View source for Civil and political rights

{{short description|Rights preventing the infringement of personal freedom by other social actors}}
{{redirect|Civil rights}}

{{Rights |Human}}
{{Liberalism sidebar}}
'''Civil and political rights''' are a class of [[rights]] that protect [[individual]]s' [[political freedom|freedom]] from infringement by [[government]]s, [[social organization]]s, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life of society and the [[State (polity)|state]].

Civil rights generally include ensuring peoples' physical and mental integrity, [[right to life|life]], and [[safety]], protection from [[discrimination]], the right to [[privacy]], the freedom of [[freedom of thought|thought]], [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[freedom of religion|religion]], [[freedom of the press|press]], [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], and [[freedom of movement|movement]].

Political rights include [[natural justice]] (procedural fairness) in [[law]], such as the [[rights of the accused]], including the [[right to a fair trial]]; [[due process]]; the right to seek redress or a [[legal remedy]]; and rights of [[Participation (decision making)|participation]] in [[civil society]] and [[politics]] such as [[freedom of association]], the [[right to assemble]], the [[right to petition]], the [[right of self-defense]], and the [[Suffrage|right to vote]]. These rights also must follow the legal norm as in they must have the force of law and fit into the system of administrative justice. A key feature in modern society is that the more a state can guarantee political rights of citizens the better the states relations are with its citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fokina |first1=Anastasiia O. |last2=Yushchyk |first2=Oleksii O. |last3=Kunenko |first3=Iryna S. |last4=Ryndiuk |first4=Vira I. |last5=Machuska |first5=Iryna B. |date=2023-12-30 |title=Normative determination of guarantees of political rights in the sphere of administrative justice |url=https://amazoniainvestiga.info/check/72/22-246-253.pdf |journal=Revista Amazonia Investiga |language=en |volume=12 |issue=72 |pages=246–253 |doi=10.34069/AI/2023.72.12.22 |issn=2322-6307}}</ref>

Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international [[human rights]].<ref>A useful survey is Paul Sieghart, ''The Lawful Rights of Mankind: An Introduction to the International Legal Code of Human Rights'', Oxford University Press, 1985.</ref> They comprise the first portion of the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (with [[economic, social, and cultural rights]] comprising the second portion). The theory of [[three generations of human rights]] considers this group of rights to be "first-generation rights", and the theory of [[negative and positive rights]] considers them to be generally [[negative rights]].

==History==
The phrase "civil rights" is a translation of Latin ''jus civis'' (right of the citizen). Roman citizens could be either free (''libertas'') or servile (''servitus''), but they all had rights in law.<ref>Mears, T. Lambert, ''Analysis of M. Ortolan's Institutes of Justinian, Including the History and'', p. 75.</ref> After the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313, these rights included the freedom of religion; however, in 380, the [[Edict of Thessalonica]] required all subjects of the Roman Empire to profess Nicene Christianity.<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, Erwin and Geoffrey William Bromiley, ''The encyclopedia of Christianity'', Volume 4, p. 703.</ref> Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of universal rights could still be made based on Christian doctrine. According to the leaders of [[Kett's Rebellion]] (1549), "all bond men may be made free, for God made all free with his precious blood-shedding."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/humanrights/1500-1760/ |title=Human Rights: 1500–1760 – Background |publisher=Nationalarchives.gov.uk |access-date=2012-02-11 |archive-date=2020-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807194423/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/humanrights/1500-1760/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 17th century, [[English common law]] judge Sir [[Edward Coke]] revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed [[Rights of Englishmen|such rights]]. The [[Parliament of England]] adopted the [[English Bill of Rights]] in 1689. It was one of the influences drawn on by [[George Mason]] and [[James Madison]] when drafting the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]] in 1776. The Virginia declaration heavily influenced the [[U.S. Bill of Rights]] (1789).<ref>{{cite web|url= https://billofrightsinstitute.org/primary-sources/bill-of-rights|title= Bill of Rights: The 1st Ten Amendments|author= <!--Not stated-->|date= |website= |publisher= Bill of Rights Institute|access-date= 12 November 2023|quote= |archive-date= 12 November 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231112061854/https://billofrightsinstitute.org/primary-sources/bill-of-rights|url-status= live}}</ref>

