View source for Cleopatra

{{Short description|Queen of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC}}
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{{Use American English|date=August 2018}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=August 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox pharaoh
| name           = Cleopatra
| image          = Kleopatra-VII.-Altes-Museum-Berlin1.jpg
| image_alt      = Photograph of an ancient Roman marble sculpture of Cleopatra VII's head as displayed at the Altes Museum in Berlin
| caption        = The Berlin Cleopatra, a [[Roman sculpture]] of Cleopatra wearing a royal [[diadem]], mid-1st century&nbsp;BC, now in the [[Altes Museum]], Germany{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}}{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}<ref group="note">The sculpture was made around the time of Cleopatra's visits to Rome in 46–44 BC and was discovered in an Italian villa along the [[Via Appia]]. For further validation about the [[commons:Category:Bust of Cleopatra VII in the Altes Museum Berlin|Berlin Cleopatra]], see {{harvtxt|Pina Polo|2013|pp=184–186}}, {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=54, 174–175}}, {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=33}}, and {{harvtxt|Hölbl|2001|p=234}}.</ref>
| role           = [[Pharaoh]] and [[Basileus|Queen]] of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]
| reign          = 51–30 BC (21&nbsp;years){{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx–xxiii, 155}}
| predecessor    = [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]]
| successor      = [[Caesarion|Ptolemy XV Caesarion]]
| nomen          = ''Qlwjwꜣpꜣdrtꜣ'' <br/> '''Cleopatra''' <br/> {{Infobox pharaoh/Nomen|Nomen=<hiero>q:rw-i-wA-p-A-d:r-t-A-H8</hiero>}} <br /> epithet to nomen: <br /> ''Qlwpdrt nṯrt mr(t) jts'' <br /> '''Cleopatra netjeret mer(et) ites''' <br /> The goddess Cleopatra who is beloved of her father <br /> {{Infobox pharaoh/Nomen|Nomen=<hiero>q:rw-W:p-d:r:t*H8-nTr-t:H8-R7:t-z:N36</hiero>}}
| horus          = ''Wr(.t)-nb(.t)-nfrw-ꜣḫ(t)-sḥ'' <br /> '''Wer(et)-neb(et)-neferu-achet-seh''' <br /> The great Lady of perfection, excellent in counsel {{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh |Horus=<hiero>wr:r-nb-nfr-nfr-nfr-H2:x-O22</hiero>}} <br /> ''Wr.t-twt-n-jt=s'' <br /> '''Weret-tut-en-it-es''' <br /> The great one, sacred image of her father <br /> {{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh |Horus=<hiero>wr*t:r-t:W:t-A53-n:X2*t:z</hiero>}}
| coregency      = {{Collapsible list|title=''See list''|
{{unbulleted list||[[Ptolemy XIII]] (51–47 BC)|[[Ptolemy XIV]] (47–44 BC)|Ptolemy XV (44–30 BC)}}}}
| spouses        = {{unbulleted list|[[Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator]]|[[Ptolemy XIV]]|[[Mark Antony]]}}
| children       = {{unbulleted list|[[Caesarion]]|[[Alexander Helios]]|[[Cleopatra Selene II]]|[[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]]}}
| dynasty        = [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]
| father         = [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]]
| mother         = Presumably [[Cleopatra V Tryphaena]]<ref group="note" name="cleopatra v or vi" />
| birth_date     = Early 69&nbsp;BC or late 70&nbsp;BC
| birth_place    = [[Alexandria]], Ptolemaic Kingdom
| death_date     = 10 or 12 August 30&nbsp;BC (aged&nbsp;39)<ref group="note" name="date of Cleopatra's death">Cleopatra almost certainly died on the 17th day of the Egyptian month [[Mesore]], which corresponds to 10 August in the older [[Roman calendar]], and 12 August in the [[Julian calendar]]. See {{harvtxt|Skeat|1953|pp=98–100}}.</ref>
| death_place    = Alexandria, Ptolemaic Kingdom
| burial         = [[Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra|Unlocated tomb]]<br />(probably in Egypt)
| module         = [[File:Cleopatra signature bw.jpg|200px]]
}}
{{Cleopatra}}

'''Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator''' ({{langx|grc-x-koine|Κλεοπάτρα Θεά Φιλοπάτωρ|lit=Cleopatra father-loving goddess}};<ref group="note">The name Cleopatra is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|l|iː|ə|ˈ|p|æ|t|r|ə}} {{respell|KLEE|ə|PAT|rə}}, or sometimes {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|l|iː|ə|ˈ|p|ɑː|t|r|ə}} {{respell|-|PAH|trə}} in both British and American English, see {{harvtxt|HarperCollins}} and {{harvtxt|Cordry|1998|p=44}} respectively. Her name was pronounced {{IPA|el|kleoˈpatra tʰeˈa pʰiloˈpato̞r|}} in the Greek dialect of Egypt (see [[Koine Greek phonology]]).{{pb}} She was also styled as '''Thea Neotera''' ({{langx|grc|Θεά Νεωτέρα|lit=the younger goddess}}) and '''Philopatris''' ({{langx|grc|Φιλόπατρις|lit=loving her country}}); see {{harvtxt|Fischer-Bovet|2015}}</ref> 70/69&nbsp;BC{{spnd}}10 or 12 August 30&nbsp;BC) was Queen of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] from 51 to 30&nbsp;BC, and the last active [[Hellenistic]] pharaoh.<ref group="note">She was also a diplomat, [[Ancient navies and vessels|naval commander]], linguist, and [[Ancient Greek medicine|medical author]]; see {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=1}} and {{harvtxt|Bradford|2000|p=13}}.</ref> A member of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], she was a descendant of its founder [[Ptolemy I Soter]], a [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian Greek]] general and [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies|companion]] of [[Alexander the Great]].<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Southern|2009|p=43}} writes about [[Ptolemy I Soter]]: "The Ptolemaic dynasty, of which Cleopatra was the last representative, was founded at the end of the fourth century&nbsp;BC. The Ptolemies were not of Egyptian extraction, but stemmed from Ptolemy Soter, a Macedonian Greek in the entourage of Alexander the Great."{{pb}}For additional sources that describe the Ptolemaic dynasty as "[[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian Greek]]", please see {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=15–16}}, {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=xiii, 3, 279}}, {{harvtxt|Kleiner|2005|pp=9, 19, 106, 183}}, {{harvtxt|Jeffreys|1999|p=488}} and {{harvtxt|Johnson|1999|p=69}}. Alternatively, {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=3}} describes them as a "Macedonian, Greek-speaking" dynasty. Other sources such as {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=64}} and {{harvtxt|Pfrommer|Towne-Markus|2001|p=9}} describe the Ptolemies as "Greco-Macedonian", or rather Macedonians who possessed a Greek culture, as in {{harvtxt|Pfrommer|Towne-Markus|2001|pp=9–11, 20}}.</ref> Her first language was [[Koine Greek]], and she is the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the [[Egyptian language]], among several others.<ref group="note" name="languages"/> After [[Death of Cleopatra|her death]], Egypt became [[Roman Egypt|a province]] of the [[Roman Empire]], marking the end of the Hellenistic period in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], which had begun during the [[Wars of Alexander the Great|reign of Alexander]] (336–323 BC).<ref group="note" name="Grant Hellenistic period explanation">{{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=5–6}} notes that the Hellenistic period, beginning with the reign of Alexander the Great, came to an end with the death of Cleopatra in 30&nbsp;BC. [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]] stresses that the [[Hellenistic Greeks]] were viewed by contemporary [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] as having declined and diminished in greatness since the age of [[Classical Greece]], an attitude that has continued even into the works of modern [[historiography]]. Regarding Hellenistic Egypt, Grant argues, "Cleopatra VII, looking back upon all that her ancestors had done during that time, was not likely to make the same mistake. But she and her contemporaries of the first century&nbsp;BC had another, peculiar, problem of their own. Could the 'Hellenistic Age' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could ''any'' Greek age, now that [[Roman Republic|the Romans]] were the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its perpetuation."</ref>

Born in [[Alexandria]], Cleopatra was the daughter of [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]], who named her his heir before his death in 51 BC. Cleopatra began [[Reign of Cleopatra|her reign]] alongside her brother [[Ptolemy XIII]], but a falling-out between them led to [[Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator#Civil war|a civil war]]. [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] statesman [[Pompey]] fled to Egypt after losing the 48 BC [[Battle of Pharsalus]] against his rival [[Julius Caesar]], the [[Roman dictator]], in [[Caesar's civil war]]. Pompey had been a political ally of Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy XIII had him ambushed and killed before Caesar arrived and occupied Alexandria. Caesar then attempted to reconcile the rival Ptolemaic siblings, but Ptolemy XIII's forces [[Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)|besieged Cleopatra and Caesar at the palace]]. Shortly after the siege was lifted by reinforcements, Ptolemy XIII died in the [[Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|Battle of the Nile]]. Caesar declared Cleopatra and her brother [[Ptolemy XIV]] joint rulers, and maintained a private affair with Cleopatra which produced a son, [[Caesarion]]. Cleopatra traveled to Rome as a client queen in 46 and 44&nbsp;BC, where she stayed at Caesar's [[Roman villa|villa]]. After [[Caesar's assassination]], followed shortly afterwards by the sudden death of Ptolemy XIV (possibly murdered on Cleopatra's order), she named Caesarion co-ruler as [[Ptolemy XV]].

