View source for Classical Arabic

{{Short description|Form of the Arabic language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Classical Arabic
| altname          = Quranic Arabic
| states           = [[Caliphate|Early Islamic Caliphates]]
| era              = *7th–9th centuries AD
*Continued as a liturgical language of [[Islam]]
*Spoken with a [[Modern Standard Arabic|modernized pronunciation]]
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3             = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| fam4             = [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
| fam5             = [[Arabic]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Arabic]]
| isoexception     = historical
| image            = Large Koran.jpg
| imagecaption     = Verses from the [[Quran]] vocalized in a reading tradition considered normative Classical Arabic, written in the [[cursive]] [[Arabic]].
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = none
| nativename       = {{lang|ar|العربية الفصحى}}<br/>{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā}}
| ethnicity        = [[Arabs]]
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|/al ʕaraˈbijja lˈfusˤħaː/}}
| script           = [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic abjad]]
| region           = [[Muslim World]]
}}

'''Classical Arabic''' or '''Quranic Arabic''' ({{langx|ar|links=no|العربية الفصحى|al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā|the most eloquent Arabic}}) is the standardized literary form of [[Arabic]] used from the 7th century and throughout the [[Middle Ages]], most notably in [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] literary texts such as poetry, elevated prose and oratory, and is also the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]], "Quranic" referring to the [[Quran]]. Classical Arabic is, furthermore, the [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of the Arabic language on which [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is based.

Several written grammars of Classical Arabic were published with the exegesis of Arabic grammar being at times based on the existing texts and the works of previous texts, in addition to various early sources considered to be of most venerated genesis of Arabic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |date=2011-05-30 |title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |journal=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |language=en}}</ref> The primary focus of such works was to facilitate different linguistic aspects.

[[Modern Standard Arabic]] is its direct descendant used today throughout the [[Arab world]] in writing and in formal speaking, for example prepared speeches, some radio and television broadcasts and non-entertainment content.{{sfn|Bin-Muqbil|2006|p=14}} The [[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]] and [[stylistics (linguistics)|stylistics]] of Modern Standard Arabic are different from Classical Arabic, and Modern Standard Arabic uses a subset of the syntactic structures available in Classical Arabic, but the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[syntax]] have remained basically unchanged.{{sfn|Bin-Muqbil|2006|p=15}} In the Arab world little distinction is made between Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic and both are normally called {{Transliteration|ar|al-fuṣḥā}} ({{lang|ar|الفصحى}}) in Arabic, meaning 'the most eloquent'.

Classical Arabic is considered a [[Conservative and innovative language|conservative language]] among Semitic languages, it preserved the complete [[Proto-Semitic language|Proto-Semitic]] three grammatical cases and [[ʾIʿrab|declension (ʾIʿrab)]], and it was used in the reconstruction of Proto-Semitic since it preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes.<ref name="Versteegh19972">{{cite book |last=Versteegh |first=Cornelis Henricus Maria "Kees" |author-link=Kees Versteegh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C |title=The Arabic Language |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-231-11152-2 |page=13}}</ref>