The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a "civil disability". In early 19th century Britain, the phrase "civil rights" most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], support for civil rights was divided, with many  politicians agreeing with the existing civil disabilities of Catholics. The [[Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829]] restored their civil rights.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~graphicarts/2011/03/the_mountain_in_labour.html |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=www.princeton.edu |archive-date=2024-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125181253/https://www.princeton.edu/~graphicarts/2011/03/the_mountain_in_labour.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the United States, the term civil rights has been associated with the [[civil rights movement]] (1954–1968), which fought against racism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-22 |title=Civil Rights Movement: Timeline, Key Events & Leaders |url=https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-movement |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=History |language=en |archive-date=2020-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411003722/https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-movement |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement also fought segregation and Jim Crow laws and this fight took place in the streets, in public places, in government, and in the courts including the Supreme Court.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: The Black Panther Party This guide focuses on the civil rights that various groups have fought for within the United States. |url=https://library.law.howard.edu/civilrightshistory |access-date=September 19, 2024}}</ref> The civil rights movement was also not the only movement fighting for civil rights as The Black Panthers were also a group focused on fighting racism and Jim Crow.

Other things that civil rights have been associated with are not just race but also rights of Transgender and other LGBTQ individuals. These have been fights over sexuality instead of race and focused around whether these individuals may access certain spaces like bathrooms according to their sexual identity or biological sex. Gavin Grimm's fight in Virginia over whether he could use the bathroom of his choice is a well known case in these civil right fights.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rand |first=Erin J. |date=2024-01-02 |title="The Rosa Parks of the trans bathroom debate": Gavin Grimm and the racialization of transgender civil rights |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00335630.2023.2259963 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Speech |language=en |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=51–73 |doi=10.1080/00335630.2023.2259963 |issn=0033-5630|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Another issue in civil rights has been the issue with police brutality in certain communities especially minority communities. This has been seen as another way for minority groups to be oppressed and their rights infringed upon. Outrage has also been a massive result of incidents caught on tape of police abusing and in some cases causing the deaths of people from minority groups such as African Americans. That is why to address the issue has been accountability to police engaging in such conduct as a way to deter other officers from committing similar actions.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/monograph?docid=b-9781509952618 |title=Building Bridges in European and Human Rights Law: Essays in Honour and Memory of Paul Heim CMG |date=2024 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1-5099-5261-8 |editor-last=Clifton |editor-first=Michael-James |edition=1 |doi=10.5040/9781509952618.0015 |editor-last2=Rab |editor-first2=Suzanne |editor-last3=Scorey KC |editor-first3=David}}</ref>

==Protection of rights==
[[T. H. Marshall]] notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights and still later by social rights. In many countries, they are [[constitutional right]]s and are included in a [[bill of rights]] or similar document. They are also defined in [[international human rights instruments]], such as the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and the 1966 [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]].

Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected. However, most [[Democracy|democracies]] worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil and political rights. Civil rights are considered to be [[Natural and legal rights|natural rights]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote in his ''[[A Summary View of the Rights of British America]]'' that "a free people [claim] their rights as derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of their [[chief magistrate]]."