In the [[Liberators' civil war]] of 43–42&nbsp;BC, Cleopatra sided with the Roman [[Second Triumvirate]] formed by Caesar's heir [[Octavian]], [[Mark Antony]], and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]. After their meeting at [[Tarsos]] in 41&nbsp;BC, the queen had an affair with Antony which produced three children. Antony became increasingly reliant on Cleopatra for both funding and military aid during [[Antony's Parthian War|his invasions]] of the [[Parthian Empire]] and the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. The [[Donations of Alexandria]] declared their children rulers over various territories under Antony's authority. Octavian portrayed this event as an act of treason, forced Antony's allies in the [[Roman Senate]] to flee Rome in 32&nbsp;BC, and [[War of Actium|declared war]] on Cleopatra. After defeating Antony and Cleopatra's naval fleet at the 31&nbsp;BC [[Battle of Actium]], [[Octavian's forces]] invaded Egypt in 30&nbsp;BC and defeated Antony, leading to Antony's suicide. After his death, Cleopatra [[Death of Cleopatra|reportedly killed herself]], probably by poisoning, to avoid being publicly displayed by Octavian in [[Roman triumph]]al procession.

Cleopatra's legacy survives in ancient and modern [[List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra|works of art]]. [[Roman historiography]] and [[Latin poetry]] produced a generally critical view of the queen that pervaded later [[Medieval literature|Medieval]] and [[Renaissance literature]]. In the visual arts, her ancient depictions include [[Roman busts]], [[Roman art|paintings]], and [[Roman sculpture|sculptures]], [[cameo carving]]s and [[cameo glass|glass]], [[Ptolemaic coinage|Ptolemaic]] and [[Roman coinage]], and [[relief]]s. In [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]] and [[Baroque art]], she was the subject of many works including operas, paintings, poetry, sculptures, and theatrical dramas. She has become a [[pop culture icon]] of [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|Egyptomania]] since the [[Victorian era]], and in modern times, Cleopatra has appeared in the applied and fine arts, [[burlesque]] satire, Hollywood films, and brand images for commercial products.

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== Etymology ==
The Latinized form [[Cleopatra (given name)|Cleopatra]] comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{transliteration|grc|Kleopátra}} ({{lang|grc|[[wikt:Κλεοπάτρα#Ancient Greek|Κλεοπάτρα]]}}), meaning "glory of her father",{{sfnp|Royster|2003|p=48}} from {{lang|grc|[[wikt:κλέος#Ancient Greek|κλέος]]}} ({{transliteration|grc|kléos}}, "glory") and {{lang|grc|[[wikt:πατήρ#Ancient Greek|πατήρ]]}} ({{transliteration|grc|patḗr}}, "father").{{sfnp|Muellner|}} The masculine form would have been written either as {{transliteration|grc|Kleópatros}} ({{lang|grc|[[wikt:Κλεόπατρος#Ancient Greek|Κλεόπατρος]]}}) or {{transliteration|grc|Pátroklos}} ({{lang|grc|[[wikt:Πάτροκλος#Ancient Greek|Πάτροκλος]]}}).{{sfnp|Muellner|}} Cleopatra was [[Ancient Greek personal names|the name]] of [[Alexander the Great]]'s sister [[Cleopatra of Macedonia]], as well as the wife of [[Meleager]] in [[Greek mythology]], [[Cleopatra Alcyone]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=15–16}} Through the marriage of [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] and [[Cleopatra I Syra]] (a [[List of Seleucid rulers|Seleucid princess]]), the name entered the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=15–16, 39}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=55–57}} Cleopatra's adopted title {{transliteration|grc|Theā́ Philopátōra}} ({{lang|grc|Θεᾱ́ Φιλοπάτωρα}}) means "goddess who loves her father".{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=15}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=84, 215}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Tyldesley|2017|}} offers an alternative rendering of the title Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator as "Cleopatra the Father-Loving Goddess".</ref>

== Background ==
[[File:Ptolemy XII Auletes Louvre Ma3449.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] portrait of [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]], the father of Cleopatra, in the [[Louvre]], Paris{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=18}}]]

Ptolemaic [[pharaoh]]s were [[Coronation of the pharaoh|crowned]] by the Egyptian [[high priest of Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], but resided in the multicultural and largely [[Culture of Greece|Greek]] city of [[Alexandria]], established by [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=32–33}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=1, 3, 11, 129}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=11}}<ref group="note">For a thorough explanation about the foundation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great and its largely [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic Greek]] nature during the [[Ptolemaic period]], along with a survey of the various ethnic groups residing there, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=43–61}}.{{pb}}For further validation about the founding of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=6}}.{{pb}}For further validation of Ptolemaic rulers being crowned at Memphis, see {{harvtxt|Jeffreys|1999|p=488}}.</ref> They spoke Greek and governed Egypt as [[Hellenistic]] Greek monarchs, refusing to learn the [[Demotic Egyptian language|native Egyptian language]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=29–33}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=1, 5, 13–14, 88, 105–106}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}<ref group="note" name="languages">The refusal of [[Ptolemaic rulers]] to speak the native language, [[Demotic Egyptian language|Demotic Egyptian]], is why [[Ancient Greek]] (i.e. [[Koine Greek]]) was used along with Late Egyptian on official court documents such as the [[Rosetta Stone]] ({{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3 |title=Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone |publisher=BBC |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523105204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3 |archive-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=live }}).{{pb}}As explained by {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=43–54}}, Ptolemaic Alexandria was considered a ''[[polis]]'' ([[city-state]]) separate from the country of Egypt, with citizenship reserved for [[Greeks]] and [[Ancient Macedonians]], but various other ethnic groups resided there, especially the Jews, as well as native Egyptians, Syrians, and [[Nubians]].{{pb}}For further validation, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=3}}.{{pb}}For the multiple languages spoken by Cleopatra, see {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=46–48}} and {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}.{{pb}}For further validation about Ancient Greek being the official language of the Ptolemaic dynasty, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=3}}.</ref> In contrast, Cleopatra could speak multiple languages by adulthood and was the first Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language.{{sfnp|Schiff|2011|p=35}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=46–48}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=20, 256, footnote 42}}.</ref> Plutarch implies that she also spoke [[Meroitic language|Ethiopian]], the language of the "[[Troglodytae|Troglodytes]]", [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] (or [[Aramaic]]), [[Old Arabic|Arabic]], the "Syrian language" (perhaps [[Syriac language|Syriac]]), [[Median language|Median]], and [[Parthian language|Parthian]], and she could apparently also speak [[Latin]], although her Roman contemporaries would have preferred to speak with her in her native [[Koine Greek]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=46–48}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=5, 82, 88, 105–106}}<ref group="note">For the list of languages spoken by Cleopatra as mentioned by the ancient historian [[Plutarch]], see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=33–34}}, who also mentions that the rulers of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] gradually abandoned the [[Ancient Macedonian language]]. For further information and validation see {{harvtxt|Schiff|2011|p=36}}.</ref> Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected Cleopatra's desire to restore [[History of North Africa|North African]] and [[History of the Middle East|West Asian]] territories that once belonged to the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=46–48, 100}}

Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the [[reign of Cleopatra]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=38–42}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xviii, 10}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=9–12}} When her grandfather [[Ptolemy IX Lathyros]] died in late 81 BC, he was succeeded by his daughter [[Berenice III]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=10–11}} With opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole reigning female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage with her cousin and stepson [[Ptolemy XI Alexander II]], an arrangement made by the Roman dictator [[Sulla]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=10–11}} Ptolemy XI had his wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, and was lynched soon after in the resulting riot over the assassination.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xix}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=11}} Ptolemy XI, and perhaps his uncle Ptolemy IX or father [[Ptolemy X Alexander I]], willed the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome as collateral for loans, giving the Romans legal grounds to take over Egypt, their [[client state]], after the assassination of Ptolemy XI.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=12}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=74}} The Romans chose instead to divide the Ptolemaic realm among the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX, bestowing [[History of Egypt|Egypt]] on [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]] and [[Ancient history of Cyprus|Cyprus]] on [[Ptolemy of Cyprus|another namesake son]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=17}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xix}}

== Biography ==
=== Early childhood ===
{{Main|Early life of Cleopatra}}

Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BC to the ruling [[Ptolemaic pharaoh]] [[Ptolemy XII]] and an uncertain mother,{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=3}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=15}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=3}} states that Cleopatra could have been born in either late 70 BC or early 69 BC.</ref> presumably Ptolemy XII's wife [[Cleopatra V Tryphaena]] (who may have been the same person as [[Cleopatra VI Tryphaena]]),{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=4}}{{sfnp|Preston|2009|p=22}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=xiii, 28}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation see {{harvtxt|Schiff|2011|p=28}}, {{harvtxt|Kleiner|2005|p=22}}, {{harvtxt|Bennett|1997|pp=60–63}}, {{harvtxt|Bianchi|2005}}, and {{harvtxt|Meadows|2001|p=23}}. For alternate speculation, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=11}} and {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=15, 18, 166}}. For a comparison of arguments about Cleopatra's maternity, see {{harvtxt|Prose|2022|p=38}}.</ref><ref group="note" name="cleopatra v or vi"/> the mother of Cleopatra's older sister, [[Berenice IV Epiphaneia]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=16}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=38}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=73}}<ref group="note">Due to discrepancies in academic works, in which some consider [[Cleopatra VI]] to be either a daughter of [[Ptolemy XII]] or his wife, identical to that of [[Cleopatra V]], {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=28}} states that Ptolemy XII had six children, while {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=16}} mentions only five.</ref> Cleopatra Tryphaena disappears from official records a few months after the birth of Cleopatra in 69 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=18–19}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=68–69}} The three younger children of Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra's sister [[Arsinoe IV]] and brothers [[Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator]] and [[Ptolemy XIV Philopator]],{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=16}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=38}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=73}} were born in the absence of his wife.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=19}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=69}} Cleopatra's childhood tutor was Philostratos, from whom she learned the [[Education in ancient Greece|Greek arts]] of oration and [[Ancient Greek philosophy|philosophy]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=45–46}} During her youth Cleopatra presumably studied at the [[Musaeum]], including the [[Library of Alexandria]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=45}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=81}}

