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{{Short description|Christian theologian (c. 150 – c. 215)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
|name= Clement of Alexandria
| birth_name       = Titus Flavius Clemens
| image            = Clement alexandrin.jpg
| caption          = Clement depicted in 1584
|feast_day=4 December ([[Eastern Catholicism]], [[Anglicanism]]) <br />
5 December ([[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)|Episcopal Church]], [[Anglicanism]])
|venerated_in= [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]<br /> [[Anglican Communion]]<ref>{{cite book |title = Prayer book |url = http://prayerbook.ca/the-prayer-book-online/57-the-calendar-ix |chapter=The Calendar |page=IX |access-date= 2013-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131104172841/http://prayerbook.ca/the-prayer-book-online/57-the-calendar-ix |archive-date= 2013-11-04}}</ref>
| birth_date       = {{circa|150 AD}}
| death_date       = {{circa|215 AD}}
| birth_place      = [[Athens]], [[Achaia (Roman province)|Achaia]], [[Roman Empire]]
| death_place      = [[Jerusalem]], [[Syria Palaestina]], [[Roman Empire]]
| titles=Church Father, Theologian
| beatified_date=
| beatified_place=
| canonized_date= Pre-congregation
| canonized_place=
| canonized_by=
| attributes=
|patronage=
| major_shrine=
| suppressed_date=c. 1605
| suppressed_by=[[Pope Clement VIII]]
| issues=Regarded as a [[heretic]] by [[Photius]].
| module           = {{Infobox philosopher
| embed            = yes
| notable_works    = {{ubl |''[[Protrepticus (Clement)|Protrepticus]]''|''[[Paedagogus]]'' |''[[Stromata]]''}}
| era              = {{ubl |[[Ancient philosophy]]|[[Patristic Period]]}}
| region           = [[Western philosophy]]
| school_tradition = {{ubl|[[Middle Platonism]]|[[Alexandrian school]]}}
| other_names      = Clement Alexandrine
| main_interests   = [[Christian theology]]
| institutions     = [[Catechetical School of Alexandria]]
| notable_students = [[Origen]] and [[Alexander of Jerusalem|Alexander]]
| notable_ideas    = {{Flatlist}}
*[[Throne (angel)|Thrones]]
*[[Nephilim#Fallen angels|Fallen Nephilim]]
*[[Epistle of Barnabas#Status for Christians|Barnabas authorship]]<ref name= Bromiley>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wo8csizDv0gC&pg=PA206 |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |editor-first=Geoffrey William |editor-last=Bromiley |date=October 29, 1979 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn= 978-0-80283781-3 |via=Google Books |access-date= December 31, 2019 |archive-date= July 29, 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200729141608/https://books.google.com/books?id=wo8csizDv0gC&pg=PA206 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Limbo of the Fathers]]<ref>{{Cite book |url= http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book6.html | author=Clement of Alexandria | title = Stromata | volume = 6 | chapter = VI | publisher = Early Christian writings |access-date= 2019-08-03 |archive-date=2019-07-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190725170312/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book6.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Baptism by fire]]
{{Endflatlist}}
}}}}
{{Catholic philosophy}}
'''Titus Flavius Clemens''', also known as '''Clement of Alexandria''' ({{langx |grc|Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς}}; {{circa|150}} – {{circa|215 AD}}),{{sfnp|Buell|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q850NV-C5fEC&pg=PA10 10]}} was a schematic [[Christian theology|Christian theologian]] and philosopher who taught at the [[Catechetical School of Alexandria]]. Among his pupils were [[Origen]] and [[Alexander of Jerusalem]]. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with [[Ancient Greek philosophy|classical Greek philosophy]] and [[Ancient Greek literature|literature]]. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by [[Plato]] and the [[Stoicism|Stoics]].{{sfnp|Outler|1940|p=217}} His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian [[Judaism|Jewish]] esotericism and [[Gnosticism]] as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and [[Pythagoras]] were taught by Egyptian scholars.{{sfnp|Press|2003|p=83}}

Clement is usually regarded as a [[Church Father]]. He is venerated as a [[saint]] in [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christianity]], [[Eastern Catholicism]], [[Ethiopian Christianity]], and [[Anglicanism]]. He was revered in [[Western Catholicism]] until 1586, when his name was removed from the [[Roman Martyrology]] by [[Pope Sixtus V]] on the advice of [[Baronius]]. The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Nonetheless, he is still sometimes referred to as "Saint Clement of Alexandria" by both Eastern Orthodox<ref>Ware, ''The Orthodox Church'', 340; De Young, ''The Religion of the Apostles'', 44; Spark, ''The Orthodox Study Bible'', 1800.</ref> and Catholic<ref>Akin, ''The Fathers Know Best'', 45, 52, 61, 73, 93, 141, 224, 354.</ref> authors.

== Biography ==
Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is speculated that he was born sometime around 150 AD. According to [[Epiphanius of Salamis]], he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an [[Alexandria]]n birth.<ref name="Fer1974-13">{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=13}}</ref>{{sfnp|Westcott|1877|p=560}}

His parents were [[paganism|pagans]] and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the ''[[Protrepticus (Clement)|Protrepticus]]'' he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek religion and [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery religions]], which could have arisen only from the practice of his family's religion.<ref name="Fer1974-13" />

Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption, he travelled in [[Greece]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Syria Palaestina|Palestine]], and [[Egypt]]. Clement's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking. In Greece, he encountered an [[Ionia]]n theologian, who has been identified as [[Athenagoras of Athens]]; while in the east, he was taught by an Assyrian, sometimes identified with [[Tatian]], and a Jew, possibly [[Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea|Theophilus of Caesarea]].<ref name="Fer1974-14">{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=14}}</ref>

In around 180 AD, Clement reached [[Alexandria]],<ref>''Stromateis'' 1.1.11.2</ref> where he met [[Pantaenus]], who taught at the [[Catechetical School of Alexandria]].<ref>Eusebius, ''Eccl. Hist''. 6.13.2; 6.6.1</ref> [[Eusebius]] suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school, but controversy exists about whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of [[Origen]].<ref name=Fer1974-15>{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=15}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hägg|2006|pp=56–9}}{{NoteTag|Proponents of a formalized leadership and succession suggest that Clement succeeded Pantaenus as leader of the school, and was succeeded himself by Origen.{{sfnp|Itter|2009|pp=9–10}}}}{{sfnp|Osborn|2008|pp=19–24}} Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by [[Pope Julian of Alexandria|Pope Julian]] before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's personal life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings.<ref name="Fer1974166">{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=16}}</ref>

During the [[Septimius Severus#Persecution of Christians|Severian persecution]] of 202–203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211, [[Alexander of Jerusalem]] wrote a letter commending him to the Church of [[Antioch]],<ref>Eusebius, ''Eccl. Hist''. 6.14.8</ref> which may imply that Clement was living in [[Cappadocia]] or Jerusalem at that time. He died {{circa|215 AD}} at an unknown location.