The question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. Although in many countries [[citizen|citizens are considered to]] have greater protections against infringement of rights than non-citizens, civil and political rights are generally considered to be universal rights that apply to all [[person]]s. One thing to mention is that if individuals have fewer political rights than are they more likely to commit political violence such as in countries where individual rights are highly restricted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Piazza |first=James |date=2024-04-02 |title=Intolerance of non-Muslim political rights and engagement in political violence: a study of public opinion in 11 Arab countries |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19434472.2022.2061570 |journal=Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |doi=10.1080/19434472.2022.2061570 |issn=1943-4472|url-access=subscription }}</ref> That is why it is important for countries to protect the political rights of all citizens including minority groups. This extends to racial, ethnic, tribal, and religious groups. By granting them the same rights it helps reduce the risk of political violence breaking out.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mustafa |first=Dr. Ghulam |last2=Ahmad |first2=Tooba |last3=Arslan |first3=Muhammad |date=2021-09-27 |title=An Analysis of Family Laws of Religious Minorities in Pakistan |url=https://pjia.com.pk/index.php/pjia/article/view/239 |journal=Pakistan Journal of International Affairs |volume=4 |issue=3 |doi=10.52337/pjia.v4i3.239 |issn=2664-360X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr., analyzing the causes of and lack of protection from human rights abuses in the Global South should be focusing on the interactions of domestic and international factors—an important perspective that has usually been systematically neglected in the social science literature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Regilme | first=Salvador Santino F. Jr. |date=3 October 2014 |title=The Social Science of Human Rights: The Need for a 'Second Image Reversed'? |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |volume=35 |issue=8 |pages=1390–1405 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2014.946255|s2cid=143449409 }}</ref>

==Other rights==
[[Custom (law)|Custom]] also plays a role. Implied or [[unenumerated rights]] are rights that [[court]]s may find to exist even though not expressly guaranteed by written law or custom; one example is the [[right to privacy]] in the [[United States]], and the [[Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Ninth Amendment]] explicitly shows that other rights are also protected.

The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] states that people have unalienable rights including "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness". It is considered by some that the sole purpose of government is the protection of life, liberty, and property.<ref>[http://www1.legis.ga.gov/legis/2011_12/fulltext/hb4.htm House Bill 4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001010710/http://www1.legis.ga.gov/legis/2011_12/fulltext/hb4.htm |date=2012-10-01 }}</ref>

Some thinkers have argued that the concepts of [[self-ownership]] and [[cognitive liberty]] affirm rights to choose the food one eats,<ref>{{cite news|author=Robert Book|title=The ''Real'' Broccoli Mandate|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/aroy/2012/03/23/the-real-broccoli-mandate/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328110032/http://www.forbes.com/sites/aroy/2012/03/23/the-real-broccoli-mandate/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 28, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2013|newspaper=Forbes|date=March 23, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Meredith Bragg & Nick Gillspie|title=Cheese Lovers Fight Idiotic FDA Ban on Mimolette Cheese!|url=http://reason.com/reasontv/2013/06/21/cheese-lovers-fight-idiotic-fda-ban-on-m|access-date=September 15, 2013|newspaper=Reason|date=June 21, 2013|archive-date=September 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925181720/http://reason.com/reasontv/2013/06/21/cheese-lovers-fight-idiotic-fda-ban-on-m|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Self-medication|medicine one takes]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jessica Flanigan|title=Three arguments against prescription requirements|url=http://jme.bmj.com/content/38/10/579.full.pdf+html|access-date=September 14, 2013|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|date=July 26, 2012|doi=10.1136/medethics-2011-100240|volume=38|issue=10|pages=579–586|pmid=22844026|doi-access=free|archive-date=December 25, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225030704/http://jme.bmj.com/content/38/10/579.full.pdf+html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Kerry Howley|title=Self-Medicating in Burma: Pharmaceutical freedom in an outpost of tyranny|url=http://reason.com/archives/2005/08/01/self-medicating-in-burma|access-date=September 14, 2013|newspaper=Reason|date=August 1, 2005|archive-date=April 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429160811/http://reason.com/archives/2005/08/01/self-medicating-in-burma|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Daniel Schorn|title=Prisoner Of Pain|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/prisoner-of-pain/|access-date=September 15, 2013|newspaper=60 Minutes|date=February 11, 2009|archive-date=November 4, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104185854/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-1238202.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Recreational drugs|habit one indulges]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Emily Dufton|title=The War on Drugs: Should It Be Your Right to Use Narcotics?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/03/the-war-on-drugs-should-it-be-your-right-to-use-narcotics/254317/|access-date=September 13, 2013|newspaper=The Atlantic|date=Mar 28, 2012|archive-date=February 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219192748/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/03/the-war-on-drugs-should-it-be-your-right-to-use-narcotics/254317/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Doug Bandow| others = Chapter 10| pages = 253–280| title = Towards a Worldwide Index of Human Freedom| year = 2012| publisher = Fraser Institute| chapter = From Fighting the Drug War to Protecting the Right to Use Drugs – Recognizing a Forgotten Liberty| chapter-url = http://www.freetheworld.com/2012/freedomIndex/Towards-Worldwide-Index-10-Bandow.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015504/http://www.freetheworld.com/2012/freedomIndex/Towards-Worldwide-Index-10-Bandow.pdf| archive-date = 2015-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Szasz| title=Our Right to Drugs: The Case for a Free Market|year=1992|publisher=Praeger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2gEPHslMsKgC| isbn=9780815603337}}</ref>