=== Reign and exile of Ptolemy XII ===
{{main|Early life of Cleopatra}}
{{further|First Triumvirate}}
[[File:Retrato femenino (26771127162).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|left|Most likely a posthumously painted portrait of Cleopatra with red hair and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal [[diadem]] and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman [[Herculaneum]], Italy, 1st century AD{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|loc=p. 87, image plates and captions between pp. 246–247}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=87}} describes the painting from [[Herculaneum]] further: "Cleopatra's hair was maintained by her highly skilled hairdresser Eiras. Although rather artificial looking wigs set in the traditional tripartite style of long straight hair would have been required for her appearances before her Egyptian subjects, a more practical option for general day-to-day wear was the no-nonsense '[[Greco-Roman hairstyle|melon hairdo]]' in which her natural hair was drawn back in sections resembling the lines on a melon and then pinned up in a bun at the back of the head. A trademark style of [[Arsinoe II]] and [[Berenice II]], the style had fallen from fashion for almost two centuries until revived by Cleopatra; yet as both traditionalist and innovator, she wore her version without her predecessor's fine head veil. And whereas they had both been blonde like [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], Cleopatra may well have been a redhead, judging from the portrait of a flame-haired woman wearing the royal diadem surrounded by [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egyptian motifs]] which has been identified as Cleopatra."</ref>]]

In 65 BC the [[Roman censor]] [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] argued before the [[Senate of the Roman Republic|Roman Senate]] that Rome should annex Ptolemaic Egypt, but his [[Bill (law)|proposed bill]] and the similar bill of [[tribune]] [[Servilius Rullus]] in 63 BC were rejected.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=20}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xix, 12–13}} Ptolemy XII responded to the threat of possible annexation by offering [[remuneration]] and lavish gifts to powerful Roman statesmen, such as [[Pompey]] during [[Third Mithridatic War|his campaign]] against [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]], and eventually [[Julius Caesar]] after he became [[Roman consul]] in 59 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=20–21}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 12–13}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=74–76}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=12–13}}. In 1972, [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]] calculated that 6,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]], the price of Ptolemy XII's fee for receiving the title "friend and ally of the Roman people" from the [[First Triumvirate|triumvirs]] Pompey and Julius Caesar, would be worth roughly £7 million or US$17 million, roughly the entire annual tax revenue for Ptolemaic Egypt.</ref> However, Ptolemy XII's profligate behavior bankrupted him, and he was forced to acquire loans from the [[Roman banking|Roman banker]] [[Gaius Rabirius Postumus]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=21}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=13}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=76}}

In 58 BC the Romans [[Roman Cyprus|annexed Cyprus]] and on accusations of piracy drove Ptolemy of Cyprus, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide instead of enduring exile to [[Paphos]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=22}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 13, 75}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=76}}<ref group="note">For political background information on the Roman annexation of Cyprus, a move pushed for in the [[Roman Senate]] by [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]], see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=13–14}}.</ref> Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which, along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans, damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=22}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=13, 75}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=14–15}} Ptolemy XII was then exiled from Egypt by force, traveling first to [[Rhodes]], then [[Ancient Athens|Athens]], and finally the [[Roman villa|villa]] of [[First Triumvirate|triumvir]] Pompey in the [[Alban Hills]], near [[Praeneste]], Italy.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=22}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 13, 75}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=76–77}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=15–16}}.</ref>

Ptolemy XII spent roughly up to a year there on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his daughter Cleopatra, then about 11.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=22}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=76–77}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=76–77}} expresses little doubt about this: "deposed in late summer 58 BC and fearing for his life, [[Ptolemy XII Auletes|Auletes]] had fled both his palace and his kingdom, although he was not completely alone. For one Greek source reveals he had been accompanied 'by one of his daughters', and since his eldest [[Berenice IV]], was monarch, and the youngest, [[Arsinoe IV|Arsinoe]], little more than a toddler, it is generally assumed that this must have been his middle daughter and favourite child, eleven-year-old Cleopatra."</ref> Berenice IV sent an embassy to Rome to advocate for her rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father. Ptolemy had assassins kill the leaders of the embassy, an incident that was covered up by his powerful Roman supporters.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=23}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=13}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=77–78}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=16}}.</ref> When the Roman Senate denied Ptolemy XII the offer of an armed escort and provisions for a return to Egypt, he decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC and reside at the [[Temple of Artemis]] in [[Ephesus]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=23–24}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=78}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=16}}

The Roman financiers of Ptolemy XII remained determined to restore him to power.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=24}} Pompey persuaded [[Aulus Gabinius]], the [[Roman Syria|Roman governor of Syria]], to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] for the proposed mission.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=24}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 13}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=16–17}} Although it put him at odds with [[Roman law]], Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of [[Hasmonean Judea]], where [[Hyrcanus II]] had [[Antipater the Idumaean]], father of [[Herod the Great]], furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=24}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=13, 76}} As a young cavalry officer, [[Mark Antony]] was under Gabinius's command.{{sfnp|Carey|n.d.}} He distinguished himself by preventing Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of [[Pelousion]], and for rescuing the body of [[Archelaus (high priest of Comana Cappadocia)|Archelaos]], the husband of Berenice IV, after he was killed in battle, ensuring him a proper royal burial.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=24–25}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=76}} Cleopatra, then 14 years of age, would have traveled with the Roman expedition into Egypt; years later, Antony would profess that he had fallen in love with her at this time.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=24–25}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=23, 73}}

[[File:Roman Republic in 40bC.svg|thumb|240px|The [[Roman Republic]] (green) and [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] (yellow) in 40 BC]]

Gabinius was put on trial in Rome for abusing his authority, for which he was acquitted. However, his second trial, for accepting bribes, led to his exile. He was recalled from exile seven years later, in 48 BC, by Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=25}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=18}} Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria and extended his provincial command to Egypt, but Crassus was killed by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in 53 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=25}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xx}} Ptolemy XII had Berenice IV and her wealthy supporters executed, seizing their properties.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=25–26}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=13–14, 76}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=11–12}} He allowed Gabinius's largely [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] and [[Gaul|Gallic]] Roman garrison, the [[Gabiniani]], to harass people in the streets of Alexandria and installed his longtime Roman financier Rabirius as his chief financial officer.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=25–26}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=13–14}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=11–12, 80}}<ref group="note">For further information on Roman financier Rabirius, as well as the Gabiniani left in Egypt by Gabinius, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=18–19}}.</ref>

Within a year, Rabirius was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome after his life was endangered for draining Egypt of its resources.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=26}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=14}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=11–12}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=18}}.</ref> Despite these problems, Ptolemy XII created a will designating Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs, oversaw major construction projects such as the [[Temple of Edfu]] and a temple at [[Dendera]], and stabilized the economy.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=26–27}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=14}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=80, 85}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=19–20, 27–29}}.</ref> On 31 May 52 BC, Cleopatra was made a regent to Ptolemy XII, as indicated by an inscription in the [[Dendera Temple complex|Temple of Hathor]] at Dendera.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=27}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 14}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=84–85}}<ref group="note">Papyri of 51 BC were dated as the "thirtieth year of Auletes which is the first year of Cleopatra". See {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=28–30}}.</ref> Rabirius was unable to collect the entirety of Ptolemy XII's debt by the time of the latter's death, and so it was passed on to his successors Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=26}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=18}}

=== Reign ===
{{main|Reign of Cleopatra}}

==== Accession to the throne ====
{{Multiple image
|total_width=300
|image1=Cleopatra Isis Louvre E27113.jpg
|image2=Limestone stela of a high priest of god Ptah. It bears the cartouches of Cleopatra and Caesarion. From Egypt. Ptolemaic Period. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg
|footer=Left: A limestone [[stele]] dedicated by a [[Greeks|Greek]] man named Onnophris depicting a male [[pharaoh]], but honouring a queen Cleopatra (probably Cleopatra VII), located in the [[Louvre]], Paris<ref group="note">It is disputed whether Cleopatra was deliberately depicted as a male or whether a stele made under her father with his portrait was later inscribed with an inscription for Cleopatra. On this and other uncertainties regarding this stele, see {{harvtxt|Pfeiffer|2015|pages=177–181}}.</ref>{{pb}}Right: The [[cartouche]]s of Cleopatra and [[Caesarion]] on a limestone stele of the [[High Priest of Ptah]] [[Pasherienptah III]] in Egypt, dated to the [[Ptolemaic period]], and located in the [[Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]], London
}}

Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, when Cleopatra, in her first act as queen, began her voyage to [[Hermonthis]], near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], to install a new sacred [[Buchis]] bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god [[Montu]] in the [[Ancient Egyptian religion]].{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=231}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=53, 56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 15–16}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=88–92}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=31, 34–35}}.{{pb}}{{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=85–86}} states that the partial [[solar eclipse]] of 7{{nbsp}}March 51 BC marked the death of Ptolemy XII and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the Roman Senate to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC.{{pb}}However, {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=30}} claims that the Senate was informed of his death on 1{{nbsp}}August 51 BC. [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]] indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of Egypt.</ref> Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and emergencies shortly after taking the throne. These included famine caused by drought and a low level of the annual [[flooding of the Nile]], and lawless behavior instigated by the [[Gabiniani]], the now unemployed and assimilated Roman soldiers left by [[Gabinius]] to garrison Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=53–54}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=16–17}} Inheriting her father's debts, Cleopatra also owed the [[Roman Republic]] 17.5&nbsp;million [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]s.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=53}}