==Theological works==
[[File:Klementos Alexandreos ta heuriskomena.tif|thumb|{{Transliteration|el|Klementos Alexandreos ta heuriskomena}} (1715)]]

===Trilogy===
Three of Clement's major works have survived in full and they are collectively referred to as a trilogy:{{sfnp|Osborn|2008|p=5}}
*The ''[[Protrepticus (Clement)|Protrepticus]]'' (''Exhortation'') – written {{circa|195 AD}}<ref name=Fer197417>{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=1}}</ref>
*The ''[[Paedagogus]]'' (''Tutor'') – written {{circa|198 AD}}<ref name=Fer197417/>
*The ''[[Stromata]]'' (''Miscellanies'') – written {{circa|198 AD}}–{{circa|203 AD}}<ref name=Fer197417/>

====''Protrepticus''====
{{main|Protrepticus (Clement)}}
[[File:DSC00355 - Orfeo (epoca romana) - Foto G. Dall'Orto.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic mysteries]] are used as an example of the false cults of Greek paganism in the ''Protrepticus''.]]
The ''Protrepticus'' ({{langx|el|Προτρεπτικὸς πρὸς Ἕλληνας}}: "Exhortation to the Greeks") is, as its title suggests, an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity. Within it, Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology. It is chiefly important due to Clement's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon.<ref name="Dro1989131">{{harvp|Droge|1989|p=13}}</ref> After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages.{{sfnp|Droge|1989|p=130}} Clement suggests that at first, humans mistakenly believed [[Sky deity|the Sun, the Moon, and other heavenly bodies]] to be deities. The next developmental stage was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of [[Demeter]] and [[Dionysus]] arose.<ref name=Dro1989131/> Humans then paid reverence to revenge and deified human feelings of [[eros|love]] and [[Phobos (mythology)|fear]], among others. In the following stage, the poets [[Hesiod]] and [[Homer]] attempt to enumerate the deities; Hesiod's [[Theogony]] giving the number of twelve. Finally, humans reached a stage when they proclaimed others, such as [[Asclepius]] and [[Heracles]], as deities.<ref name=Dro1989131/> Discussing [[idolatry]], Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone, and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved.<ref name = Fer197448>{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=4}}</ref> Following [[Plato]], Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys".<ref name = Fer197448/>

Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the ''Protrepticus'' on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples. He attacks the mystery religions for their ritualism and mysticism.<ref name = Fer197448/> In particular, the worshippers of [[Dionysus]] are ridiculed by him for their family-based rituals (such as the use of children's toys in ceremony).{{sfnp|Burrus|2010|p=101}} He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans, but at other times he suggests that they are [[misanthropic]] demons, and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=50}} Clement, like many pre-Nicene church fathers, writes favourably about [[Euhemerus]] and other rationalist philosophers, on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism. However, his greatest praise is reserved for Plato,  whose [[Apophatic theology|apophatic]] views of God prefigure Christianity.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|pp=55–6}}

The figure of [[Orpheus]] is prominent throughout the Protrepticus narrative, and Clement contrasts the song of Orpheus, representing pagan superstition, with the divine [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]] of Christ.{{sfnp|de Jáuregui|2010|p=132}} According to Clement, through conversion to Christianity alone can one fully participate in the Logos, which is universal truth.{{sfnp|Sharkey|2009|p=159}}

====''Paedagogus''====
{{main|Paedagogus}}
[[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|left|Christ, the Logos incarnate, is the ''Paedagogus'' of the work's title.]]
The title of ''Paedagogus'', translatable as "tutor", refers to Christ as the teacher of all humans, and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=76}} It is not simply instructional: Clement intends to show how the Christian should respond to the [[Love of God]] authentically.{{sfnp|Osborn|2008|p=244}} Following Plato ([[Republic (Plato)|Republic]] 4:441), he divides life into three elements: character, actions, and passions. The first having been dealt with in the ''Protrepticus'', he devotes the ''Paedagogus'' to reflections on Christ's role in teaching humans to act morally and to control their passions.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=69}} Despite its explicitly Christian nature, Clement's work draws on [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]] and [[Ancient Greek literature|pagan literature]]; Homer, alone, is cited more than sixty times in the work.{{sfnp|Irvine|2006|p=164}}

Although Christ, like a human, is made in the [[image of God]], he alone shares the likeness of God the Father.{{sfnp|Ogliari|2003|p=200}} Christ is both [[sinless]] and [[Apatheia|apathetic]], and thus by striving to [[imitation of Christ|imitate Christ]], one can achieve salvation. To Clement, sin is involuntary, and thus irrational ({{lang|grc|άλογον}}), removed only through the wisdom of the Logos.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=71}} God's guidance away from sin is thus a manifestation of God's universal love for mankind. The word play on {{lang|grc|λόγος}} and {{lang|grc|άλογον}} is characteristic of Clement's writing, and may be rooted in the [[Epicurus|Epicurean]] belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=73}}

Clement argues for the [[gender equality|equality of sexes]], on the grounds that salvation is extended to all humans equally.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=72}} Unusually, he suggests that Christ is neither female nor male, and that God the Father has both female and male aspects: the [[eucharist]] is described as milk from the breast (Christ) of the Father.<ref name=Ma2004184>{{harvp|Gill|2004|p=18}}</ref>{{sfnp|Berger|2011|pp=74–5}} Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the ''Paedagogus'' were influenced by [[Gnosticism]];<ref name=Ma2004184/> however, later in the work, he argues against the Gnostics that [[faith]], not esoteric knowledge ({{lang|grc|γνῶσις}}), is required for salvation. According to Clement, it is through faith in Christ that one is enlightened and comes to know God.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=75}}

In the second book, Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life. He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good [[table manners]].<ref name=Fer197480>{{harvp|Ferguson|1974|p=8}}</ref> While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23.<ref name=Fer197480/> Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian [[monotheism]]. He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing, and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes, but Clement does not believe in the abandonment of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express joy in God's creation through gaiety and partying.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=82}} He opposes the wearing of garlands, because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God, and the garland resembles the [[crown of thorns]].{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=85}}

Clement treats sex at some length. He argues that both [[promiscuity]] and [[sexual abstinence]] are unnatural, and that the main goal of [[human sexuality]] is procreation.{{sfnp|Kochuthara|2007|p=145}} He argues that [[adultery]], sex with pregnant women, [[concubinage]],  [[homosexuality]], and [[prostitution]] all should be avoided as they will not contribute toward the generation of legitimate offspring.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=87}}

In his third book, Clement continues along a similar vein, condemning [[cosmetics]] on the grounds that it is one's soul, not the body, one should seek to beautify.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=91}} Clement also opposes the dyeing of men's hair and male [[depilation]] as being [[effeminate]]. He advises choosing one's company carefully, to avoid being corrupted by immoral people, and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself, it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth that is found in Christ.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=94}} The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement's argument, and following a prayer, the lyrics of a [[hymn]].{{sfnp|Murphy|1941|p=32}}

====''Stromata''====
[[File:Alpine flora logan pass.jpg|thumb|right|Clement describes the ''Stromata'' as a work on various subjects that spring up in the text like flowers in a meadow.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=107}}]]
{{main| Stromata}}
The contents of the ''Stromata'', as its title suggests, are miscellaneous. Its place in the trilogy is disputed – Clement initially intended to write the ''Didasculus'', a work that would complement the practical guidance of the ''Paedagogus'' with a more intellectual schooling in theology.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=106}} The ''Stromata'' is less systematic and ordered than Clement's other works, and it has been theorized by [[André Méhat]] that it was intended for a limited, esoteric readership.{{sfnp|Osborn|2008|p=8}} Although [[Eusebius]] wrote of the eight books of the work, only seven undoubtedly survive. [[Photius]], writing in the 9th century, found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books, which led [[Daniel Heinsius]] to suggest that the original eighth book is lost, and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the ''Hypotyposes''.{{sfnp|Kaye|1835|p=221}}