==Social movements for civil rights==
{{Main|Civil rights movements}}

[[File:Savka Dabcevic Kucar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Savka Dabčević-Kučar]], [[Croatian Spring]] participant; Europe's first female prime minister]]
Civil rights guarantee equal protection under the law. When civil and political rights are not guaranteed to all as part of equal protection of [[law]]s, or when such guarantees exist on paper but are not respected in practice, opposition, legal action and even [[Rebellion|social unrest]] may ensue.

Civil rights movements in the United States gathered steam by 1848 with such documents as the Declaration of Sentiment.<ref>"Signatures to the Seneca Falls Convention 'Declaration of Sentiments{{'"}}. American History Online, Facts On File, Inc.</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=March 2014}} Consciously modeled after the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], the [[Declaration of Rights and Sentiments]] became the founding document of the American women's movement, and it was adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention, July 19 and 20, 1848.<ref>Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn. "Declaration of Rights and Sentiments". ''Encyclopedia of Women's History in America'', 2nd ed. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2000. American History Online. {{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=February 2024}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=March 2014}}

Worldwide, several [[political movement]]s for [[equality before the law]] occurred between approximately 1950 and 1980. These movements had a legal and constitutional aspect, and resulted in much law-making at both national and international levels. They also had an activist side, particularly in situations where violations of rights were widespread. Movements with the proclaimed aim of securing observance of civil and political rights included:
* the [[civil rights movement]] in the United States, where rights of black citizens had been violated;
* the [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]], formed in 1967 following failures in this province of the [[United Kingdom]] to respect the Roman Catholic minority's rights; and
* movements in many Communist countries, such as the [[Prague Spring]] and [[Charter 77]] in [[Czechoslovakia]] and the uprisings in Hungary.

Most civil rights movements relied on the technique of [[civil resistance]], using [[nonviolent]] methods to achieve their aims.<ref>[[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]] and [[Timothy Garton Ash]] (eds.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&q=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820072155/https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&q=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics |date=2023-08-20 }}, Oxford University Press, 2009. Includes chapters by specialists on the various movements.</ref> In some countries, struggles for civil rights were accompanied, or followed, by [[civil unrest]] and even armed rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty years have resulted in an extension of civil and political rights, the process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives.

==Problems and analysis==
{{Original research|date=January 2023|section}}
Questions about civil and political rights have frequently emerged. For example, to what extent should the government intervene to protect individuals from infringement on their rights by other [[individual]]s, or from [[corporation]]s—e.g., in what way should [[employment discrimination]] in the [[private sector]] be dealt with?

[[Political theory]] deals with civil and political rights. [[Robert Nozick]] and [[John Rawls]] expressed competing visions in Nozick's ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'' and Rawls' ''[[A Theory of Justice]]''. Other influential authors in the area include [[Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld]], and [[Jean Edward Smith]].