In 50 BC, [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]], [[proconsul]] of Syria, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria [[Roman-Parthian Wars|against the Parthians]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=54–56}} The Gabiniani tortured and murdered these two, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=54–56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=16}} Cleopatra sent the Gabiniani culprits to Bibulus as prisoners awaiting his judgment, but he sent them back to Cleopatra and chastised her for interfering in their adjudication, which was the prerogative of the Roman Senate.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=16}} Bibulus, siding with Pompey in [[Caesar's Civil War]], failed to prevent Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, which ultimately allowed Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=56}}

By 29 August 51 BC, official documents started listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother Ptolemy XIII as a co-ruler.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=53}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=16}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=91–92}} She had probably married him,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=xx}} but there is no record of this.{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=231}} The Ptolemaic practice of [[sibling marriage]] was introduced by [[Ptolemy II]] and his sister [[Arsinoe II]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=36–37}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=5}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=26–27}} A [[Osiris myth|long-held royal Egyptian practice]], it was loathed by contemporary [[Greeks]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=36–37}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=5}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=26–27}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Pfrommer|Towne-Markus|2001|p=34}} writes the following about the sibling marriage of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II: "[[Ptolemy Keraunos]], who wanted to become king of [[Macedon]]{{nbsp}}... killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason, the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]], whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism."</ref> By the reign of Cleopatra, however, it was considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=36–37}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=5}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=26–27}}

Despite Cleopatra's rejection of him, Ptolemy XIII still retained powerful allies, notably the eunuch [[Potheinos]], his childhood tutor, regent, and administrator of his properties.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=56–57}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=16–17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=73, 92–93}} Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included [[Achillas]], a prominent military commander, and [[Theodotus of Chios]], another tutor of Ptolemy XIII.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=56–57}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=92–93}} Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the autumn of 50 BC Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first [[regnal date]] in 49 BC.{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=231}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=57}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 17}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=92–93}}.</ref>

==== Assassination of Pompey ====
[[File:(Venice) Pompey the Great, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|A Roman portrait of [[Pompey]] made during the reign of [[Augustus]] (27 BC – 14 AD), a copy of an original from 70 to 60 BC, and located in the [[Venice National Archaeological Museum]], Italy]]

In the summer of 49 BC, Cleopatra and [[Ptolemaic army|her forces]] were still fighting against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when Pompey's son [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Gnaeus Pompeius]] arrived, seeking military aid on behalf of his father.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=57}} After returning to Italy from [[Gallic Wars|the wars in Gaul]] and [[crossing the Rubicon]] in January of 49 BC, Caesar had forced Pompey and his supporters to [[Caesar's Civil War#Civil war|flee to Greece]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=58}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=94–95}} In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius's request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=58}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=95}} Losing the fight against her brother, Cleopatra was then forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=58–59}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=95–96}} By the spring of 48 BC Cleopatra had traveled to [[Roman Syria]] with her younger sister, Arsinoe IV, to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=59}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=96}} She returned with an army, but her advance to Alexandria was blocked by her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani mobilized to fight against her, so she camped outside Pelousion in the eastern [[Nile Delta]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=59–60}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xx, 17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=97–98}}

In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive [[Battle of Pharsalus]] on 9{{nbsp}}August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to [[Tyre, Lebanon]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=59–60}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=259}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 17}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=96–97}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=39}}.</ref> Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, Pompey ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=60}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 17}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=97–98}}<ref group="note" name="Pompey">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=39–41}}.</ref> Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base in a protracted Roman civil war.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=60}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=98}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=39–43, 53}} In a scheme devised by Theodotus, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by a written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death on 28 September 48 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=60}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=259}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 17–18}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p98">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=98}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=39–43, 53–55}}.</ref> Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously defused the situation by having Pompey's head, severed and [[embalm]]ed, sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and took up residence at the royal palace.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=60–61}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=259–260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 18}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p98"/> Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing of Pompey and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=60–61}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 18}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=98–100}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=53–55}}.</ref>

==== Relationship with Julius Caesar ====
{{further|Military campaigns of Julius Caesar|Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)|Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|Caesareum of Alexandria}}

[[File:Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Leon-Gerome.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|''[[Cleopatra and Caesar (painting)|Cleopatra and Caesar]]'' (1866), a painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]]]]

Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=100}} Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=18}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=100}} Historian [[Cassius Dio]] records that she did so without informing her brother, dressed in an attractive manner, and charmed Caesar with her wit.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|pp=234–235}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=56–57}} [[Plutarch]] provides an entirely different account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=61}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=234}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=57–58}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=18}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=101–103}}.</ref>

When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar, who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=61–62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=112–113}} Caesar then brought Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII before the [[Boule (ancient Greece)|assembly of Alexandria]], where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=26, 62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=18}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p113">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=113}}.</ref> Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=18, 76}}<ref group="note" name="fletcher 2008 p113"/>

Judging that this agreement favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops, Potheinos decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=62}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=235}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=18–19}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=118}}.</ref> After Caesar managed to execute Potheinos, Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen, but soon afterward had her tutor [[Ganymedes (eunuch)|Ganymedes]] kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=63}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|p=236}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=118–119}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=76}}.</ref> Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of the erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=63}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 76}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=119}} The resulting [[Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)|siege of the palace]], with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped together inside, lasted into the following year of 47 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=62–63}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Hölbl|2001|pp=235–236}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=118–120}}.</ref>

[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The [[Tusculum portrait]], a contemporary Roman sculpture of [[Julius Caesar]] located in the Archaeological Museum of [[Turin]], Italy]]

Sometime between January and March of 47 BC, Caesar's reinforcements arrived, including those led by [[Mithridates of Pergamon]] and [[Antipater the Idumaean]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=63}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=19}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=119–120}}.{{pb}}As part of the siege of Alexandria, {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=19}} states that Caesar's reinforcements came in January, but {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=63}} says that his reinforcements came in March.</ref> Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the [[Nile]], [[Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|where Caesar attacked them]]. Ptolemy XIII tried to flee by boat, but it capsized, and he drowned.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=63–64}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19, 76}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Anderson|2003|p=39}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=120}}.</ref> Ganymedes may have been killed in the battle. [[Theodotus of Chios|Theodotus]] was found years later in Asia, by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], and executed. Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's [[triumph in Rome]] before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=64}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19–21, 76}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=172}} Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she had been pregnant with Caesar's child since September 48 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=64, 69}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 19–20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=120}}

Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=64}} However, Antony, an officer of his, helped to secure Caesar's appointment as [[Roman dictator|dictator]] lasting for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=64}} Wary of repeating the mistake of Cleopatra's sister Berenice IV in having a female monarch as sole ruler, Caesar appointed the 12-year-old Ptolemy XIV as joint ruler with the 22-year-old Cleopatra in a nominal sibling marriage, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=64–65}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=19}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=121}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}.{{pb}}{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=64–65}} states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=19}} claims that he was still only 10 years of age.</ref> The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=65}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=19}}

Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|Egyptian monuments]],{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=19–20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=125}} although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historical event.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=65–66}} The historian [[Suetonius]] provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of ''[[Thalamegos]]'', the [[pleasure barge]] constructed by [[Ptolemy IV]], which during his reign measured {{convert|300|ft|m|order=flip|sigfig=1}} in length and {{convert|80|ft|m|order=flip}} in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and [[Promenade deck|promenades]] along its two decks, resembling a floating villa.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=65–66}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=126}} Caesar could have had an interest in the Nile cruise owing to his fascination with geography; he was well-read in the works of [[Eratosthenes]] and [[Pytheas]], and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but turned back before reaching Ethiopia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=66}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=108, 149–150}}

Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC, allegedly to confront [[Pharnaces II of Pontus]], the son of Mithridates VI of Pontus, who was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=67}} It is possible that Caesar, married to the prominent Roman woman [[Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)|Calpurnia]], also wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she had their son.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=67}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=19–20}} He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the [[freedman]] [[Rufio (officer of Caesar)|Rufio]], to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position, but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=67}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=153}}

[[File:Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C.E., 71.12.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|An Egyptian portrait of a [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] queen, possibly Cleopatra, {{circa|51–30&nbsp;BC}}, located in the [[Brooklyn Museum]]{{sfnp|Ashton|2001b|p=164}}]]

[[Caesarion]], Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar, was born sometime in 47, possibly on 23 June 47 BC if [[stele]] at the [[Serapeum of Saqqara]] that mentions "King Caesar" refers to him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=69–70}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=260}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 20}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Anderson|2003|p=39}} and {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=154, 161–162}}; for date being disputed, see {{harvtxt|Tyldesley|2009|pp=136–137}}.</ref> Perhaps owing to his still childless marriage with Calpurnia, Caesar remained publicly silent about Caesarion (but perhaps accepted his parentage in private).{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=70}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=70}} writes the following about Caesar and his parentage of Caesarion: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C.—it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role—that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed the use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna—the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius' funeral oration—was prepared in 44 B.C. to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions."</ref> Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, naming Caesar as the father.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=70}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=162–163}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}

Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, presumably without Caesarion, and were given lodging in Caesar's villa within the [[Horti Caesaris]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=71}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 20}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=179–182}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=xiv, 78}}.</ref> As with their father Ptolemy XII, Caesar awarded both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV the legal status of "friend and ally of the Roman people" ({{Italics correction|{{langx|la|socius et amicus populi Romani}}}}), in effect client rulers loyal to Rome.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=21, 57, 72}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 20, 64}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=181–182}} Cleopatra's visitors at Caesar's villa across the [[Tiber]] included the senator [[Cicero]], who found her arrogant.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=72}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=194–195}} [[Sosigenes of Alexandria]], one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in the calculations for the new [[Julian calendar]], put into effect 1{{nbsp}}January 45 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72, 126}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=201–202}} The [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], established in the [[Forum of Caesar]] on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which stood there at least until the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]], mother of the Romans.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72, 175}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=195–196, 201}} The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess [[Isis]] with the [[Roman religion]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=72}}

Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely had an effect on the events at the [[Lupercalia]] festival a month before Caesar's assassination.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72–74}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=205–206}} Antony attempted to place a royal [[diadem]] on Caesar's head, but Caesar refused in what was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72–74}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=205–206}} Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen whom he abhorred.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72–74}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=205–206}} [[Caesar was assassinated]] on the [[Ides of March]] (15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra stayed in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=74}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=207–213}} However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew [[Octavian]] as the primary heir, and Octavian arrived in Italy around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=74}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 21}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=213–214}}

It is suggested, based on Cicero's letter, that Cleopatra might have been pregnant at that time with her and Caesar's second child; if so, this pregnancy ended in the loss of the baby.{{sfnp|Tyldesley|2009|p=144}} A few months later, Ptolemy XIV died—allegedly{{sfnp|Tyldesley|2009|pp=145-146. "Josephus, consistently anti-Cleopatra and prone to seeping statements, offers no proof in support of his allegation. ... it is important to remember that estimated average life expectancy for men who survived infancy in Ptolemaic Egypt was only thirty-three. To die at just fifteen years of age was sad, but it was by no means unusual."}} poisoned by Cleopatra—and she elevated her son Caesarion as her co-ruler.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=74–75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 22}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=214–215}}.</ref>

==== Liberators' civil war<span class="anchor" id="Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war"></span> ====
{{further|Liberators' civil war}}

[[File:Cleopatra Gate in Tarsus.JPG|thumb|[[Cleopatra's Gate]] in Tarsos (now [[Tarsus, Mersin]], Turkey), the site where she met [[Mark Antony]] in 41 BC{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=77–79, Figure 6}}]]

Octavian, Antony, and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] formed the [[Second Triumvirate]] in 43 BC, in which they were each [[Elections in the Roman Republic|elected]] for five-year terms to restore order in the Republic and [[Liberators' civil war|bring Caesar's assassins to justice]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 21–22}} Cleopatra received messages from both [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]], one of Caesar's assassins, and [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]], proconsul of Syria and Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}} She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems, while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=22}} These troops were captured by Cassius in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=22}}

While [[Serapion (strategos)|Serapion]], Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus, defected to Cassius and provided him with ships, Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony. Her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm, and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=22–23}} By the autumn of 42 BC, Antony had defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the [[Battle of Philippi]] in Greece, leading to the suicides of Cassius and Brutus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=75}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 22–23}}

By the end of 42 BC, Octavian had gained control over much of [[Greek East and Latin West|the western half]] of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=76}} In the summer of 41 BC, Antony established his headquarters at [[Tarsos]] in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there in several letters, which she rebuffed until Antony's envoy [[Quintus Dellius]] convinced her to come.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=76–77}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 23}} The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she had supported Cassius during the civil war and address territorial exchanges in the [[Levant]], but Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=77}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 23}} Cleopatra sailed up the [[Berdan River|Kydnos River]] to Tarsos in ''Thalamegos'', hosting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets on board the ship.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=77–79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=23}}<ref group="note">As explained by {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=23}}, Cleopatra, having read Antony's personality, boldly presented herself to him as the Egyptian goddess Isis (in the appearance of the Greek goddess [[Aphrodite]]) meeting her divine husband [[Osiris]] (in the form of the Greek god [[Dionysus]]), knowing that the priests of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had associated Antony with Dionysus shortly before this encounter. According to {{harvtxt|Brown|2011}}, a cult surrounding Isis had been spreading across the region for hundreds of years, and Cleopatra, like many of her predecessors, sought to identify herself with Isis and be venerated. In addition, some surviving coins of Cleopatra also depict her as Venus–Aphrodite, as explained by {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=205}}.</ref> Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria, and convinced Antony to have her exiled sister, Arsinoe IV, executed at Ephesus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxi, 24, 76}} Cleopatra's former rebellious governor of Cyprus was also handed over to her for execution.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=24}}

==== Relationship with Mark Antony ====
[[File:Octavian and Antony denarius (obverse).jpg|thumb|[[Denarius]] depicting [[Mark Antony]] minted by [[List of Roman moneyers during the Republic|Marcus Barbatius]]]]

Cleopatra invited Antony to come to Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=79}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 24}} Antony was well received by the populace of Alexandria, both for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and coming to Egypt without an occupation force like Caesar had done.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=79–80}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}} In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=77–79, 82}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=24}} He also had his subordinates, such as [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]], [[Battle of Mount Gindarus|drive the Parthians out]] of Anatolia and Syria.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}}{{sfnp|Bivar|1983|p=58}}{{sfnp|Brosius|2006|p=96}}<ref group="note">For further information about Publius Ventidius Bassus and his victory over [[Parthian Empire|Parthian forces]] at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, see {{harvtxt|Kennedy|1996|pp=80–81}}.</ref>

Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner for producing further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=81–82}} With his powers as a triumvir, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands, which were currently in Roman hands, to Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=82–83}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}} While it is clear that both [[Cilicia]] and Cyprus were under Cleopatra's control by 19 November 38 BC, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41–40 BC, during her time spent with Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=82–83}}

By the spring of 40 BC, Antony left Egypt due to troubles in Syria, where his governor [[Lucius Decidius Saxa]] was killed and his army taken by [[Quintus Labienus]], a former officer under Cassius who now served the [[Parthian Empire]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=83}} Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly acquired territories.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=83}} She would not see Antony again until 37 BC, but she maintained correspondence, and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=83}} By the end of 40 BC, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, a boy named [[Alexander Helios]] and a girl named [[Cleopatra Selene II]], both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=83–84}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25}} [[Helios]] (the Sun) and [[Selene]] (the Moon) were symbolic of a new era of societal rejuvenation,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=84}} as well as an indication that Cleopatra hoped Antony would repeat the [[Wars of Alexander the Great|exploits of Alexander the Great]] by conquering the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]].{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}}

[[File:Sir_Lawrence_Alma-Tadema_-_The_Meeting_of_Antony_and_Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|''The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra'' (1885), by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]]

Mark Antony's Parthian campaign in the east was disrupted by the events of the [[Perusine War]] (41–40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife [[Fulvia]] against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=84}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=73}} It has been suggested that Fulvia wanted to cleave Antony away from Cleopatra, but the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=84–85}} Fulvia and Antony's brother [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]] were eventually besieged by Octavian at [[Perusia]] (modern [[Perugia]], Italy) and then exiled from Italy, after which Fulvia died at [[Sicyon]] in Greece while attempting to reach Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=85}} Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at [[Brundisium]] in Italy in September 40 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=85}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}} Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the [[Ionian Sea]], it also stipulated that he concede [[Roman Italy|Italia]], [[Hispania]], and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], and marry Octavian's sister [[Octavia the Younger]], a potential rival for Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=85–86}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25, 73}}

In December 40 BC, Cleopatra received [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in [[Judea]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=86}} Herod had been installed as a [[Herodian Tetrarchy|tetrarch]] there by Antony, but he was soon at odds with [[Antigonus II Mattathias]] of the long-established Hasmonean dynasty.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=86}} Antigonus had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch [[Phasael]], who was executed while Herod was fleeing toward Cleopatra's court.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=86}} Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Antony named him [[List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers|king of Judea]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=86–87}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=26}} This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who would desire to reclaim the former Ptolemaic territories that comprised his new [[Herodian kingdom]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=86–87}}

{{multiple image
| align             = left
| image1            = An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt2.jpg
| width1            = 130
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt1.jpg
| width2            = 130
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| footer            = An ancient [[Roman Republican portraiture|Roman sculpture]] possibly depicting either Cleopatra of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]],{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|loc=image plates between pp. 246–247}}{{sfnp|Ferroukhi|2001b|p=242}}<ref group="note" name="Cherchel bust"/> or her daughter, [[Cleopatra Selene II]], Queen of [[Kingdom of Mauretania|Mauretania]],{{sfnp|Roller|2003|p=139}} located in the [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell]], Algeria
}}

Relations between Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also sired her two children, [[Antonia the Elder]] in 39 BC and [[Antonia Minor]] in 36 BC, and moved his headquarters to Athens.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=89}} However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=25}} Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=89}} Since the authority of Antony and Octavian as triumvirs had expired on 1{{nbsp}}January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at [[Taranto|Tarentum]], where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.