The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy. Consistent with his other writing, Clement affirms that philosophy had a [[propaedeutics|propaedeutic]] role for the Greeks, similar to the function of the [[Torah|law]] for [[Judaism|the Jews]].{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|pp=108–9}} He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology, arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners, and that [[Jewish culture]] was the most significant influence on Greece.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|pp=113–6}} In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of [[Moses]], Clement gives an extended chronology of the world, wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May, 4–2 BC, and the creation of the world to 5592 BC. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|pp=117–9}}

The second book is largely devoted to the [[Faith in Christianity|respective roles of faith and philosophical argument]]. Clement contends that while both are important, the [[Fear of God (religion)|fear of God]] is foremost, because through faith one receives divine wisdom.{{sfnp|Osborn|1994|p=3}} To Clement, [[scripture]] is an innately true primitive philosophy that is complemented by human reason through the Logos.{{sfnp|Osborn|1994|p=4}} Faith is voluntary, and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=121}}{{sfnp|Osborn|1994|p=7}} It is never irrational, as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos, but all knowledge proceeds from faith, as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure.{{sfnp|Osborn|1994|pp=11–12}}

The third book covers [[asceticism]]. He discusses marriage, which is treated similarly in the ''Paedagogus''. Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage, arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate, and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation.{{sfnp|Heid|2000|p=65}} He argues that this has not always been so: the Fall occurred because Adam and Eve succumbed to their desire for each other, and copulated before the allotted time.{{sfnp|Seymour|1997|p=257}} He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life, which stems from [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]],<ref>{{Bibleverse-nb||Luke|14:25–27|KJV}}</ref> contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother",<ref>[[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] {{Bibleverse-nb||Exodus|20:12|KJV}}</ref> one of the [[Ten Commandments]].{{sfnp|Clark|1999|p=198}} Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the [[gymnosophists]] is pointless.{{sfnp|Clark|1999|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burrus|2010|p=30}}

Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=133}} The fourth book focuses on [[martyrdom]]. While all good Christians should be unafraid of death, Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life.{{sfnp|Verhey|2011|p=350}} He is ambivalent about whether any believing Christians can become martyrs by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives.{{sfnp|Burrus|2010|p=82}} [[Marcionism|Marcionites]] cannot become martyrs, because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father, so their sufferings are in vain.{{sfnp|Osborn|1994|p=8}} There is then a digression to the subject of theological [[epistemology]]. According to Clement, there is no way of empirically testing the [[existence of God|existence of God the Father]], because the Logos has revelatory, not analysable meaning, although Christ was an object of the senses. God had no beginning, and is the universal first principle.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=139}}

The fifth book returns to the subject of faith. Clement argues that truth, justice, and goodness can be seen only by the mind, not the eye; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable.{{sfnp|Osborn|1994|p=9}} He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once one's moral faults have been corrected.<ref name=Osb199410>{{harvp|Osborn|1994|p=1}}</ref> This parallels Clement's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds, not those who simply profess their faith. God transcends matter entirely, and thus the [[materialist]] cannot truly come to know God. Although Christ was God incarnate, it is spiritual, not physical comprehension of him that is important.<ref name=Osb199410/>

In the beginning of the sixth book, Clement intends to demonstrate that the works of Greek poets were derived from the [[Prophets of Christianity|prophetic books of the Bible]]. In order to reinforce his position that the Greeks were inclined toward plagiarism, he cites numerous instances of such inappropriate appropriation by classical Greek writers, reported second-hand from ''On Plagiarism'', an anonymous 3rd-century BC work sometimes ascribed to [[Aretades]].{{sfnp|de Jáuregui|2010|p=201}} Clement then digresses to the subject of sin and [[Hell in Christianity|hell]], arguing that Adam was not perfect when created, but given the potential to achieve perfection. He espouses broadly [[Universalism in religion|universalist]] doctrine, holding that Christ's promise of salvation is available to all, even those condemned to hell.{{sfnp|Seymour|1997|pp=262–3}}

The final extant book begins with Clement arguing that his version of [[Gnosticism]] (what he calls the ‘Christian gnostic’ earlier in Stromata<ref name="Webster2022">{{Cite web |last=Webster |first=Daniel |date=2022-03-19 |title=Clement of Alexandria's "Christian Gnostic" in Stromateis I–II |url=https://athingworthdoing.com/clement-of-alexandrias-christian-gnostic/ |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=A Thing Worth Doing |language=en-US}}</ref>) is the true religion and states they should be an example of what a true [[Christians|Christian]] is, even saying they are "holy and pious" and "worships the true God in a manner worthy of him".<ref>{{Cite web |title=CHURCH FATHERS: The Stromata (Clement of Alexandria) |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02107.htm |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Clement then gives a description of the nature of Christ, and that of the true Christian, who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son. Clement then criticizes the simplistic [[anthropomorphism]] of most ancient religions, quoting [[Xenophanes]]' famous description of African, Thracian, and Egyptian deities.{{sfnp|Grant|1988|p=77}} He indicates that the Greek deities may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects: [[Ares]] representing iron, and Dionysus wine.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=150}} Prayer, and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed. Corinthians 13:8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in reverence for the Creator.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=151}} Following [[Socrates]], he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance, not from intention. The Christian is a "laborer in God's vineyard", responsible both for one's own path to salvation and that of one's neighbor. The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=152}}

===Other works===
Besides the great trilogy, Clement's only other extant work is the treatise ''Salvation for the Rich'', also known as ''Who is the Rich Man who is Saved?'' written c. 203 AD<ref>Heine, R. E. (2006) The Alexandrians. En: Young, F., Ayres, L., and Louth, A. (eds.) The Cambridge history of early christian literature. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 117-130.</ref> Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes toward the wealthy, Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10:25.<ref name=Fer1974166/> The rich are either unconvinced by the promise of eternal life, or unaware of the conflict between the possession of material and spiritual wealth, and the good Christian has a duty to guide them toward a better life through the Gospel.<ref name=Fer1974166/> Jesus' words are not to be taken literally — the supercelestial ({{lang|grc|ὑπερουράνιος}}) meanings should be sought in which the true route to salvation is revealed.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=167}} The holding of material wealth in itself is not a wrong, so long as it is used charitably, but Christians should be careful not to let their wealth dominate their spirit. It is more important to give up sinful passions than external wealth. If the rich are to be saved, all they must do is to follow the [[Great Commandment|two commandments]], and while material wealth is of no value to God, it can be used to alleviate the suffering of neighbors.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|pp=173, 178}}