==History==
{{see also|Pre-classical Arabic}}
[[File:Distribution of the Arabic language before the Rashidun islamic conquests.png|thumb|Distribution of Arabic dialects before the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Einführung |first1=Eine |title=Arabische Dialektgeographie |date=2005 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-47-40649-5 |page=27 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/11696?language=de&contents=toc-43627 |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref>]]
The earliest forms of Arabic are known as [[Old Arabic]] and survive in inscriptions in [[Ancient North Arabian]] scripts as well as fragments of pre-Islamic poetry preserved in the classical literature. It is hypothesized that by the late 6th century AD a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic [[koiné]]", a [[synthetic language]] distinct from the spoken vernaculars, had developed with conservative as well as innovative features, including the case endings known as [[ʾIʿrab|''ʾiʿrab'']].<ref name="The Arabic Language">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C&q=poetic+koine+arabic&pg=PA46 |title=The Arabic Language |last1=Versteegh |first1=Kees |last2=Versteegh |first2=C. H. M. |date=1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11152-2 |language=en}}</ref> It is uncertain to what degree the spoken vernaculars corresponded to the literary style, however, as many surviving inscriptions in the region seem to indicate simplification or absence of the inflectional morphology of Classical Arabic. It is often said that the [[Bedouin]] dialects of [[Najd]] were probably the most conservative (or at least resembled the elevated intertribal idiom morphologically and lexically more than the other contemporary vernaculars), a view possibly supported by the romanticization of the ‘purity’ of the language of the desert-dwellers (as opposed to the "[[language change|corrupted]]" dialects of the city-dwellers) expressed in many medieval Arabic works, especially those on grammar, though some argue that all the spoken vernaculars probably deviated greatly from the supraregional literary norm to different degrees, while others, such as [[Joshua Blau]], believe that "the differences between the classical and spoken language were not too far-reaching".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8ZiAAAAMAAJ |title=On Pseudo-corrections in Some Semitic Languages |last1=Blau |first1=Joshua |date=1970 |publisher=Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities}}</ref>

The [[Arabic script]] is generally believed to have evolved from [[Nabataean script|local]] [[cursive]] varieties of the [[Aramaic script]], which have been adopted to write Arabic, though some, such as [[Jean Starcky]], have postulated that it instead derives direct from the [[Syriac script]] since, unlike Aramaic, the scripts of Arabic and Syriac are both cursive. Indigenous speculations concerning the [[History of the Arabic alphabet|history of the script]] sometimes ascribe the origins of the script, and oftentimes the language itself also, to one of the ancient major figures in Islam, such as [[Adam]] or [[Ishmael]], though others mention that it was introduced to Arabia from afar.<ref name="The Arabic Language"/> In the 7th century AD the distinctive features of [[Old Hijazi]], such as loss of final short vowels, loss of [[hamza]], lenition of final /-at/ to /-ah/ and lack of [[nunation]], influenced the consonantal text (or ''[[rasm]]'') of the [[Qur'an]] (and also many of its readings also) and the later normalized orthography of Classical Arabic as a standard literary register in the 8th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Putten |first1=Marijn van |last2=Stokes |first2=Phillip |title=Case in the Qurˀānic Consonantal Text. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 108 (2018), pp. 143–179 |url=https://www.academia.edu/37481811 |journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes |date=January 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

By the 2nd century [[Hijri year|AH]] (9th century&nbsp;[[AD]]) the language had been standardized by Arabic grammarians and knowledge of Classical Arabic became a prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, since it was the [[lingua franca]] across the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Horn of Africa]], and thus the region eventually developed into a widespread state of [[diglossia]]. Consequently the classical language, as well as the [[Arabic script]], became the subject of much mythicization and was eventually associated with religious, ethnic, and racial conflicts, such as the rise of many groups traditionally categorized under the broad label of [[Shu'ubiyya|al-Shu'ibiyya]] (roughly meaning "those of the nations", as opposed to Arab tribes), who, despite the remarkable differences in their views, generally rejected the stressed and often dogmatized belief that the Arabs, as well as their language, were far superior to all other races and ethnicities,<ref group=note>Such views were not held only by Arabs. Many Islamized Persians appear to have internalized similar beliefs, and they are expressed in the works of such renowned Persian scholars as [[al-Farisi]] and his pupil [[Ibn Jinni]].</ref> and so the term later came to be applied pejoratively to such groups by their rivals.<ref group=note>The term is used disparagingly in the introduction to ''Al-Mufaṣṣal'', a treatise on Arabic grammar by the Persian theologian and exegete [[al-Zamakhshari]], wherein he begins by attacking "al-Shu'ubiyya" and thanking Allah for making him "a faithful ally of the Arabs". However the term was also used positively as it derives from the Qur'an.</ref> Moreover, many Arabic grammarians strove to attribute as many words as possible to a "pure Arabic origin", especially those in the Qur'an. Thus, exegetes, theologians, and grammarians who entertained the idea of the presence of "impurities" (for example, naturalized loanwords) in the Qur'an were severely criticized and their proposed etymologies denounced in most cases.<ref group=note>Versteegh (1997) believes that early Medieval Arabic etymologists and philologists, be they exegetes, grammarians, or both, were noticeably far more eager to ascribe words to historically non-Arabic origins, and so he concludes that the spread of the association of "linguistic supremacy" with "etymological purity" was a later development, though he mentions [[al-Suyuti]] as a notable exception to this puristic attitude, which eventually became prevalent.</ref> Nonetheless, the belief in the racial and ethnic supremacy of the Arabs and the belief in the [[Holy Language|linguistic supremacy]] of Arabic did not seem to be necessary entailments of each other.<ref group=note>[[Abu Ubaidah (scholar)|Abu 'Ubayda]], a Persian philologist, exegete, and historian who was later accused of "hating Arabs", asserted that "the Qur'an was revealed in a clear Arabic tongue, and so whosoever claims that [the word] "[[Ta-Ha|taha]]" is [[Nabateans|Nabatean]] has committed a great error".</ref>