{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=89–90}} With two [[Roman legion|legions]] granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Antony traveled to [[Antioch]], where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=90}}

Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues, such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=90}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=90–91}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=77}} In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} he also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him, yet would ultimately outlast him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=91–92}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}<ref group="note">According to {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=91–92}}, these client state rulers installed by Antony included Herod, [[Amyntas of Galatia]], [[Polemon I of Pontus]], and [[Archelaus of Cappadocia]].</ref>

In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of [[Phoenicia]] (Lebanon) minus [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]], which remained in Roman hands.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=92}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} She also received [[Ptolemais Akko]] (modern [[Acre, Israel]]), a city that was established by Ptolemy II.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=92}} Given her [[Seleucid dynasty|ancestral relations with the Seleucids]], she was granted the region of [[Coele-Syria]] along the upper [[Orontes River]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=92–93}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} She was even given the region surrounding [[Jericho]] in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=93–94}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=26}} At the expense of the [[List of Nabataean kings|Nabataean king]] [[Malichus I]] (a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the [[Nabataean Kingdom]] around the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] on the [[Red Sea]], including Ailana (modern [[Aqaba]], Jordan).{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=94, 142}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=26}} To the west Cleopatra was handed [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] along the Libyan coast, as well as [[Itanos]] and [[Olous]] in [[Roman Crete]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=94}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}} Although still administered by Roman officials, these territories nevertheless enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by double-dating [[Ptolemaic coinage|her coinage]] in 36 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=95}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=26–27}}

[[File:Antony with Octavian aureus.jpg|thumb|Roman [[aureus]] bearing the portraits of [[Mark Antony]] (left) and [[Octavian]] (right), issued in 41&nbsp;BC to celebrate the establishment of the [[Second Triumvirate]] by Octavian, Antony and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] in 43&nbsp;BC]]

Antony's enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly controlled Roman territory was exploited by his rival Octavian, who tapped into the public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=94–95}} Octavian, fostering the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia, granted both her and [[Livia]], his own wife, extraordinary privileges of [[sacrosanctity]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=94–95}} Some 50 years before, [[Cornelia Africana]], daughter of [[Scipio Africanus]], had been the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated to her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=95}} She was now followed by Octavia and Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the Forum of Caesar to rival that of Cleopatra's, erected by Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=95}}

In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the [[Euphrates]] in his journey toward invading the Parthian Empire.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=95–96}} She then returned to Egypt, perhaps due to her advanced state of pregnancy.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=96}} By the summer of 36 BC, she had given birth to [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]], her third child and second son with Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=96}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 25–26}}

[[Antony's Parthian campaign]] in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle for a number of reasons, in particular the betrayal of [[Artavasdes II of Armenia]], who defected to the Parthian side.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=97}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 27}} After losing some 30,000 men, more than Crassus at Carrhae (an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near [[Berytus]] (modern [[Beirut]], Lebanon) in December, engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=97}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=27}} Antony desired to avoid the risks involved in returning to Rome, and so he traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=97}}

==== Donations of Alexandria ====
{{main|Donations of Alexandria}}

[[File:Mark Antony & Cleopatra, denarius, 34 BC, 543-1.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] minted by [[Mark Antony|Antony]] in 34 BC with his portrait on the [[obverse]], which bears the inscription reading "ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA" (For Antony, [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] having been vanquished), alluding to his [[Antony's campaign against Armenia|Armenian campaign]]. The reverse features Cleopatra, with the inscription "CLEOPATR[AE] REGINAE REGVM FILIORVM REGVM" (For Cleopatra, [[Queen of Kings]] and of the children of kings). The mention of her children on the reverse refers to the [[Donations of Alexandria]].{{sfnp|Crawford|1974|pp=102, 539}}{{sfnp|Newman|1990|pp=50, 51 (note 29)}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2007 |title=Coin shows Cleopatra's ugly truth |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/tyne/6357311.stm |access-date=22 May 2024 |language=en-GB}}</ref>]]

As Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony, but most likely in a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass Antony for his military losses.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=97–98}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=27–28}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Bringmann|2007|p=301}} claims that [[Octavia Minor]] provided Antony with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as stated in {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=97–98}} and {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=27–28}}.</ref> Antony received these troops but told Octavia not to stray east of Athens as he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=97–98}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=27–28}} When Octavia returned to Rome, Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave Antony's household.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=98}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}} Octavian's confidence grew as he eliminated his rivals in the west, including [[Sextus Pompeius]] and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after revolting against Octavian in Sicily.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=98}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=301}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=27}}

Dellius was sent as Antony's envoy to Artavasdes II in 34 BC to negotiate a potential [[marriage alliance]] that would wed the Armenian king's daughter to Alexander Helios, the son of Antony and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=28}} When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated their forces and captured the king and the Armenian royal family.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 28}} Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria as an imitation of a Roman triumph, dressed as [[Dionysus]] and riding into the city on a chariot to present the royal prisoners to Cleopatra, who was seated on a golden throne above a silver dais.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=28–29}} News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as a perversion of time-honored Roman rites and rituals to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=99}}

[[File:Papyrus document containing signature of Cleopatra VII of Egypt.jpg|thumb|left|A [[papyrus]] document dated February 33 BC granting tax exemptions to a person in Egypt and containing the signature of Cleopatra written by an official, but with {{lang|grc|γινέσθωι}} ({{transliteration|grc|ginésthōi}}; {{literal translation|lk=on}}&nbsp;"make it happen"{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} or "so be it"{{sfnp|Reece|2017|pp=201–202}}) added in Greek, likely by the queen's own hand{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}}{{sfnp|Reece|2017|pp=201–202}}]]

In an event held at the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] soon after the triumph, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and declared that she was the [[Queen of Kings]] with her son Caesarion, [[King of Kings]], while Alexander Helios was declared king of Armenia, [[Media (region)|Media]], and Parthia, and two-year-old [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]] was declared king of Syria and Cilicia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=99–100}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=301–302}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}} Cleopatra Selene II was bestowed with Crete and Cyrene.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=100}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} Antony and Cleopatra may have been wed during this ceremony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=100}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=100}} says that it is unclear if Antony and Cleopatra were ever truly married. {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}} says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra and, in defiance of Octavian, he would divorce Octavia in 32 BC. Coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple, as explained by {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=100}}.</ref> Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, now known as the [[Donations of Alexandria]]. Octavian wanted to publicize it for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=100–101}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}}

In late 34 BC, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=129–130}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiv}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=xiv}} writes that "Octavian waged a propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra, stressing Cleopatra's status as a woman and a foreigner who wished to share in Roman power."</ref> Antony claimed that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=129–130}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war has shaped the popular perceptions about Cleopatra from [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan-period literature]] through to various media in modern times.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=130}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=65–66}} Cleopatra was said to have brainwashed Mark Antony with [[Magic in the Graeco-Roman world|witchcraft and sorcery]] and was as dangerous as [[Homer]]'s [[Helen of Troy]] in destroying civilization.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=130–131}} [[Pliny the Elder]] claims in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' that Cleopatra once dissolved a pearl worth tens of millions of sesterces in vinegar just to win a dinner-party bet.{{sfnp|Pliny the Elder|1906|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D58 IX, ch. 58]}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=132}} The accusation that Antony had stolen books from the [[Library of Pergamum]] to restock the Library of Alexandria later turned out to be an admitted fabrication by [[Gaius Calvisius Sabinus (consul 39 BC)|Gaius Calvisius Sabinus]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=133}}

A [[papyrus]] document dated to February 33 BC, later used to wrap a [[mummy]], contains the signature of Cleopatra, probably written by an official authorized to sign for her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} It concerns certain tax exemptions in Egypt granted to either Quintus Caecillius or [[Publius Canidius Crassus]],<ref group="note">[[Stanley M. Burstein]], in {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=33}} provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the [[Publius Canidius Crassus]] provided by [[Duane W. Roller]] in {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=134}}.</ref> a former Roman consul and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at [[Actium]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen"{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}} or "so be it"{{sfnp|Reece|2017|pp=201–202}} ({{langx|grc|γινέσθωι|ginésthōi}});<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Reece|2017|p=203}} notes that "[t]he fragmentary texts of ancient Greek papyri do not often make their way into the modern public arena, but this one has, and with fascinating results, while remaining almost entirely unacknowledged is the remarkable fact that Cleopatra's one-word subscription contains a blatant spelling error: {{lang|grc|γινέσθωι}}, with a superfluous [[iota]] [[adscript]]." This spelling error "has not been noted by the popular media", however, being "simply transliterated&nbsp;[...] including, without comment, the superfluous iota adscript" (p.&nbsp;208). Even in academic sources, the misspelling was largely unacknowledged or quietly corrected (pp.&nbsp;206–208, 210).{{pb}}Although described as {{"'}}normal' orthography" (in contrast with {{"'}}correct' orthography") by Peter van Minnen (p.&nbsp;208), the spelling error is "much rarer and more puzzling" than the sort one would expect from the Greek papyri from Egypt (p.&nbsp;210)—so rare, in fact, that it occurs only twice in the 70,000 Greek papyri between the 3rd century BC and 8th century AD in the Papyrological Navigator's database. This is especially so when considering it was added to a word "with no etymological or morphological reason for having an iota adscript" (p.&nbsp;210) and was written by "the well-educated, native Greek-speaking, queen of Egypt" Cleopatra VII (p.&nbsp;208).</ref> this is likely the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to [[Countersign (legal)|countersign]] documents to avoid forgery.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=33}}

==== Battle of Actium ====
{{main|Battle of Actium}}

[[File:Augustus Statue.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|A reconstructed statue of [[Augustus]] as a younger Octavian, dated {{circa|30 BC}}]]

In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1{{nbsp}}January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave to his Oriental queen.{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=302}} Before Antony and Octavian's joint ''[[imperium]]'' expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=302}} In 32 BC, the Antonian loyalists [[Gaius Sosius]] and [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] became consuls. The former gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, and introduced pieces of legislation against him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=302–303}} During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}} Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over 200 senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day to join the side of Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=29–30}}

Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where she provided him with 200 of the 800 naval ships he was able to acquire.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=134}} Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded from the campaign against Octavian.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and was a competent monarch.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to the defections of prominent Romans, such as Ahenobarbus and [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}

[[File:0010-Cleopatra-03.jpg|thumb|A [[Ancient Greek coinage|hemiobol coin]] of Cleopatra struck in 32/31 BC showing her wearing the royal [[diadem]]]]