Other known works exist in fragments alone, including the four eschatological works in the secret tradition: ''Hypotyposes'', ''Excerpta ex Theodoto'', ''Eclogae Propheticae'', and the ''Adumbraetiones''.{{sfnp|Bucur|2006|p=252}} These cover Clement's celestial hierarchy, a complex schema in which the universe is headed by the Face of God, below which lie seven ''protoctists'', followed by [[archangel]]s, [[angel]]s, and humans.{{sfnp|Bucur|2006|p=255}} According to [[Jean Daniélou]], this schema is inherited from a Judaeo-Christian esotericism, followed by the Apostles, which was only imparted orally to those Christians who could be trusted with such mysteries.{{sfnp|Daniélou|1962|p=262}} The ''proctocists'' are the first beings created by God, and act as priests to the archangels. Clement identifies them both as the "Eyes of the Lord" and with the [[Throne (angel)|Thrones]].{{sfnp|Bucur|2006|p=257}} Clement characterizes the celestial forms as entirely different from anything earthly, although he argues that members of each order only seem incorporeal to those of lower orders.<ref name=Buc2006260>{{harvp|Bucur|2006|p=26}}</ref> According to the ''Eclogae Propheticae'', every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree, and thus humans can become angels. Even the ''protoctists'' can be elevated, although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined.<ref name=Buc2006260/> The apparent contradiction between the fact that there can be only seven ''protoctists'' but also a vast number of archangels to be promoted to their order is problematical. One modern solution regards the story as an example of "interiorized apocalypticism": imagistic details are not to be taken literally, but as symbolizing interior transformation.{{sfnp|Bucur|2006|pp=261–3}}

The titles of several lost works are known because of a list in Eusebius' ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'', 6.13.1–3. They include the ''Outlines'', in eight books, and ''Against Judaizers''. Others are known only from mentions in Clement's own writings, including ''On Marriage'' and ''On Prophecy'', although few are attested by other writers and it is difficult to separate works that he intended to write from those that were completed.{{sfnp|Ferguson|1974|p=179}}

The [[Mar Saba letter]] was attributed to Clement by [[Morton Smith]], but there remains much debate today over whether it is an authentic letter from Clement, an ancient [[pseudepigraph]], or a modern forgery.{{sfnp|Heine|2010|pp=117–118, 121}}{{sfnp|Osborn|2008|p=195}} If authentic, its main significance would be in its relating that the Apostle Mark came to Alexandria from Rome and there, wrote a more spiritual Gospel, which he entrusted to the Church in Alexandria on his death; if genuine, the letter pushes back the tradition related by Eusebius connecting Mark with Alexandria by a century.{{sfnp|Heine|2010|p=121}}

== Legacy ==
[[Eusebius]], the fourth-century early church historian, is the first writer to provide an account of Clement's life and works, in his ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'', 5.11.1–5, 6.6.1{{NoteTag |Of the two sections dedicated to Clement, ''Eccl. Hist''. 6.6.1 seems decidedly out of place, and [[Henri Valois|Valesius]] argued that this was evidence that Eusebius never revised his work.{{sfnp|McGiffert|1890|p=253}}}} He provides a list of Clement's works, biographical information, and an extended quotation from the ''Stromata''. From this and other accounts, it is evident that Clement was highly revered by his contemporaries and later patristic figures. As J.B. Mayor observes, “The piety and learning of Clement, his power as a teacher and philosopher, are spoken of in the highest terms by succeeding fathers.”<ref>Mayor & Hort, ''Clement of Alexandria: Miscellanies Book VII'', lxi (cf. ''Testimonia Veterum'' in Dindorf's ed., vol. I. pp. lv to lxiv).</ref>

In the same work, Eusebius cites [[Alexander of Jerusalem]] (180–251) lauding “the holy Clement, who was both my master and benefactor,” describing him as one of the “blessed fathers who have trod the path before us,” while Eusebius himself is quoted as calling him “an incomparable master of Christian philosophy.” [[Jerome]] (342–420) calls Clement “the most learned of men,” recording that his writings are “full of eloquence and learning, both in sacred Scripture and in secular literature.” The aforementioned Alexander of Jerusalem is quoted by Jerome praising “the blessed presbyter Clement, a man illustrious and approved.” According to [[Theodoret]] (393–450), “he surpassed all others, and was a holy man.” Likewise, [[Cyril of Alexandria]] (376–444) says Clement was “a man admirably learned and skillful, and one that searched to the depths all the learning of the Greeks, with an exactness rarely attained before.” [[Maximus the Confessor]] (580–662) refers to him reverentially as “the great Clement.”

More recently, scholars have acknowledged Clement's primacy and importance in various respects. He has been called “the first Christian scholar” (Shelley), “the first systematic teacher of Christian doctrine” (Patrick), “the first great teacher of philosophical Christianity” (Hatch), “the first self-conscious theologian and ethicist” (Backhouse), “the first great Christian teacher in Alexandria” (Needham), “the founder of Christian philosophical theology” (Bray), “the true creator of ecclesiastical theology” (DeFaye), “the first major commentator on the Bible” (Bray), “the founder of Christian literature” (ANF), “the great founder of the Alexandrian School” (Coxe), a “pioneer of Christian scholarship” (ACCS), “an intellectual giant in the early church”  (Kruger), “that man of genius who introduced Christianity to itself, as reflected in the burnished mirror of his intellect” (Coxe), and “the most inquisitive and independent spirit that has perhaps ever appeared in the Church” (DeFaye).

Stylistically, it has been noted that “his writings shine with a happy, peaceful, optimistic spirit; reading them can be a remarkably uplifting experience” (Needham). “He loves God’s creation and sees it as good; he gives us a warm, joyous picture of life; he is richly human, sane, and moderate” (Ferguson). Additionally, Clement's works “are a storehouse of curious ancient lore—a museum of the fossil remains of the beauties and monstrosities of the world of pagan antiquity, during all the epochs and phases of its history” (Wilson). “His prodigious erudition was unsurpassed even by that of Origen” (Cayre). “I do not know where we shall look for a purer or a truer man than this Clemens of Alexandria; he seems to me one of the old fathers whom we should all have reverenced most as a teacher, and loved best as a friend” (Maurice).

Nonetheless, there have been a few detracting voices. [[Photios I of Constantinople]] writes polemically against Clement's theology in the ''[[Bibliotheca (Photius)|Bibliotheca]]'', although he also is appreciative of Clement's learning and the literary merits of his work.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 16}} In particular, he is highly critical of the ''Hypotyposes'', a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived. Photios compared Clement's treatise, which, like his other works, was highly syncretic, featuring ideas of Hellenistic, Jewish, and Gnostic origin, unfavorably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | pp = 17–8}} Amongst the particular ideas Photios deemed [[heresy|heretical]] were:
*The belief that matter and thought are eternal, and thus did not originate from God, contradicting the doctrine of ''[[Creatio ex nihilo]]''.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 23}}
*The belief in [[esoteric cosmology|cosmic cycles]] predating the creation of the world, following [[Heraclitus]], which is extra-Biblical in origin.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | pp = 40–43}}
*The belief that Christ, as Logos, was in some sense created, contrary to [[John 1]], but following [[Philo]].{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 75}}
*Ambivalence toward [[docetism]], the heretical doctrine that Christ's earthly body was an illusion.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 95}}
*The belief that [[Eve]] was created from Adam's sperm after he ejaculated during the night.{{sfnp|Itter|2009|p=68}}
*The belief that Genesis 6:2 implies that angels indulged in sexual intercourse with human women.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 146}}
* The belief in reincarnation, i.e., the transmigration of souls.{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 115}}
However, it is not clear that these are accurate representations of Clement's actual beliefs, since his extant writings appear to be mostly in line with what would come to be considered orthodox Christian theology. It has been suggested that Photios may have misunderstood Clement to be speaking for himself when he was often quoting from Gnostics and other sects without agreeing with their teachings.<ref>Mayor & Hort, ''Clement of Alexandria: Miscellanies Book VII'', lxi.</ref>