Poems and sayings attributed to Arabic-speaking personages who lived before the standardization of the Classical idiom, which are preserved mainly in far later manuscripts, contain traces of elements in morphology and syntax that began to be regarded as chiefly poetic or characteristically regional or dialectal. Despite this, these, along with the Qur'an, were perceived as the principal foundation upon which grammatical inquiry, theorizing, and reasoning were to be based. They also formed the literary ideal to be followed, quoted, and imitated in solemn texts and speeches. Lexically, Classical Arabic may retain one or more of the dialectal forms of a given word as variants of the standardized forms, albeit often with much less currency and use.<ref name="The Arabic Language"/>

Various Arabic dialects freely [[loanword|borrowed words]] from Classical Arabic, a situation similar to the [[Romance languages]], wherein scores of words were borrowed directly from [[Classical Latin]]. Arabic-speakers usually spoke Classical Arabic as a [[second language]] (if they spoke the colloquial dialects as their first language) or as a [[third language]] (if they spoke another language as their first language and a regional variety of colloquial Arabic as their second language). Nonetheless, the pronunciation of Classical Arabic was likely influenced by the [[varieties of Arabic#Phonetics|vernaculars]] to different degrees (much like [[Modern Standard Arabic]]). The differences in pronunciation and vocabulary in the regional Arabic varieties were in turn variously influenced by the native languages spoken in the conquered regions, such as [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in Egypt; [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Punic language|Punic]] in the Maghreb; [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]], [[Modern South Arabian]], and [[Old South Arabian]] in Yemen; and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] in the Levant.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fr5t1KLL6oC&q=arabic+vernaculars+coptic+aramaic&pg=PT635 |title=The Handbook of Language Contact |last=Hickey |first=Raymond |date=2013-04-24 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-44869-4 |language=en}}</ref>