During the spring of 32 BC, Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens, where she persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 29}} This encouraged Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} Although a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the [[Temple of Vesta]], and it became a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=135}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} Octavian highlighted parts of the will, such as Caesarion being named heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=136}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=29}} In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of [[Mausoleum of Augustus|his own mausoleum]] at the [[Campus Martius]].{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}} Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC.{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=303}} With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his ''[[casus belli]]'', and Rome declared war on Cleopatra,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=136}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 30}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=147}} not Antony.<ref group="note">As explained by {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=147}}, "politically, Octavian had to walk a fine line as he prepared to engage in open hostilities with Antony. He was careful to minimize associations with civil war, as the Roman people had already suffered through many years of civil conflict and Octavian could risk losing support if he declared war on a [[Roman citizenship|fellow citizen]]."</ref> The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=136–137}}

{{multiple image
| image1            = Cleopatra VII tetradrachm Syria mint.jpg
| width1            = 143
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Cleopatra VII tetradrachm Ascalon mint.jpg
| width2            = 148
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| footer            = Left: A silver [[tetradrachm]] of Cleopatra minted at [[Seleucia Pieria]], Syria{{pb}}Right: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at [[Ascalon]], Israel
}}

Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian, but the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained; some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=137, 139}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Antony wanted to cross the [[Adriatic Sea]] and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium,{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=303–304}} but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=137}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=30}} Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at [[Patrai]] in Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC they had moved to Actium, on the southern side of the [[Ambracian Gulf]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=137}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=303–304}}

Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings, but Cleopatra had already been in conflict with Herod, and an earthquake in Judea provided him with an excuse to be absent from the campaign.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=137–138}} They also lost the support of Malichus I, which would prove to have strategic consequences.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=138}} Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC, while defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Dellius{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=138}} and the allied kings [[Amyntas of Galatia]] and [[List of rulers of the Paphlagonia|Deiotaros of Paphlagonia]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=138}} While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland, Cleopatra urged a naval confrontation to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=139}}

On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the [[Battle of Actium]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=139}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=303–304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii, 30}} Cleopatra, aboard her flagship, the ''Antonias'', commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=139}} Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the [[Peloponnese]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=139–140}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=30–31}}

Burstein writes that partisan Roman writers would later accuse Cleopatra of cowardly deserting Antony, but their original intention of keeping their sails on board may have been to break the blockade and salvage as much of their fleet as possible.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=30–31}} Antony followed Cleopatra and boarded her ship, identified by its [[Tyrian purple|distinctive purple]] sails, as the two escaped the battle and headed for [[Tainaron]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=139–140}} Antony reportedly avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=140}} The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony until the morning of 3{{nbsp}}September, and was followed by massive defections of officers, troops, and allied kings to Octavian's side.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=140}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii–xxiii, 30–31}}

=== Downfall and death ===
{{main|Death of Cleopatra}}
{{further|Epaphroditus (freedman of Augustus)|Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra}}

[[File:Roman Wall painting from the House of Giuseppe II, Pompeii, 1st century AD, death of Sophonisba, but more likely Cleopatra VII of Egypt consuming poison.jpg|thumb|left|A Roman painting from the House of Giuseppe II in [[Pompeii]], early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra, wearing her royal [[diadem]] and consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son [[Caesarion]], also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}}{{sfnp|Elia|1956|pp=3–7}}]]

While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at [[Paraitonion]] in Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=140}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxii–xxiii}} The couple then went their separate ways, Antony to Cyrene to raise more troops and Cleopatra to the harbor at Alexandria in an attempt to mislead the oppositional party and portray the activities in Greece as a victory.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=140}} She was afraid that news about the outcome of the battle of Actium would lead to a rebellion.{{sfnp|Brambach|1996|p=312}} It is uncertain whether or not, at this time, she actually executed Artavasdes II and sent his head to his rival, [[Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene]], in an attempt to strike an alliance with him.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=141}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}}

[[Lucius Pinarius]], Mark Antony's appointed governor of Cyrene, received word that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium before Antony's messengers could arrive at his court.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=141}} Pinarius had these messengers executed and then defected to Octavian's side, surrendering to him the four legions under his command that Antony desired to obtain.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=141}} Antony nearly committed suicide after hearing news of this, but was stopped by his staff officers.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=141}} In Alexandria, he built a reclusive cottage on the island of [[Pharos]] that he nicknamed the ''Timoneion'', after the philosopher [[Timon of Athens (person)|Timon of Athens]], who was famous for his cynicism and [[misanthropy]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=141}} Herod, who had personally advised Antony after the Battle of Actium that he should betray Cleopatra, traveled to Rhodes to meet Octavian and resign his kingship out of loyalty to Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=141–142}} Octavian was impressed by his speech and sense of loyalty, so he allowed him to maintain his position in Judea, further isolating Antony and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=141–142}}

Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=142}} Cleopatra planned to relinquish her throne to him, take her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, and then set sail to a foreign port, perhaps in [[History of India|India]], where she could spend time recuperating.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=142}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}} However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria, [[Quintus Didius]], managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=142}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}} Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=142}} Although most likely later pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time, Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=143}}

[[File:Guido Cagnacci 003.jpg|thumb|right|''The Death of Cleopatra'' (1658), by [[Guido Cagnacci]]]]

Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the ''[[ephebi]]'', which, along with reliefs on a stele from [[Koptos]] dated 21 September 31 BC, demonstrated that Cleopatra was now grooming her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=142–143}} In a show of solidarity, Antony also had [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus]], his son with Fulvia, enter the ''ephebi'' at the same time.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=142}} Separate messages and envoys from Antony and Cleopatra were then sent to Octavian, still stationed at Rhodes, although Octavian seems to have replied only to Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=143}} Cleopatra requested that her children should inherit Egypt and that Antony should be allowed to live in exile in Egypt, offered Octavian money in the future, and immediately sent him lavish gifts.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=143}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}} Octavian sent his diplomat Thyrsos to Cleopatra after she threatened to burn herself and vast amounts of her treasure within a tomb already under construction.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=143–144}} Thyrsos advised her to kill Antony so that her life would be spared, but when Antony suspected foul intent, he had this diplomat flogged and sent back to Octavian without a deal.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=144}}

After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 31}} stopping at [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia]], where his new ally Herod provided his army with fresh supplies.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=144–145}} Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while [[Cornelius Gallus]], marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=145}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=153}} Octavian advanced quickly to Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over Octavian's tired troops outside the city's [[hippodrome]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=145}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=153}} However, on 1 August 30 BC, Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by Antony's cavalry.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=145}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|pp=153–154}}

Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=145}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=154}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=184}} In despair, Antony responded to this by stabbing himself in the stomach and taking his own life at age 53.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=145}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}} According to Plutarch, he was still dying when brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, telling her he had died honorably and that she could trust Octavian's companion [[Gaius Proculeius]] over anyone else in his entourage.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=145}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|pp=154–155}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=184–185}} It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to burn herself with her treasures.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=146}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=185–186}} Cleopatra was then allowed to embalm and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=146}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}}

[[File:Jean-Baptiste Regnault - Death of Cleopatra - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''The Death of Cleopatra'' (1796–1797), by [[Jean-Baptiste Regnault]]]]

Octavian entered Alexandria, occupied the palace, and seized Cleopatra's three youngest children.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=146}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=155}} When she met with Octavian, Cleopatra told him bluntly, "I will not be led in a triumph" ({{tlit|grc|ou thriambéusomai}}), according to [[Livy]], a rare recording of her exact words.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=146–147, 213, footnote 83}}{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|p=61}} Octavian promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his future plans for her kingdom.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=147}} When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days, she prepared for suicide as she had no intentions of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=147}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}} It is unclear if [[Death of Cleopatra|Cleopatra's suicide]] on 12 August 30 BC, at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=147–148}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 31–32}}<ref group="note" name="date of Cleopatra's death" /> It is said she was accompanied by her servants Eiras and [[Charmion (servant to Cleopatra)|Charmion]], who also took their own lives.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=147}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=194}}

Octavian was said to have been angered by this outcome but had Cleopatra buried in royal fashion next to Antony in [[Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra|her tomb]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=147}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=65}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=194–195}} Cleopatra's physician, Olympos, did not explain her cause of death, although the popular belief is that she allowed an [[Asp (reptile)|asp]] or [[Egyptian cobra]] to bite and poison her.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=148–149}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=31}} Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement ({{lang|grc|κνῆστις}}, {{transliteration|grc|knêstis}}, 'spine, cheese-grater') was used to introduce the toxin by scratching; Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle ({{lang|grc|[[wikt:βελόνη#Ancient Greek|βελόνη]]}}, {{transliteration|grc|belónē}}), and [[Strabo]] argued for an ointment of some kind.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=148}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=56}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=31–32}}<ref group="note">For the translated accounts of both Plutarch and Dio, {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=194–195}} writes that the implement used to puncture Cleopatra's skin was a hairpin.</ref> Horace corroborates the common belief that it was a venomous snake, but instead states that it was several ({{lang|la|serpentēs}}, 'serpents').<ref>Horace, ''Odes'', 1.37, 27</ref> Vergil agrees that it was several serpents.<ref>Vergil, ''Aeneid'', 8, 696-697</ref> Both this and Horace's account suggest that this belief stemmed from Octavian's propaganda.{{Sfn|Tronson|1998|pp=31-50}} No venomous snake was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=148–149}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=31–32}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=194–195}}