As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived, he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work, focusing on, among other things, his exegesis of scripture, his Logos-theology and pneumatology, his belief in [[Apocatastasis|apokatastasis]], the relationship between his thought and non-Christian philosophy, and his influence on [[Origen]].{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = 92–3}}

{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
|name= Clement of Alexandria
|image=Carton de vitrail de la chapelle Saint Ferdinand Saint Clément d'Alexandrie.jpg|feast_day=4 December ([[Eastern Catholicism]], [[Anglicanism]]) <br />
5 December ([[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)|Episcopal Church]], [[Anglicanism]])
|venerated_in= [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]<br />[[Anglican Communion]]

|titles=Church Father, Theologian
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|canonized_date= Pre-congregation
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=1586
|suppressed_by=[[Pope Sixtus V]]
|issues=Regarded as a [[heretic]] by [[Photius]].
}}

=== Veneration ===
Up until the 17th century Clement was venerated as a saint in the [[Catholic Church]]. His name was to be found in the martyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December, but when the [[Roman Martyrology]] was revised by Pope [[Clement VIII]] his name was dropped from the [[General Roman Calendar|calendar]] on the advice of Cardinal [[Baronius]]. [[Benedict XIV]] maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known, that he had never obtained public [[Cult (religious practice)|cultus]] in the Church, and that some of his doctrines were, if not erroneous, at least suspect.{{sfnp| Havey | 1908 }}

Although Clement is not widely venerated in [[Eastern Christianity]], the [[Prologue of Ohrid]] repeatedly refers to him as a saint,<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://westserbdio.org/en/prologue/505-may-12| publisher =Western American Diocese | title = May 12|date=May 2, 2017 | work = Prologue |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170502024636/http://westserbdio.org/en/prologue/505-may-12|archive-date= 2017-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://westserbdio.org/en/prologue/644-september-26| publisher =Western American Diocese | title = September 26|date=May 2, 2017 | work = Prologue |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170502150734/http://westserbdio.org/en/prologue/644-september-26 |archive-date=2017-05-02}}</ref> as do various [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] authorities including the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek]] Metropolitan [[Kallinikos]] of Edessa.<ref>{{Cite web | publisher = Saint Andrew GOC | date = May 7, 2015 | url = http://saintandrewgoc.org/blog/2015/5/7/fruits-of-healing | title= Fruits of Healing | access-date= 2019-08-01 | archive-date= 2019-08-01 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190801164831/http://saintandrewgoc.org/home/2015/5/7/fruits-of-healing | url-status= live}}</ref>

The [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] tradition considers Clement a saint.<ref>{{Cite book | url= http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/patrology/schoolofalex/IV-StClement/chapter5.html | title= The School of Alexandria Before Origen | volume = Part IV | chapter = 5 – the Ecclesiology of St. Clement | access-date= 2019-08-01 | archive-date=2019-08-01 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190801184927/http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/patrology/schoolofalex/IV-StClement/chapter5.html | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/03-04/coptic-christianity-ancient-egypt/|title = Ancient Egypt gave rise to one of the world's oldest Christian faiths|website = [[National Geographic Society]]|date = 19 April 2019|access-date = 1 August 2019|archive-date = 14 July 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190714033751/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2019/03-04/coptic-christianity-ancient-egypt/ |url-status = dead}}</ref> Saint Clement Coptic Orthodox Christian Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, is specifically named after him.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = St. Clement academy | work = About us |url= http://www.stclementacademy.com/about_us/our_saint |title=Our Saint |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181127112454/http://www.stclementacademy.com/about_us/our_saint |archive-date=2018-11-27 |access-date=2019-08-01}}</ref>

Clement is commemorated in [[Anglicanism]].<ref>{{cite book |title = Prayer book |url = http://prayerbook.ca/the-prayer-book-online/57-the-calendar-ix |chapter=The Calendar |page=IX |access-date= 2013-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131104172841/http://prayerbook.ca/the-prayer-book-online/57-the-calendar-ix |archive-date= 2013-11-04}}</ref>

== Theology ==
=== Gnosis ===
Clement taught that faith was the basis of salvation; he also believed that faith was the basis of ''gnosis''{{em dash}}which to him meant spiritual and mystical knowledge. Clement of Alexandria appropriated the word ''gnosis'' from the Gnostics (whom he opposed) but reinterpreted the word in a more Christian manner.<ref name="Webster2022"/> He distinguished between two kinds of Christians: the ''pistic''{{definition needed|date=June 2024}} Christian who lives according to God's law, and the Christian ''gnostic'' who lives on the level of the gospel{{vague|date=June 2024}} and responds by discipline and love. Clement's views of ''gnosis'' can be considered a forerunner of the [[Christian monasticism|Christian monastic]] movement that began in Egypt after his death.<ref name="Clement Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Saint Clement of Alexandria Biography, Apologist, Works, & Facts |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Clement-of-Alexandria |access-date= 2022-05-31 |website= Britannica|first1=Linwood|last1=Fredericksen|language=en}}</ref>

=== Philosophy ===
Clement suggested that philosophy was a preparatory discipline to the Greek world preceding its wide acceptance of Christianity and often sought to harmonize insights of Greek philosophy with biblical teaching. He defined philosophy as "the desire for true being and the studies which lead to it."<ref>''Strom''. 2.9.</ref> Clement has been described as "the founder of what was to become the great tradition of Christian philosophical theology."<ref>[[Gerald Bray|Bray]], ''God Has Spoken'', 202.</ref> He was a forerunner to some of the later views of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], such as [[just war theory]] and the theory of the two cities.<ref name= "Clement Britannica" />{{explain|date=June 2024}}

=== Universalism ===
{{Primary sources|section|date=August 2025}}
Clement is often regarded<ref>Harmon, ''Every Knee Shall Bow''; Hart, ''That All Shall Be Saved''; Hanson, ''Prevailing Doctrine''; et al.</ref> as one of the first [[Christian universalism|Christian universalists]];<ref>[[Ilaria Ramelli|Ramelli]], Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis, 119-130.</ref> he espoused a belief in the eventual salvation of every person (though not with the level of systematic clarity of his disciple [[Origen]]).<ref>See quotes cited below. Cf. Allin, ''Christ Triumphant.''</ref> Clement believed divine punishment to be corrective and remedial rather than merely retributive or destructive. He writes, "[God] destroys no one but gives salvation to all."<ref>''Com. 1 John'' 1.5</ref> "He bestows salvation on all mankind."<ref>''Paed.'' 1.11</ref> "He indeed saves all universally—some as converted by punishments, others by voluntary submission with dignity of honor—that to Him every knee shall bow, both of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth; that is, angels, and men, and souls departed this life."<ref>''Com. 1 John'' 2.2</ref> "God's punishments are saving and disciplinary, leading to conversion; choosing rather the repentance than the death of a sinner."<ref>''Strom.'' 6.6</ref> "I will grant that He punishes the disobedient, for punishment is for the good and advantage of him who is punished, for it is the correction of a refractory subject."<ref>''Paed.'' 1.8</ref> "For all things are arranged with a view to the salvation of the universe by the Lord of the universe, both generally and particularly."<ref>''Strom.'' 7.2</ref>