==Phonology==
=== Consonants ===
{{See also|Arabic phonology}}
Like Modern Standard Arabic, Classical Arabic had 28 consonant phonemes:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Classical Arabic consonant phonemes{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=13}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" |[[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" |plain
! style="font-size: 80%;" |[[Velarization|emphatic]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}} {{lang|ar|م}}
|
|{{IPA link|n}} {{lang|ar|ن}}
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|t}} {{lang|ar|ت}}
|{{IPA link|ˁ|tˁ}}{{ref|d|1}} {{lang|ar|ط}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}} {{lang|ar|ك}}
|{{IPA link|q|q}}{{ref|g|2}} {{lang|ar|ق}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʔ}} {{lang|ar|[[hamza|ء]]}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|b}} {{lang|ar|ب}}
|
|{{IPA link|d}} {{lang|ar|د}}
|{{IPA link|ɮ}}{{IPA link|ˁ}}{{ref|d|5}} ~ {{IPA link|dˤ}} {{lang|ar|ض}}
|{{IPA link|ɟ}}{{ref|j|3}} ~ [[Voiced postalveolar affricate|dʒ]]{{Ref|4|4}} {{lang|ar|ج}}
|
|
|  ||
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|{{IPA link|f}} {{lang|ar|ف}}
|{{IPA link|θ}} {{lang|ar|ث}}
|{{IPA link|s}} {{lang|ar|س}}
|{{IPA link|ˁ|sˁ}} {{lang|ar|ص}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{lang|ar|ش}}
|  ||{{IPA link|χ|χ}} {{lang|ar|خ}}
|{{IPA link|ħ}} {{lang|ar|ح}}
|{{IPA link|h}} {{lang|ar|ه}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
|
|{{IPA link|ð}} {{lang|ar|ذ}}
|{{IPA link|z}} {{lang|ar|ز}}
|{{IPA link|ˁ|ðˁ}} {{lang|ar|ظ}}
|  ||
|{{IPA link|ʁ|ʁ}} {{lang|ar|غ}}
|{{IPA link|ʕ}} {{lang|ar|ع}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]] / [[Tap consonant|Tap]]
| ||
|{{IPA link|r}}{{ref|r|7}} {{lang|ar|ر}}
| || || || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| || ||  {{IPA link|l}} {{lang|ar|ل}}||({{IPA link|ɫ|lˁ}})<sup>{{ref|l|6}}</sup> {{lang|ar|ل}}
|{{IPA link|j}} {{lang|ar|[[yāʼ#Arabic yāʼ|ي]]}}
|{{IPA link|w}} {{lang|ar|[[Waw (letter)#Arabic wāw|و]]}}
|  ||  ||
|}
Notes:

