of the obligation for the state.<ref name=tws2Y12/>

* The civic-republican or sometimes classical or civic humanist conception of citizenship emphasizes man's political nature and sees citizenship as an active process, not a passive state or legal marker.<ref name=tws2Y18/> It is relatively more concerned that government will interfere with popular places to practice citizenship in the [[public sphere]]. Citizenship means being active in government affairs.<ref name=tws2Y14qwea/> According to one view, most people today live as citizens according to the liberal-individualist conception but wished they lived more according to the civic-republican ideal.<ref name=tws2Y18/> An ideal citizen is one who exhibits "good civic behavior".<ref name=tws2Y12/> Free citizens and a republic government are "mutually interrelated."<ref name=tws2Y12/> Citizenship suggested a commitment to "duty and civic virtue".<ref name=tws2Y12/>
{{Further|Civic engagement}}

'''Responsibilities of citizens'''

Responsibility is an action that individuals of a [[State (polity)|state]] or [[country]] must take note of in the interest of a common good. These responsibilities can be categorised into personal and [[civic responsibilities]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Role of Civic Education |url=https://civiced.org/papers/articles_role.html |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=civiced.org}}</ref>

Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean.<ref name="tws2Y12" /> Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between [[duties]] and [[rights]].<ref name="tws2Y12" /> Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship.<ref name="tws2Y12" /> Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well.<ref name="tws2Y12" /> Citizenship can be seen as a special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses.<ref name="tws2Y12" /> According to [[sociology|sociologist]] [[Arthur Stinchcombe]], citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group.<ref name="tws2Y14">{{Cite book
  | last = Taylor
  | first = David
 |editor-first=Bryan |editor-last=Turner |editor-first2=Peter
  |editor-last2=Hamilton
  | title = Citizenship: Critical Concepts
  | publisher = Routledge
  | year = 1994
  | location = United States and Canada
  | pages = 476 pages total 
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hX-mbqrZeHsC&q=%22history+of+citizenship%22&pg=PA137
  | isbn = 978-0-415-07036-2}}</ref>{{rp|p.150}} One last distinction within citizenship is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent.<ref name="tws2Y16">{{Cite book
  | editor-last = Hebert
  | editor-first = Yvonne M.
  | title = Citizenship in transformation in Canada
  | publisher = University of Toronto Press
  | series = chapters by Veronica Strong-Boag, Yvonne Hebert, Lori Wilkinson
  | year = 2002
  | location = Toronto
  | pages = 3, 4, 5
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wHN4POIB1IIC&q=%22history+of+citizenship%22&pg=PA38
  | isbn =978-0-8020-0850-3}}</ref>

==International==
{{See also|Global citizenship}}
Some [[intergovernmental organization]]s have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level,<ref>[[Daniele Archibugi]], [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8737.html ''"The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy"''], [[Princeton University Press]], Princeton, 2008</ref> where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship.

===European Union===
{{Main|Citizenship of the European Union}}
The [[Maastricht Treaty]] introduced the concept of [[citizenship of the European Union]]. Article 17 (1) of the [[Treaties of the European Union#Treaty on European Union|Treaty on European Union]]<ref>Note: the consolidated version.</ref> stated that: <blockquote>Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship.<ref name="Rome">{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:115:0001:01:EN:HTML|title=Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|accessdate=Mar 5, 2023}}</ref></blockquote>

An agreement is known as the amended [[EC Treaty]]<ref name="Rome" /> established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided a limited right to free movement and residence in the Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights.