=== Education ===
For Clement, disciplining the body would help the Christian discipline the soul; he gave detailed instructions on proper Christian conduct, decorum, and relationships in the second and third books of ''The Instructor''. According to Clement, once the passions are subject to the authority of the [[Logos (Christianity)|Word]] (or reason), the Christian can embark on an advanced course of philosophical study and contemplation.<ref>Storin, B. (2017). Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor 1.1–1.4, 13. In E. Muehlberger (Ed.), The Cambridge Edition of Early Christian Writings (The Cambridge Edition of Early Christian Writings, pp. 3-12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781107449602.004</ref>

Clement adopted a position that gave rise to a whole stream of later Christian thought{{explain|date=June 2024}}: true philosophy{{define}} and authentic human knowledge have their origin in the Logos, which is the unique source of all truth. He accepts the conception of παιδεία as he conducts the wisdom taught by the Logos through education in the sacred letters: on the one hand, the Greek παιδεία prepares the mind of the Christian to distinguish and defend the truth, and, on the other, the liberal arts help the new Christian to direct all his efforts towards the truly useful of each particular discipline, geometry, music, grammar and philosophy.<ref>(Stromata 1.43.4).</ref>

Notably (considering the time period), Clement seemed to advocate for the equality of women and men in the area of education, at least within the context of Christian spirituality and ethics. He wrote, "Let us recognize, too, that both men and women practice the same sort of virtue; surely, if there is but one God for both, then there is but one Educator for both."<ref>''Paed''. 1.4</ref>

=== Economics ===
Clement opposed a literal interpretation of the command "sell what you have and give to the poor," and argued that the Bible does not command every person to renounce all property, and that wealth can be used either for good or evil.<ref name = "Clement Britannica" /> David Bentley Hart argues that Clement did so grudgingly, referring to private property as "the fruit of wickedness" and encouraged communal pooling of resources for the purpose of redistribution to the poor.<ref name="Hart">{{cite book |last=Hart |first=David Bentley |authorlink=David Bentley Hart |date=2020 |orig-date=2020 |title=Theological Territories: A David Bentley Hart Digest |edition=ebook |location=Notre Dame, Indiana |publisher=[[University_of_Notre_Dame_Press| University of Notre Dame Press]] |isbn=9780268107192 }}</ref>

=== Creation ===
Clement believed that the days mentioned in [[Allegorical interpretations of Genesis|Genesis are allegorical]].<ref>''Strom''. 6.16</ref> Clement assumed a double creation, one of an invisible world and the second being material creation. He believed that formless matter existed before the creation of the world, being influenced by [[Plato]].{{sfnp|Ashwin-Siejkowski|2010|p=31}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1= Paffenroth |first1=Kim | page = 214 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MWmuaH6Fod4C&pg=PA214 |title=A Reader's Companion to Augustine's Confessions |last2=Kennedy |first2= Robert Peter |date=2003-01-01 |publisher= Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-22619-0}}</ref> Clement tried to interpret Genesis 6 in harmony with the [[Book of Enoch]].{{sfnp| Ashwin-Siejkowski | 2010 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ByqwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA151  151]}}

=== Others ===
The first person in church history to introduce a view of an [[Church invisible|invisible]] and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Bongmba |first=Elias Kifon |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xXznDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT393 |title=The Routledge Handbook of African Theology | page = 393 |date= 2020-05-25 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-1-351-60744-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Hovorun |first=Cyril |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BcWhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT42 |title= Meta-Ecclesiology: Chronicles on Church Awareness |date=2015-08-18 |publisher=Springer | page = 42 |isbn= 978-1-137-54393-6}}</ref> Because Clement saw the [[Gospel of James|Protoevangelium of James]] as canonical{{citation needed|date=September 2025}}, it could [[Modus ponens|imply]] he believed in the [[perpetual virginity of Mary]], though some have argued that he does not seem to believe in the [[sinlessness of Mary]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Garcia |first=L. Jared |title= Mariology in the First Five Centuries: An Introduction to the Development of Mariology in the Early Church | journal=The Journal of Social Encounters |via = Academia |url= https://www.academia.edu/30351042}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Faulkner |first=T. L. |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=TzlDDwAAQBAJ |title= Mariology from a Historical and Biblical Perspective |date=2017-11-07 |publisher= Dorrance Publishing |isbn= 978-1-4809-7714-3}}</ref>

Clement of Alexandria interprets "Fire of Wisdom" which prevades the soul as by [[Baptism by fire|a baptism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cook |first=Keningale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQSgAAAAMAAJ&dq=wise+fire+holy+spirit+clement+of+alexandria+baptism&pg=PA77 |title=The Fathers of Jesus: A Study of the Lineage of the Christian Doctrine and Traditions |date=1886 |publisher=K. Paul, Trench & Company |isbn=978-0-524-04326-4 |language=en}}</ref>

Clement of Alexandria used the word "symbol" to define the [[Eucharist]], and interpreted ''John 6'' to be an allegory about faith, however his views on real presence are disputed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Willis |first=Wendell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88zcDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 | page = 49 |title= Eucharist and Ecclesiology: Essays in Honor of Dr. Everett Ferguson |date=2017-01-06 |publisher= Wipf & Stock |isbn= 978-1-4982-8292-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Did Clement Believe in the Real Presence? |url= https://www.catholic.com/qa/did-clement-believe-in-the-real-presence |access-date=2021-12-13 |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref>

Clement of Alexandria was apparently an [[Amillennialism|amillennialist]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Huskey |first=Michael |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nwQCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 | page = 110 |title= Huskey's Study Notes on Historical Theology |date= 2020-10-08 |publisher= Wipf & Stock |isbn= 978-1-7252-7866-0}}</ref>