:{{note|d|1}}[[Sibawayh]] described the consonant {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ط}}}} as voiced ({{IPA|/dˁ/}}), but some modern linguists cast doubt upon this testimony.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |last1=Danecki |first1=Janusz |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |volume=III |page=124 |chapter=Majhūra/Mahmūsa}}</ref> It is likely that the word used to describe it did not mean voiced but rather unaspirated.
:{{note|g|2}}The 14th century historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] described the pronunciation of {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ق}}}} as a voiced velar {{IPAslink|ɡ}} and that it might have been the old Arabic pronunciation of the letter, he even describes that the [[Muhammad|prophet Muhammad]] may have used the {{IPAslink|ɡ}} pronunciation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heinrichs |first=Wolfhart |title=Ibn Khaldūn as a Historical Linguist with an Excursus on the Question of Ancient gāf |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B8F_PW9P6dqlcWc1OUpBcFpLZTA/view |journal=Harvard University}}</ref>
:{{note|j|3}}As it derives from [[Proto-Semitic]] *g, {{IPAslink|ɟ}} may have been a palatalized velar: {{IPAslink|ɡʲ}}.
{{Note||4|}} Possible due to descriptions of ''šiddah'' (plosive) letters by the early grammarians fitting affricates<ref>{{Cite book |last=sibwaih-bin-abi-bishr-amr |url=http://archive.org/details/KitabSibawaih_201906 |title=Kitab-e-Sibawaih الکتاب کتاب سیبویہ |date=2019-06-24}}</ref>
:{{note|d|5}}This is retrospectively reconstructed based on ancient texts describing the proper pronunciation and discouraging the use of any other pronunciation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Kinberg |first=Naphtali |url=https://archive.org/details/studieslinguisti00kinb |title=Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic |publisher=Brill |year=2001 |isbn=9004117652 |editor-last=Kinberg |editor-first=Leah |location=Leiden; Boston; Koln |pages=[https://archive.org/details/studieslinguisti00kinb/page/n207 197]-267 |chapter=Treatise on the Pronunciation of the Dad |editor-last2=Versteegh |editor-first2=Kees |url-access=limited}}</ref>
:{{note|l|6}}{{IPAslink|ɫ|lˁ}} is a marginal phoneme that only appears in {{IPA|/(ʔa)lːˁɑːh/}}, the name of God, [[Allah]],{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=16}} except after {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/iː/}} when it becomes unemphatic {{IPA|/l/}}: ''{{Transliteration|ar|bismi&nbsp;l–lāhi}}'' {{IPA|/bismi‿lːaːhi/}} ('in the name of God')
:{{note|r|7}}{{IPAslink|rˁ}} is emphatic except before {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} when it becomes unemphatic {{IPAblink|r}}.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[Monophthong]] phonemes
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Short
! colspan="2" | Long
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| {{IPA link|iː}}
| {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|
|({{IPA link|eː}})<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Studies |first=Sibawayhi |title=solomon i.sara_sibawayh on imalah-text translation |url=https://www.academia.edu/36974800 |language=en |website=Academia.edu}}</ref>
|
|- align="center"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|a}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|aː}}
|}
:Notes:
:* {{IPA|[ɑ(ː)]}} is the allophone of {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} after uvular and emphatic consonants
:* {{IPA|[eː]}} arose from two separate sources, often conflated:
:**The contraction of the triphthong {{IPA|*ayV}}. Some Arabs said ''banē'' (< *banaya) for ''banā'' ("he built") and ''zēda'' (< *zayida) for ''zāda'' ("it increased"). This {{IPA|/eː/}} merged with {{IPA|/aː/}} in later Classical Arabic and most modern Arabic dialects.<ref name=":0" />
:**A completely different phenomenon called [[imāla]] led to the raising of {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} adjacent to a sequence {{IPA|i(ː)C}} or {{IPA|Ci(ː)}}, where C was a non-emphatic, non-uvular consonant, e.g. ''al-kēfirīna'' < ''al-kāfirīna'' ("the infidels"). Imala could also occur in the absence of an i-vowel in an adjacent syllable. It was considered acceptable Classical Arabic by Sibawayh, and still occurs in numerous modern Arabic dialects, particularly the urban dialects of the Fertile Crescent and the Mediterranean.
:* [{{IPA|eː}}] may have been the original pronunciation of a final ی which is otherwise pronounced as [{{IPA|aː}}]. In the Kisā'i and Hamzah recitations of the Qur'an, this pronunciation is used, whereas in the Hafs pronunciation {{IPA|aː}} is used instead. An example of this can be seen in the names Mūsā (Moses), 'īsā (Jesus), and Yahyā (John), which would be pronounced as Musē, 'īsē and Yahyē in the former two manners of recitation.