Union citizens have also extensive [[Four Freedoms (European Union)|rights to move in order to exercise economic activity]] in any of the Member States<ref>Note: Articles 39, 43, 49 EC.</ref> which predate the introduction of Union citizenship.<ref>Violaine Hacker, "Citoyenneté culturelle et politique européenne des médias : entre compétitivité et promotion des valeurs", NATIONS, CULTURES ET ENTREPRISES EN EUROPE, sous la direction de Gilles Rouet, Collection Local et Global, L'Harmattan, Paris, pp. 163-184</ref>

===Mercosur===
{{Main|Citizenship of the Mercosur}}
Citizenship of the [[Mercosur]] is granted to eligible citizens of the [[Member states of Mercosur|Southern Common Market member states]]. It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of "Mercosur Citizen".{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

===Commonwealth===
{{Main|Commonwealth citizen}}
[[File: Citizenship ceremony on beach near Cooktown, Queensland. 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|Citizenship ceremony on beach near Cooktown, Queensland. 2012]]
The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries:
* Some such countries do not require tourist [[visa (document)|visas]] of citizens of other Commonwealth countries or allow some Commonwealth citizens to stay in the country for tourism purposes without a visa for longer than citizens of other countries.
* In some Commonwealth countries, [[permanent resident|resident]] citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the [[right to vote]] in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election.
* In some instances the right to work in any position (including the [[civil service]]) is granted, except for certain specific positions, such as in the defense departments, [[Governor-General]] or [[President (government title)|President]] or [[Prime Minister]].
*In the United Kingdom, all Commonwealth citizens legally residing in the country can vote and stand for office at all elections.

Although [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/246/pdfs/uksi_20050246_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218091234/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/246/pdfs/uksi_20050246_en.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-18 |url-status=live|title=The Commonwealth Countries and Ireland (Immunities and Privileges) (Amendment) Order 2005}}</ref> Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the [[United Kingdom]].

Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the [[Irish Free State]] was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, [[Irish citizen]]s were still treated as [[British subject|subjects of the Crown]], and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth.<ref>''Murray v Parkes'' [1942] All ER 123.</ref> The ''[[Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946|Canadian Citizenship Act]]'' of 1946 provided for a distinct [[Canadian nationality law|Canadian Citizenship]], automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of [[History of British nationality law|Commonwealth citizenship was introduced]] in 1948 in the [[British Nationality Act 1948]]. Other [[dominion]]s adopted this principle such as [[New Zealand]],  by way of the [[British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948]].

==Subnational==
{{main|Subnational citizenship}}
[[File:Diagram of citizenship.jpg|thumb|Diagram of relationship between; Citizens, Politicians + Laws]]
Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. [[Subnational entity|Subnational entities]] may impose requirements, of [[Residency (domicile)|residency]] or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizenship is a citizenship of an individual [[Commune (administrative division)|commune]], from which follows citizenship of a [[Canton (country subdivision)|canton]] and of the Confederation. Another example is [[Åland]] where the residents enjoy special provincial citizenship within [[Finland]], ''hembygdsrätt''.

The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence, such as [[New York (state)|New York]] or [[California]], as well as a [[Citizenship in the United States|citizen of the United States]]. State [[constitution]]s may grant certain rights above and beyond what is granted under the [[United States Constitution]] and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and some states maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization.

==Education==
{{Main|Citizenship education (subject)}}
"[[Active citizenship]]" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, citizenship education is taught in schools, as an academic subject in some countries. By the time children reach secondary education there is an emphasis on such unconventional subjects to be included in an academic curriculum. While the diagram on citizenship to the right is rather facile and depthless, it is simplified to explain the general model of citizenship that is taught to many secondary school pupils. The idea behind this model within education is to instill in young pupils that their actions (i.e. their [[Election|vote]]) affect collective citizenship and thus in turn them.