== Works ==

===Editions===
{{refbegin}}
*[[Friedrich Sylburg|Sylburg, Friedrich]] (ed.) (1592).  [https://books.google.com/books?id=5GyKqmKb_hEC&pg=PP9 ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Extant''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144417/https://books.google.com/books?id=5GyKqmKb_hEC&pg=PP9 |date=2020-07-29 }} Heidelberg: ex typographeio Hieronymi Commelini.
*[[Daniel Heinsius|Heinsius, Daniel]] (ed.) (1616).  [https://books.google.com/books?id=zUJkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5 ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera Graece et Latine Quae Extant''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729142605/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUJkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5 |date=2020-07-29 }} Leiden: excudit Ioannes Patius academiae typographus.
*[[John Potter (bishop)|Potter, John]] (ed.) (1715). ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera'', 2 vols.  Oxonii: e theatro Sheldoniano. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7 Vol. 1. ''Cohortatio ad gentes.  Paedagogus. Stromatum'' I-IV.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729155443/https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=-iBZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA641 Vol. 2. ''Stromatum'' V-VIII. ''Quis dives salvetur. Excerpta Theodoti. Prophetarum ecologiae.  Fragmenta''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=-iBZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA641 |date=2020-07-29 }}
*[[Reinhold Klotz|Klotz, Reinhold]] (ed.) (1831–34).  ''Titi Flaui Clementis Alexandrini Opera Omnia'', 4 vols.  Leipzig: E. B. Schwickert.  [https://books.google.com/books?id=qCoQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR2 Vol. 1. ''Ρrotrepticus.  Paedagogus''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729141647/https://books.google.com/books?id=qCoQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR2 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=JSsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR2 Vol. 2. ''Stromatorum'' I-IV.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729134902/https://books.google.com/books?id=JSsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR2 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=RSsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP10 Vol. 3.'' Stromatourm'' V-VIII. ''Quis dives salvetur''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729133419/https://books.google.com/books?id=RSsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP10 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=YEROAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8 Vol. 4.  Fragmenta. Scholia. Annotationes. Indices.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729140114/https://books.google.com/books?id=YEROAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8 |date=2020-07-29 }}
* [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne, J.-P.]] (ed.) (1857).  ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Exstant Omnia'', 2 toms. (= PG 8, 9)  Paris: J.-P. Migne.  [https://books.google.com/books?id=FvsUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9 Tom. 1. ''Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromata'' I-IV.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729134533/https://books.google.com/books?id=FvsUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://archive.org/details/patrologiaecurs59hopfgoog Tom. 2. ''Stromata'' V-VIII. ''Quis dives salvetur''. Fragmenta.]
*[[Karl Wilhelm Dindorf|Dindorf, Wilhelm]] (ed.) (1869). ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera'', 4 vols. Oxonni: e typographeo Clarendoniano. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yVk5cJhGjP4C&pg=PR3 Vol. 1. ''Ρrotrepticus.  Paedagogus''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729134332/https://books.google.com/books?id=yVk5cJhGjP4C&pg=PR3 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=82I9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP9 Vol. 2. ''Stromatum'' I-IV.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729140203/https://books.google.com/books?id=82I9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP9 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=vVmWgVRRBoYC&pg=PP7 Vol. 3. ''Stromatum'' V-VIII.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729140224/https://books.google.com/books?id=vVmWgVRRBoYC&pg=PP7 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdf_fyBznz0C&pg=PP9 Vol. 4. Annotationes. Interpretum.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729134522/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdf_fyBznz0C&pg=PP9 |date=2020-07-29 }}
*Barnard, P. Mourdant (ed.) (1897).  [https://archive.org/stream/clementofalexan00clem#page/n7/mode/2up Clement of Alexandria, ''Quis dives salvetur''.] Texts and Studies 5/2.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*[[:de:Otto Stählin]] (ed.) (1905–36).  ''Clemens Alexandrinus'', 4 bds. (= GCS 12, 15, 17, 39) Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DTYYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1 Bd. 1. ''Ρrotrepticus'' und ''Paedagogus''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729134637/https://books.google.com/books?id=DTYYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=n1wPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP5 Bd. 2. ''Stromata'' I-VI.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729140258/https://books.google.com/books?id=n1wPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP5 |date=2020-07-29 }} [https://archive.org/stream/clemensalexandri17clemuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Bd. 3. ''Stromata'' VII-VIII. ''Excerpta ex Theodoto. Eclogae prophetica. Quis dives salvetur''. Fragmente.] [https://archive.org/stream/clemensalexandri04clemuoft#page/n9/mode/2up Bd. 4. Register.]
* [[Miroslav Marcovich|Marcovich, Miroslav]] and Jacobus C. M. van Winden (eds.) (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=h-35iALtOD0C&pg=PR3 Clementis Alexandrini ''Paedagogus''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729135940/https://books.google.com/books?id=h-35iALtOD0C&pg=PR3 |date=2020-07-29 }} Leiden: Brill.  {{ISBN|978-9004124707}}
{{refend}}

===Translations===
{{refbegin}}
*Wilson, William (trans.) (1867). [https://books.google.com/books?id=xuxYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 "The Writings of Clement of Alexandria".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729135955/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuxYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163 |date=2020-07-29 }} In ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', ed. A. Roberts, et al., 2:163–629. (Reprint 1905) New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
*Barnard, P. Mourdant (trans.) (1901). [https://books.google.com/books?id=W9sPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1 ''A Homily of Clement of Alexandria, Entitled: Who is the Rich Man that is being Saved?''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729134523/https://books.google.com/books?id=W9sPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1 |date=2020-07-29 }}  London: SPCK.
*[[Fenton Hort|Hort, F. J. A.]] and Joseph B. Mayor (eds. & trans.) (1902). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMX0ykRov6YC&pg=PR1 ''Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies Book VII''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729142636/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMX0ykRov6YC&pg=PR1 |date=2020-07-29 }} London: Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-1108007542}}
*Patrick, John (1914). [https://archive.org/stream/clementofalexand00patrrich#page/182/mode/2up ''Clement of Alexandria'', 183-85.] Edinburgh: Wm. Blackwood. (''Exhortation to Endurance, or, To the Newly Baptized''; cf. Butterworth 1919, 371 ff.)
*Butterworth, G. W. (ed. & trans.) (1919). [https://archive.org/stream/clementofalexand00clem#page/n7/mode/2up Clement of Alexandria, ''Exhortation to the Greeks, Rich Man's Salvation'', etc.] (= LCL 92)  Cambridge: Harvard University Press.  {{ISBN|978-0674991033}}
*Casey, Robert Pierce (ed. & trans.) (1936). ''The Excerpta ex Theodoto of Clement of Alexandria''. Studies and Documents 1. London: Christophers.
*Oulton, J. E. L. and [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]] (trans.) (1954). [https://archive.org/stream/alexandrianchris012826mbp#page/n43/mode/2up ''Alexandrian Christianity'', 40–165.] Philadelphia: Westminster Press. (''Miscellanies'', Books III, VII) {{ISBN|978-0664241537}}
*Wood, Simon P. (trans.) (1954). [https://books.google.com/books?id=h63vsOCHAGIC&pg=PP1 ''Clement of Alexandria, Christ the Educator.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729141737/https://books.google.com/books?id=h63vsOCHAGIC&pg=PP1 |date=2020-07-29 }} Fathers of the Church 23. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. {{ISBN|978-0813215624}}
*Ferguson, John (trans.) (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XWpL1zz5cmoC&pg=PP1 ''Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis, Books 1–3.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729161854/https://books.google.com/books?id=XWpL1zz5cmoC&pg=PP1 |date=2020-07-29 }} Fathers of the Church 85. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.  {{ISBN|978-0813214337}}
{{refend}}