==First-generation rights==
First-generation rights, often called "blue" rights,{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political in nature, as well as strongly [[individual and group rights|individualistic]]: They serve [[negative and positive rights|negatively to protect]] the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, [[freedom of speech]], the [[right to a fair trial]], (in some countries) the [[right to keep and bear arms]], [[freedom of religion]], [[freedom from discrimination]], and [[voting rights]]. They were pioneered in the seventeenth and eighteenth-century during the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. Political theories associated with the English, American, and French revolutions were codified in the [[English Bill of Rights]] in 1689 (a restatement of [[Rights of Englishmen]], some dating back to [[Magna Carta]] in 1215) and more fully in the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] in 1789 and the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in 1791.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domaradzki|first1=Spasimir|last2=Khvostova|first2=Margaryta|last3=Pupovac|first3=David|date=2019-12-01|title=Karel Vasak's Generations of Rights and the Contemporary Human Rights Discourse|journal=Human Rights Review|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|pages=423–443|doi=10.1007/s12142-019-00565-x|issn=1874-6306|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Types and Generations of Human Rights|url=https://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/slatta/hi216/hrtypes.htm|access-date=2020-10-30|website=faculty.chass.ncsu.edu|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104182833/https://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/slatta/hi216/hrtypes.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

They were enshrined at the global level and given status in [[international law]] first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and later in the 1966 [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. In Europe, they were enshrined in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in 1953.

== Civil and political rights organizations ==
{{Globalize|section|United States|date=June 2022}}
There are current organizations that exist to protect people's civil and political rights in case they are infringed upon. The [[American Civil Liberties Union|ACLU]], founded in 1920, is a well-known non-profit organization that helps to preserve freedom of speech and works to change policy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About the ACLU|url=https://www.aclu.org/about-aclu|access-date=2020-10-26|website=American Civil Liberties Union|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125092220/https://www.aclu.org/about-aclu|url-status=live}}</ref> Another organization is the [[NAACP]], founded in 1909, which focuses on protecting the civil rights of minorities. The NRA is a civil rights group founded in 1871 that primarily focuses on protecting the right to bear arms. These organizations serve a variety of causes, one being the [[AFL–CIO]], which is America's union that represent the working-class people nationwide.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Civil Rights Organizations|url=https://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/civil-rights-organizations|access-date=2020-10-26|website=The Civil Rights Project at UCLA|archive-date=2017-08-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804214723/https://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/civil-rights-organizations|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Law|Politics|Society}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* {{anl|Civics}}
* {{anl|Civil liberties}}
* {{anl|Discrimination}}
* [[List of civil rights leaders]]
* [[Political equality]]
* {{anl|Political repression|Repression}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Civil rights}}
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=civil and political rights}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=civil-rights |title=Civil Rights |last=Altman |first=Andrew}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090829224452/http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/encyclopedia_contents Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle] ~ an online multimedia encyclopedia presented by the King Institute at Stanford University, includes information on over 1000 civil rights movement figures, events and organizations
* [https://www.britannica.com/event/American-civil-rights-movement Encyclopædia Britannica: Article on Civil Rights Movement]
* [https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-movement The History Channel: Civil Rights Movement]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100325225510/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/22816/civil-rights-beyond-black--white Civil Rights: Beyond Black & White] – slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/civil-rights-president-eisenhower-and-eisenhower-administration Civil rights during the Eisenhower Administration, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]
* Arnold, Eric K. "The BLM Effect: Hashtags, History and Race." Race, Poverty & the Environment, vol. 21, no. 2, 2017, pp.&nbsp;8–15. JSTOR, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/44687751 The BLM Effect: Hashtags, History and Race]. Accessed 11 Apr. 2023.
* Estes, Carroll L. "Women's Rights, Women's Status, Women's Resistance in the Age of Trump." Generations: Journal of the American Society on Aging, vol. 41, no. 4, 2017, pp.&nbsp;36–44. JSTOR, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26556315 Women's Rights, Women's Status, Women's Resistance in the Age of Trump]. Accessed 11 Apr. 2023.
* [https://www.whqr.org/local/2020-07-28/reckoning-with-1898-in-a-21st-century-civil-rights-movement Reckoning with 1898 in a 21st Century Civil Rights Movement]
* [https://beniceproject.com/2011/07/05/the-civil-rights-issue-of-the-21st-century/ Be Nice. Project]

{{Human rights}}
{{Particular human rights}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Civil rights and liberties| ]]
[[Category:Human rights concepts]]
[[Category:Identity politics]]
[[Category:Rights]]