===Republic of Ireland===
It is taught in the [[Republic of Ireland]] as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE). A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics & Society' is being developed by the [[National Council for Curriculum and Assessment]] (NCCA) and is expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncca.ie/en/Publications/Reports/Senior_Cycle_Politics_and_Society_Report_on_the_consultation.pdf |title=Leaving Certificate Politics and Society : Report on the consultation process |date=March 2010 |access-date=2012-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928175132/http://www.ncca.ie/en/Publications/Reports/Senior_Cycle_Politics_and_Society_Report_on_the_consultation.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
Citizenship is offered as a [[General Certificate of Secondary Education]] (GCSE) course in many schools in the [[United Kingdom]]. As well as teaching knowledge about [[democracy]], parliament, government, the justice system, [[human rights]] and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community.
*Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in [[England]] for all pupils aged 11–16. Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at [[GCSE]] and [[A level]]. All state schools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and report student's progress in citizenship to parents.<ref name=dfes>{{cite web
|url=http://www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship/
|title=National curriculum
|publisher=British Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families
|access-date=2009-02-02}}</ref>
*In [[Wales]] the model used is [[personal and social education]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://new.wales.gov.uk/publications/circular/circulars03/NAFWC132003?lang=en
|title=NAFWC 13/2003 Personal and Social Education (PSE) and Work-Related Education (WRE) in the Basic Curriculum. Education (WRE) in the Basic Curriculum.
|date=15 June 2003
|publisher=Welsh Assembly Government
|access-date=2007-06-09
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123122958/http://new.wales.gov.uk/publications/circular/circulars03/NAFWC132003?lang=en
|archive-date=23 November 2011
|url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |url          = http://new.wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/policy_strategy_and_planning/schools/339214-wag/key_documents/supporting_specific_groups/personal_social_education?lang=en
 |title        = Personal and Social Education Framework: Key Stages 1 to 4 in Wales
 |publisher    = Welsh Assembly Government
 |access-date   = 2007-06-09
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110504031644/http://new.wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/policy_strategy_and_planning/schools/339214-wag/key_documents/supporting_specific_groups/personal_social_education?lang=en
 |archive-date = 2011-05-04
 |url-status     = dead
}}</ref>
*Citizenship is not taught as a discrete subject in [[Scotland|Scottish]] schools, but is a cross-curricular strand of the Curriculum for Excellence. However they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.msa-scotland.co.uk/
|title=Modern Studies Association
|access-date=2007-08-09
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911231903/http://www.msa-scotland.co.uk/
|archive-date=2007-09-11
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
*Citizenship is taught as a standalone subject in all state [[Education in Northern Ireland|schools in Northern Ireland]] and most other schools in some forms from year 8 to 10 prior to [[GCSEs]]. Components of Citizenship are then also incorporated into GCSE courses such as 'Learning for Life and Work'.