== See also ==
* [[Buddhism and the Roman world#Western knowledge of Buddhism|Buddhism and the Roman world]]
* [[Alexandrian school]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last= Ashwin-Siejkowski |first=Piotr|title= Clement of Alexandria on Trial: The Evidence of "Heresy" from Photius' Bibliotheca|year=2010|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn= 978-90-04-17627-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Ashwin-Siejkowski |first=Piotr|editor-last=Parry|editor-first= Ken|chapter= Clement of Alexandria|title=Wiley Blackwell Companion to Patristics|year=2015|pages=84–97|publisher=Wiley Blackwell |location= Chichester, West Sussex|isbn=978-111843871-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Berger|first= Teresa|title=Gender Differences and the Making of Liturgical History: Lifting a Veil on Liturgy's Past|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing |location=London|isbn= 978-1-4094-2698-1}}
*{{cite journal|last=Bucur|first= Bogdan G.|title= The Other Clement of Alexandria: Cosmic Hierarchy and Interiorized Apocalypticism|journal= Vigiliae Christianae|date=2006|volume=60|issue=3|pages=251–68|jstor= 20474764|doi= 10.1163/157007206778149510}}
*{{cite book|last=Buell|first=Denise Kimber|title=Making Christians: Clement of Alexandria and the Rhetoric of Legitimacy|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0-691-05980-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Burrus|first=Virginia|title=Late Ancient Christianity|year=2010|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8006-9720-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lateancientchris0000unse}}
*{{cite book|last=Clark|first=Elizabeth Ann|title=Reading Renunciation: Asceticism and Scripture in Early Christianity|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0-691-00512-6}}
*{{cite journal|last=Daniélou|first=Jean|title=Les traditions secrètes des Apôtres|language=fr|journal=Eranos-Jahrbuch|year=1962|volume=31|pages=261–95}}
*{{cite book|last=Droge|first=Arthur J.|title=Homer or Moses?: Early Christian Interpretations of the History of Culture|year=1989|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|location=Tübingen|isbn=978-3-16-145354-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=John|title=Clement of Alexandria|year=1974|publisher=Twayne Publishers|location=New York|isbn=0-8057-2231-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/clementofalexand00ferg}}
*{{cite book|last=Gill|first=Deborah M.|editor-last=Ma|editor-first=Wonsuk|title=The spirit and spirituality|chapter=The Disappearance of the Female Prophet: Twilight of Christian Prophecy|year=2004|pages=178–93|publisher=T & T Clark|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-8264-7162-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Robert McQueen|title=Gods and the One God|year=1988|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|location=Louisville|isbn=978-0-664-25011-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Hägg|first=Henny Fiskå|title=Clement of Alexandria and the Beginnings of Christian Apophaticism|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=0-19-928808-9}}
*{{cite CE1913|wstitle= Clement of Alexandria |volume= 4 |last= Havey |first= Francis Patrick |author-link= |short=1}}
*{{cite book|last=Heid|first=Stefan|title=Celibacy in the Early Church: The Beginnings of a Discipline of Obligatory Continence for Clerics in East and West|year=2000|publisher=Ignatius Press|location=San Francisco, CA|isbn=978-0-89870-800-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Heine|first=Ronald E.|editor-last=Young|editor-first=Frances|title=The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature|chapter=The Alexandrians|year=2010|pages=117–30|location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521460835}}
*{{cite book|last=Itter|first=Andrew C.|title=Esoteric Teaching in the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria|year=2009|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-17482-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Irvine|first=Martin|title=The Making of Textual Culture: 'Grammatica' and Literary Theory 350–1100|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-03199-0}}
*{{Citation |last=Meredith |first=Anthony |year=2002 |chapter=Patristic spirituality |editor-last1=Byrne |editor-first1=Peter |editor-last2=Houlden |editor-first2=Leslie |title=Companion Encyclopedia of Theology |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pBt10wlXv0C |isbn=9781134922017 |access-date=2020-05-31 |archive-date=2020-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729140006/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pBt10wlXv0C |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book|last=de Jáuregui|first=Miguel Herrero|title=Orphism and Christianity in Late Antiquity|year=2010|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-11-020633-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Karavites|first=Peter|title=Evil, Freedom, and the Road to Perfection in Clement of Alexandria|year=1999|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-11238-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Kaye|first=John|title=Some Account of the Writings and Opinions of Clement of Alexandria|year=1835|publisher=J. G. & F. Rivington|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/someaccountwrit00kayegoog}}
*{{cite book|last=Kochuthara|first=Shaji George|title=The Concept of Sexual Pleasure in the Catholic Moral Tradition|year=2007|publisher=Gregorian University Press|location=Rome|isbn=978-88-7839-100-0}}
*{{cite book|last=McGiffert|first=A. C. (trans.)|editor-last=Schaff|editor-first=Philip|title=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers|chapter=The Church History of Eusebius|year=1890|series=1st series|publisher=Parker|location=Oxford|volume=1|pages=1–403|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PG07AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1|access-date=2017-01-17|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729135943/https://books.google.com/books?id=PG07AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Murphy|first=Mable Gant|title=Nature Allusions in the Works of Clement of Alexandria|year=1941|publisher=The Catholic University of America Press|location=Washington, D.C.}}
*{{cite book|last=Ogliari|first=Donato|title=Gratia et certamen: The Relationship Between Grace and Free Will in the Discussion of Augustine with the So-called Semipelagians|year=2003|publisher=Peeters|location=Leuven|isbn=90-429-1351-7}}
*{{cite journal|last=Outler|first=Albert C.|title=The "Platonism" of Clement of Alexandria|journal=The Journal of Religion|year=1940|volume=20|issue=3|pages=217–240|doi=10.1086/482574|s2cid=170209425}}
*{{cite journal|last=Osborn|first=Eric|title=Arguments for Faith in Clement of Alexandria|journal=Vigiliae Christianae|year=1994|volume=48|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1163/157007294x00113}}
*{{cite book|last=Osborn|first=Eric|title=Clement of Alexandria|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=978-0-521-09081-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Press|first=Gerald A.|title=Development of the Idea of History in Antiquity|year=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|location=Montreal}}
*{{cite journal|last=Seymour|first=Charles|title=On Choosing Hell|journal=Religious Studies|date=1997|volume=3|issue=33|pages=249–266|doi=10.1017/S0034412597003880|jstor=20008103|s2cid=170872028 }}
*{{cite book|title=International Theological Commission, Volume 2|year=2009|publisher=Ignatius Press|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-1-58617-226-8|editor-first=Michael|editor-last=Sharkey}}
*{{cite book|last=Verhey|first=Allen|title=The Christian Art of Dying: Learning from Jesus|year=2011|publisher=Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids|isbn=978-0-8028-6672-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Westcott|first=Brooke Foss|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Willam|chapter=Clement of Alexandria|title=A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines|year=1877|volume=1|pages=559–67|publisher=John Murray|location=London, England|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfgUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA560|access-date=2017-01-17|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729141558/https://books.google.com/books?id=UfgUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA560|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Young|first=Richard A.|title=Is God a Vegetarian?: Christianity, Vegetarianism, and Animal Rights|year=1999|publisher=Open Court Publishing|location=Chicago, IL|isbn=0-8126-9393-0}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | author=Paananen, Timo S. | title=A Study in Authenticity: Admissible Concealed Indicators of Authority and Other Features of Forgeries — A Case Study on Clement of Alexandria, Letter to Theodore, and the Longer Gospel of Mark | publisher=University of Helsinki | year=2019 | type=Ph.D. thesis | isbn=978-951-51-5250-3 | url=http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-94-1853-4 }}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Clement of Alexandria}}
{{Wikisource|Author:Clement of Alexandria|Clement of Alexandria}}
* {{Internet Archive author |name=Clement of Alexandria}}
* {{Librivox author |id=8393|title=Clement of Alexandria}}
* [[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Clement of Alexandria|"Clement of Alexandria"]] by Francis P. Havey, in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1908.
*Charles Bigg and James Donaldson (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clement of Alexandria|Clement of Alexandria]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.) ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''6.''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.&nbsp;487–490.
* [http://www.piney.com/MuClement.html#P2694_785619 Clement's Protrepticus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516035028/http://www.piney.com/MuClement.html#P2694_785619 |date=2013-05-16 }}
* [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-50.htm#TopOfPage Clement's Stromateis]
* [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-52.htm Clement's Paedagogus]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-77.htm#P10196_2863283 Hypotyposes]
* [http://www.bennozuiddam.com/The%20role%20and%20view%20of%20Scripture%20in%20Clemens%20of%20Alexandria.pdf The role and view of Scripture in Clement of Alexandria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319062649/http://www.bennozuiddam.com/The%20role%20and%20view%20of%20Scripture%20in%20Clemens%20of%20Alexandria.pdf |date=2014-03-19 }}

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