== Grammar ==

=== Nouns ===
{{Main|Arabic nouns and adjectives}}

==== Case ====
The A1 inscription dated to the 3rd or 4th century&nbsp;AD in the [[Greek alphabet]] in a dialect showing affinities to that of the Safaitic inscriptions shows that short final high vowels had been lost in at least some dialects of [[Old Arabic]] at that time, obliterating the distinction between nominative and genitive case in the singular, leaving the accusative the only marked case:<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/12463830 |title=New Epigraphica from Jordan I: a pre-Islamic Arabic inscription in Greek letters and a Greek inscription from north-eastern Jordan |journal=Arabian Epigraphic Notes 1 |access-date=2015-12-09 |last1=Al-Manaser |first1=Ali |last2=Al-Jallad |first2=Ahmad |date=19 May 2015}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | Translation
! scope="col" | Original Greek transcription
! scope="col" |Arabic approximate transcription
|-
| ʾAws son of ʿūḏ (?) || lang="ar-Grek" | Αυσος Ουδου || lang="ar" | أوس عوذ
|-
| son of Bannāʾ son of Kazim || lang="ar-Grek" | Βαναου Χαζιμ || lang="ar" | بناء كازم
|-
| the ʾidāmite came || lang="ar-Grek" | μου αλΙδαμι αθα || lang="ar" | الإدامي أتو
|-
| because of scarcity; he came || lang="ar-Grek" | οα μισειαζ αθαοευ̣  || lang="ar" | من شحاص أتو
|-
| to Bannāʾ in this region || lang="ar-Grek" | α Βαναα αδαυρα || lang="ar" | بناء الدور
|-
| and they pastured on fresh herbage || lang="ar-Grek" | αουα ειραυ βακλα || lang="ar" | ويرعو بقل
|-
| during Kānūn || lang="ar-Grek" | βιΧανου || lang="ar" | بكانون
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Safaitic (ca. 3rd – 4th century AD)
|-
!
!Triptote
!Diptote
!Dual
!Masculine plural
!Feminine plural
|-
|Nominative
|∅..الـ<br />''(ʾal-)...-∅''
| rowspan="3" | -''∅''
|الـ)..ـَان)<br />''(ʾal-)...-ān''
|الـ)..ـُون)<br />''(ʾal-)...-ūn''
| rowspan="3" |الـ)..ـَات)<br />''(ʾal-)...-āt''
|-
|Accusative
|الـ..ـَا<br />''(ʾal-)...-a''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـَيْن)<br />''(ʾal-)...-ayn''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـِين)<br />''(ʾal-)...-īn''
|-
|Genitive
|∅..(الـ)<br />''(ʾal-)...-∅''
|}

Classical Arabic however, shows a far more archaic system, essentially identical with that of [[Proto-Arabic]]:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Classical Arabic (ca. 7th century AD)
|-
!
! colspan="2" |Triptote
!Diptote
!Dual
!Masculine plural
! colspan="2" |Feminine plural
|-
|Nominative
|ـٌ<br />''-un''
|الـ..ـُ<br />''ʾal-...-u''
|ـُ<br />-''u''
|الـ)..ـَانِ)<br />''(ʾal-)...-āni''
|الـ)..ـُونَ)<br />''(ʾal-)...-ūna''
|ـَاتٌ<br />''-ātun''
|الـ..ـَاتُ<br />''ʾal-...-ātu''
|-
|Accusative
|ـًا، ـً<br />''-an''
|الـ..ـَ<br />''ʾal-...-a''
| rowspan="2" |ـَ<br />-''a''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـَيْنِ)<br />''(ʾal-)...-ayni''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـِينَ)<br />''(ʾal-)...-īna''
| rowspan="2" |ـَاتٍ<br />''-ātin''
| rowspan="2" |الـ..ـَاتِ<br />''ʾal-...-āti''
|-
|Genitive
|ـٍ<br />''-in''
|الـ..ـِ<br />''ʾal-...-i''
|}

==== State ====
The definite article spread areally among the Central Semitic languages and it would seem that Proto-Arabic lacked any overt marking of definiteness. Besides dialects with no definite article, the Safaitic inscriptions exhibit about four different article forms, ordered by frequency: ''h-'', ''ʾ-'', ''ʾl-'', and ''hn-''. The Old Arabic of the Nabataean inscriptions exhibits almost exclusively the form ''ʾl-''. Unlike the Classical Arabic article, the Old Arabic ''ʾl'' almost never exhibits the assimilation of the coda to the coronals; the same situation is attested in the Graeco-Arabica, but in A1 the coda assimilates to the following ''d'', αδαυρα *''ʾad-dawra'' {{lang|ar|الدورة}} 'the region'.