==Criticism==
The concept of citizenship is criticized by [[open borders]] advocates, who argue that it functions as a [[caste]], [[feudal]], or [[apartheid]] system in which people are assigned dramatically different opportunities based on the accident of birth. It is also criticized by some [[libertarian]]s, especially [[anarcho-capitalist]]s. In 1987, moral philosopher [[Joseph Carens]] argued that "citizenship in Western liberal democracies is the modern equivalent of feudal privilege—an inherited status that greatly enhances one's life chances. Like feudal birthright privileges, restrictive citizenship is hard to justify when one thinks about it closely".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ochoa Espejo |first1=Paulina |title=Why borders do matter morally: The role of place in immigrants' rights |journal=Constellations |date=2018 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.1111/1467-8675.12340}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vladimirovich Kochenov |first1=Dimitry|authorlink=Dimitry Kochenov |title=Ending the passport apartheid. The alternative to citizenship is no citizenship—A reply |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |date=2020 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=1525–1530 |doi=10.1093/icon/moaa108|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sacco |first1=Steven |title=Abolishing Citizenship: Resolving the Irreconcilability Between "Soil" and "Blood" Political Membership and Anti-Racist Democracy |journal=Georgetown Immigration Law Journal |date=2022 |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.law.georgetown.edu/immigration-law-journal/in-print/volume-36-number-2-winter-2021/volume-36-number-2-winter-2021-5/}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Citizen's dividend]]
* [[Citizenship Studies]]
* [[Civic virtue]]
* [[Credit score]]
* [[Discrimination based on nationality]]
* [[Honorary citizenship]]
* [[Loss of citizenship]]
* [[Nationalism]]
* [[Non-citizens (Latvia)]]
* [[People|Peoples]]
* [[Spatial citizenship]]
* [[Transnational citizenship]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book
  | last = Weber
  | first = Max
  | title = Citizenship in Ancient and Medieval Cities
  | publisher = The University of Minnesota
  | series = Chapter 3
  | year = 1998
  | location = Minneapolis, MN
  | pages = 43–49
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i6U7CTuCJLYC
  | isbn = 978-0-8166-2880-3
}}
*{{Citation
  | first = Peter
  | last = Zarrow
  | title = Imagining the People: Chinese Intellectuals and the Concept of Citizenship, 1890-1920
  | editor-last = Fogel
  | editor-first = Joshua A.
  | editor2-last = Zarrow
  | editor2-first = Peter G.
  | year = 1997
  | pages = 3
  | place = Armonk, NY
  | publisher = M. E. Sharpe
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JL6hMClDKMgC
  | isbn = 978-0-7656-0098-1 }}
*{{cite book 
  | editor-last=Lawrance 
  | editor-last2=Stevens 
  | editor-first=Benjamin N. 
  | editor-first2=Jacqueline 
  | title=Citizenship in Question: Evidentiary Birthright and Statelessness 
  | date=February 2017 
  | publisher=Duke University Press 
  | isbn=9780822362913 
  | url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/citizenship-in-question}}
*{{cite book 
  | editor-last=Mann 
  | editor-first=Jatinder 
  | title=Citizenship in Transnational Perspective: Australia, Canada, and Aotearoa New Zealand 
  | date=October 12, 2023 
  | edition=2nd 
  | isbn=9783031343575 
  | publisher=Springer International Publishing 
  | series=Politics of Citizenship and Migration Series 
  | url=https://link.springer.com/book/9783031343575}}
*{{cite book 
  | author-last=Parker 
  | author-first=Kunal M. 
  | title=Making Foreigners: Immigration and Citizenship Law in America, 1600-2000 
  | publisher=Cambridge University Press 
  | location=New York, NY, USA 
  | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/making-foreigners/B3D2569D364C9399364ADFAF15D4D98A 
  | date=5 September 2015 <!---first published date---> 
  | isbn= 9781139343282 
  | doi=10.1017/CBO9781139343282}}
*{{cite book 
  | author-last=Bosniak 
  | author-first=Linda 
  | title=The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership 
  | date=September 28, 2023 
  | isbn=9780691138282 
  | publisher=Princeton University Press 
  | location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA 
  | jstor=j.ctt7s254 
  | url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691138282/the-citizen-and-the-alien}}
*{{cite book 
  | author-last=Kochenov 
  | author-first=Dimitry 
  | title=Citizenship 
  | publisher=The MIT Press 
  | isbn=9780262537797 
  | date=November 12, 2019 
  | url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262537797/citizenship/ 
  | series=MIT Press Essential Knowledge Series}}
*{{Cite book
  | last = Pocock
  | first = J. G. A.
|editor-last=Shafir
|editor-first=Gershon
  | title = The Citizenship Debates
  | publisher = The University of Minnesota
  | series = Chapter 2 -- The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in ''Queen's Quarterly'' 99, no. 1)
  | year = 1998
  | location = Minneapolis, MN
  | pages = 31
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i6U7CTuCJLYC
  | isbn = 978-0-8166-2880-3
}}