In Classical Arabic, the definite article takes the form ''al-'', with the coda of the article exhibiting assimilation to the following dental and denti-alveolar consonants. Note the inclusion of palatal {{IPA|/ɕ/}}, which alone among the palatal consonants exhibits assimilation, indicating that assimilation ceased to be productive before that consonant shifted from Old Arabic {{IPA|/ɬ/}}:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ [[sun and moon letters|Sun consonants]] in Classical Arabic
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | plain
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Velarization|emphatic]]
! style="font-size: 80%;" | plain
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Velarization|emphatic]]
|-
|
|
| {{IPA link|n}} ''n'' – {{lang|ar|ن}}
|
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA link|t}} ''t'' – {{lang|ar|ت}}
| {{IPA link|tˤ}} ''ṭ'' – {{lang|ar|ط}}
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA link|d}} ''d'' – {{lang|ar|د}}
|
|
|-
| {{IPA link|θ}} ''ṯ'' – {{lang|ar|ث}}
|
| {{IPA link|s}} ''s'' – {{lang|ar|س}}
| {{IPA link|sˤ}} ''ṣ'' – {{lang|ar|ص}}
|
|-
| {{IPA link|ð}} ''ḏ'' – {{lang|ar|ذ}}
| {{IPA link|ðˤ}} ''ẓ'' – {{lang|ar|ظ}}
| {{IPA link|z}} ''z'' – {{lang|ar|ز}}
|
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɕ}} (< *ɬ) {{IPA link|ʃ}} – {{lang|ar|ش}}
|{{IPA link|ɮˤ}} ''ḍ'' – {{lang|ar|ض}}
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}} ''l'' – {{lang|ar|ل}}
|
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA link|r}} ''r'' – {{lang|ar|ر}}
|
|
|}

=== Verbs ===
{{Main|Arabic verbs}}

==== Barth-Ginsberg alternation ====
Proto-Central Semitic, Proto-Arabic, various forms of Old Arabic, and some modern Najdi dialects to this day have alternation in the performative vowel of the prefix conjugation, depending on the stem vowel of the verb. Early forms of Classical Arabic allowed this alternation, but later forms of Classical Arabic levelled the /a/ allomorph:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" |Pre-Classical (''taltalah'')
!Classical
|-
|1 sg.
|''ʾi-rkabu''
|''ʾa-qtulu''
|''ʾa-...-u''
|-
|2 m.sg.
|''ti-rkabu''
|''ta-qtulu''
|''ta-...-u''
|-
|3 m.sg.
|''ya-rkabu'' (< *''yi-'')
|''ya-qtulu''
|''ya-...-u''
|-
|1 pl.
|''ni-rkabu''
|''na-qtulu''
|''na-...-u''
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Islam}}
*[[Arabic in Islam]]
*[[Quranic Arabic Corpus]]
*[[Arabic–English Lexicon]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Bin-Muqbil |first=Musaed |year=2006 |title=Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Arabic Emphatics and Gutturals |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Wisconsin |location=Madison |work=Open Journal of Modern Linguistics}}
*Holes, Clive (2004) ''Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties'' Georgetown University Press.  {{ISBN|1-58901-022-1}}
*[[Kees Versteegh|Versteegh, Kees]] (2001) ''The Arabic Language'' Edinburgh University Press {{ISBN|0-7486-1436-2}} (Ch.5 available in link below)
*{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Janet C. E. |title=The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-925759-1}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Classical Arabic|Modern Standard Arabic|Fus-ha}}
* [http://corpus.quran.com Classical Arabic Grammar Documentation] – Visualization of Classical Quranic Grammar ([[i'rab|{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|iʻrāb}}]])
*[http://www.al-mawrid.org/index.php/learning/quranic-arabic-for-beginners/view/quranic-arabic-for-beginners-lesson-1] – Lectures on Quranic Arabic by Khalid Zaheer (CA)
* [http://www.lqtoronto.com Institute of the Language of the Quran] – Free Video lectures on basic and advanced Classical Arabic grammar
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210516000855/https://classicalarabic.org/] – A hub for learners of Classical Arabic.

{{Language phonologies}}
{{Arabic language}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Classical Arabic| ]]
[[Category:Arabic languages]]
[[Category:Classical languages|Arabic]]
[[Category:Verb–subject–object languages|Arabic]]
[[Category:Sacred languages]]
[[Category:Medieval languages|Arabic, Classical]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 7th century]]
[[Category:7th-century establishments in Asia]]