* {{Cite book
 | last = Archibugi, Daniele
 | author-link = Daniele Archibugi
 | year = 2008
 | title = The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy | publisher = Princeton University Press
 | isbn = 978-1-4008-2976-7
}}
*{{Cite book
 | last = Brooks, Thom
 | author-link = Thom Brooks
 | year = 2016
 | title = Becoming British: UK Citizenship Examined | publisher = Biteback
}}
* Beaven, Brad, and John Griffiths. "Creating the Exemplary Citizen: The Changing Notion of Citizenship in Britain 1870–1939," ''Contemporary British History'' (2008) 22#2 pp 203–225  {{doi|10.1080/13619460701189559}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Carens, Joseph
 | author-link = Joseph Carens
 | year = 2000
 | title = Culture, Citizenship, and Community: A Contextual Exploration of Justice as Evenhandedness
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | isbn = 978-0-19-829768-0
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Heater
 | first = Derek
 | year = 2004
 | title = A Brief History of Citizenship
 | publisher = NYU Press
 | isbn = 978-0-8147-3672-2
 | url-access = registration
 | url = https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofci00dere
 }}
*{{Cite book
  | last1 = Howard-Hassmann
  | first1 = Rhoda E.
  | author-link = Rhoda Howard-Hassmann
  | last2 = [[Margaret Walton-Roberts|Walton-Roberts]]
  | first2 = Margaret
  | title = The Human Right to Citizenship: A Slippery Concept
  | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press
  | series = Pennsylvania Studies in Human Rights Series
  | year = 2015
  | isbn = 9780812247176
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last =Kymlicka
 |first=Will
 |author-link=Will Kymlicka
 | year = 1995
 | title = Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | isbn = 978-0-19-829091-9
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Maas
 | first = Willem
 | year = 2007
 | title = Creating European Citizens
 | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield
 | isbn = 978-0-7425-5486-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|title=Citizenship in Dalit and Indigenous Australian Literatures
|author-last= Mukherjee
|author-first=Riya
|date=2024
|publisher=Routledge
|oclc=1381208006
| doi=10.4324/9781003300892
|isbn=9781003300892
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYbSEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Marshall
 | first = T.H.
 | year = 1950
 | title = Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Shue
 | first = Henry
 | year = 1950
 | title = Basic Rights
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Smith
 | first = Rogers
 | year = 2003
 | title = Stories of Peoplehood: The Politics and Morals of Political Membership
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
 | isbn = 978-0-521-52003-4
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Somers
 | first = Margaret
 | year = 2008
 | title = Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
 | isbn = 978-0-521-79394-0
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Soysal
 | first = Yasemin
 | year = 1994
 | title = Limits of Citizenship. Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe
 | publisher = University of Chicago Press
}}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Turner
 | first = Bryan S.
 | year = 1994
 | title = Citizenship and Social Theory
 | publisher = Sage
 | isbn = 978-0-8039-8611-4
}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Young | first = Iris Marion | author-link = Iris Marion Young | title = Polity and group difference: A critique of the ideal of universal citizenship | journal = [[Ethics (journal)|Ethics]] | volume = 99 | issue = 2 | pages = 250–274 | date = January 1989 | jstor = 2381434 | doi = 10.1086/293065 | s2cid = 54215809 }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | author-last=Leydet | author-first=Dominique | title=Citizenship | date=September 5, 2023 | orig-date=October 13, 2006 | editor-last=Zalta | editor-last2=Nodelman | editor-first=Edward N. | editor-first2=Uri | display-editors=etal | encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | edition=Fall 2023 | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/citizenship <!----this edition will be updated to the following URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/citizenship/----><!---the URL links to the dynamic portion of the encyclopedia, not the static portion, all editions available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/cgibin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=citizenship---->}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=citizenship}}
*{{Wikiquote-inline}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Citizenship}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/pshe_and_citizenship/ BBC PSHE & Citizenship] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619024010/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/pshe_and_citizenship/ |date=2016-06-19 }}
* [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2280329  The Life in the UK Citizenship Test Report by Thom Brooks]
* {{cite SEP |url-id=citizenship |title=Citizenship |last=Leydet |first=Dominique}}
* {{Cite web
| url = http://opm.gov/extra/investigate/IS-01.pdf
| title = Citizenship Laws of the World
| access-date = 2007-03-07
|date=March 2001
| publisher = United States Office of Personnel Management Investigations Service
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060404042127/http://www.opm.gov/extra/investigate/IS-01.pdf
| archive-date = 2006-04-04 }}

{{Social class}}
{{Political philosophy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Citizenship| ]]
[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:Immigration law]]