Cleopatra decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt, perhaps with plans to flee to [[Kushite]] [[Nubia]], Ethiopia, or India.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=149}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=32}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=153}} Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, would live for a mere 18 days until executed on the orders of Octavian around 29 August 30 BC, after returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=149–150}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 32}}{{sfnp|Skeat|1953|pp=99–100}}<ref group="note" name="Reign of Caesarion">{{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=149}} and {{harvtxt|Skeat|1953|pp=99–100}} explain the nominal short-lived reign of Caesarion as lasting 18 days in 30 August BC, as recorded in [[Clement of Alexandria|Clement]]'s  ''[[Stromata]]'' ([https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm I.21.129]). However, [[Duane W. Roller]], relaying [[Theodore Cressy Skeat]], affirms that Caesarion's reign "was essentially a fiction created by Egyptian chronographers to close the gap between [Cleopatra's] death and official Roman control of Egypt" ({{harvnb|Roller|2010|pp=149, 214, footnote 103}}).{{pb}}Plutarch, translated by {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=187}}, wrote in vague terms that "Octavian had Caesarion killed later, after Cleopatra's death."</ref> Octavian was convinced by the advice of the philosopher [[Arius Didymus]] that there was room for only one Caesar in the world.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=150}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=187}}, translating Plutarch, quotes Arius Didymus as saying to Octavian that "it is not good to have too many Caesars", which was apparently enough to convince Octavian to have Caesarion killed.</ref> With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] was established,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=150–151}}{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|p=304}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=197–198}}<ref group="note">Contrary to regular Roman provinces, Egypt was established by Octavian as territory under his personal control, barring the Roman Senate from intervening in any of its affairs and appointing his own [[Equites|equestrian]] [[praefectus augustalis|governors of Egypt]], the first of whom was Gallus. For further information, see {{harvtxt|Southern|2014|p=185}} and {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=151}}.</ref> marking the end of the Hellenistic period.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 1}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=5–6}}<ref group="note" name="Grant Hellenistic period explanation" /> In January of 27 BC Octavian was renamed Augustus ("the revered") and [[Constitutional reforms of Augustus|amassed constitutional powers]] that established him as the first [[Roman emperor]], inaugurating the [[Principate]] era of the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfnp|Bringmann|2007|pp=304–307}}

== Cleopatra's kingdom and role as a monarch ==
{{main|Reign of Cleopatra#Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra}}
{{further|Ptolemaic coinage|Ancient Greek coinage}}

[[File:Cleopatra Mint Alexandria.jpg|thumb|Cleopatra on a coin of 40 [[drachm]]ai (1 [[Obol (coin)|obol]]) from 51 to 30 BC, minted at [[Alexandria]]; on the [[obverse]] is a portrait of Cleopatra wearing a [[diadem]], and on the reverse an inscription reading "{{lang|grc|ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑΣ}}" ([[Basileus|Basilissēs]] Kleopatras) with an eagle standing on a thunderbolt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CoinArchives.com Search Results: drachmai |url=https://www.coinarchives.com/a/results.php?search=drachmai |access-date=17 May 2024 |website=www.coinarchives.com}}</ref>]]

Following the tradition of [[List of Macedonian kings|Macedonian rulers]], Cleopatra ruled Egypt and other territories such as Cyprus as an [[absolute monarch]], serving as the [[Ancient Greek law|sole lawgiver]] of her kingdom.{{sfnp|Grant|1972|pp=6–7}} She was the [[High priest|chief religious authority]] in her realm, presiding over religious ceremonies dedicated to the deities of both the [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]] and [[Greek mythology|Greek]] polytheistic faiths.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=34}} She oversaw the construction of various temples to Egyptian and Greek gods,{{sfnp|Chauveau|2000|pp=69–71}} a synagogue for the [[Jews in Egypt]], and even built the [[Caesareum of Alexandria]], dedicated to the [[Imperial cult|cult worship]] of her patron and lover Julius Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=104, 110–113}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=216–217}}

Cleopatra was directly involved in the administrative affairs of her domain,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=33–34}} tackling crises such as famine by ordering royal granaries to distribute food to the starving populace during a drought at the beginning of her reign.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=103–104}} A study suggested that volcanic eruptions caused the unfavourable climate and that this contributed to Cleopatra's demise,<ref name="McConnell et al. 2020">{{cite journal |last1=McConnell |first1=Joseph R. |last2=Sigl |first2=Michael |last3=Plunkett |first3=Gill |last4=Burke |first4=Andrea |last5=Kim |first5=Woon Mi |last6=Raible |first6=Christoph C. |last7=Wilson |first7=Andrew I. |last8=Manning |first8=Joseph G. |last9=Ludlow |first9=Francis |last10=Chellman |first10=Nathan J. |last11=Innes |first11=Helen M. |last12=Yang |first12=Zhen |last13=Larsen |first13=Jessica F. |last14=Schaefer |first14=Janet R. |last15=Kipfstuhl |first15=Sepp |last16=Mojtabavi |first16=Seyedhamidreza |last17=Wilhelms |first17=Frank |last18=Opel |first18=Thomas |last19=Meyer |first19=Hanno |last20=Steffensen |first20=Jørgen Peder |title=Extreme climate after massive eruption of Alaska's Okmok volcano in 43 BCE and effects on the late Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=7 July 2020 |volume=117 |issue=27 |pages=15443–15449 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2002722117 |doi-access=free |pmid=32571905 |pmc=7354934 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11715443M |hdl=10023/21184 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> although others expressed skepticism about this hypothesis.<ref name="Strunz & Braeckel 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Strunz |first1=Sebastian |last2=Braeckel |first2=Oliver |title=Did volcano eruptions alter the trajectories of the Roman Republic and the Ptolemaic Kingdom? Moving beyond black-box determinism |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=22 December 2020 |volume=117 |issue=51 |pages=32207–32208 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2019022117 |doi-access=free |pmid=33234573 |pmc=7768766 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11732207S }}</ref> Although the [[command economy]] that she managed was more of an ideal than a reality,{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=39–41}} the government attempted to impose [[price controls]], [[tariff]]s, and [[state monopolies]] for certain goods, fixed exchange rates for foreign currencies, and rigid laws forcing peasant farmers to stay in their villages during planting and harvesting seasons.{{sfnp|Chauveau|2000|pp=78–80}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=104–105}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=37–38}} Apparent financial troubles led Cleopatra to [[debase]] her coinage, which included silver and bronze currencies but no gold coins like those of some of her distant Ptolemaic predecessors.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=106–107}}

== Legacy ==
=== Children and successors ===
{{multiple image
| align             = left
| image1            = Cleopatra Selene II bust, Cherchell, Algeria 4.jpg
| width1            = 212
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Allégorie de la province romaine d'Afrique - Grand Palais, Paris 2014.jpg
| width2            = 120
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| footer            = Left: A Roman head of either Cleopatra or her daughter [[Cleopatra Selene II]], Queen of [[Kingdom of Mauretania|Mauretania]], from the late 1st century BC, located in the [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell]], Algeria{{sfnp|Roller|2003|p=139}}{{sfnp|Ferroukhi|2001a|p=219}}{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|pp=155–156}}<ref group="note" name="Cherchel bust"/>{{pb}}Right: A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II, wearing an elephant skin cap, raised relief image on a [[gilded]] silver dish from the [[Boscoreale Treasure]], dated to the early 1st century AD{{sfnp|Roller|2003|pp=141–142}}{{sfnp|Walker|2001|pp=312–313}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Walker|2001|p=312}} writes the following about the raised relief on the gilded silver dish: "Conspicuously mounted on the cornucopia is a gilded crescent moon set on a pine cone. Around it are piled pomegranates and bunches of grapes. Engraved on the horn are images of Helios (the sun), in the form of a youth dressed in a short cloak, with the hairstyle of Alexander the Great, the head surrounded by rays{{nbsp}}... The symbols on the cornucopia can indeed be read as references to the Ptolemaic royal house and specifically to Cleopatra Selene, represented in the crescent moon, and to her twin brother, Alexander Helios, whose eventual fate after the conquest of Egypt is unknown. The viper seems to be linked with the pantheress and the intervening symbols of fecundity rather than the suicide of Cleopatra VII. The elephant scalp could refer to Cleopatra Selene's status as ruler, with Juba II, of Mauretania. The visual correspondence with the veiled head from Cherchel encourages this identification, and many of the symbols used on the dish also appear on the coinage of Juba II."</ref>
}}

After her suicide, Cleopatra's three surviving children, [[Cleopatra Selene II]], [[Alexander Helios]], and [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]], were sent to Rome with Octavian's sister [[Octavia the Younger]], a former wife of their father, as their guardian.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=153}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=32, 76–77}} Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios were present in the Roman triumph of Octavian in 29 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=153}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=77}} The fates of Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus are unknown after this point.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=153}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=77}} Octavia arranged the betrothal of Cleopatra Selene II to [[Juba II]], son of [[Juba I]], whose North African [[kingdom of Numidia]] had been turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Julius Caesar due to Juba I's support of Pompey.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=153–154}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=32, 76–77}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=155}}

The emperor Augustus installed Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II, after their wedding in 25 BC, as the new rulers of [[Mauretania]], where they transformed the old [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] city of [[Iol]] into their new capital, renamed [[Caesarea Mauretaniae]] (modern [[Cherchell]], Algeria).{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=153–154}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=77}} Cleopatra Selene II imported many important scholars, artists, and advisers from her mother's royal court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, now permeated in Hellenistic Greek culture.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=154–155}} She also named her son [[Ptolemy of Mauretania]], in honor of their Ptolemaic dynastic heritage.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=155}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=32, 77}}

Cleopatra Selene II died {{circa|5&nbsp;BC}}, and when Juba II died in 23/24 AD he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=155}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 32, 77}} However, Ptolemy was eventually executed by the Roman emperor [[Caligula]] in 40 AD, perhaps under the pretense that Ptolemy had unlawfully minted his own royal coinage and utilized [[regalia]] reserved for the Roman emperor.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=155–156}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 32, 77–78}} Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although Queen [[Zenobia]], of the short-lived [[Palmyrene Empire]] during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], claimed descent from Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=156}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=32, 69, 77–78}} A cult dedicated to Cleopatra still existed as late as 373 AD when Petesenufe, an Egyptian scribe of the book of Isis, explained that he "overlaid the figure of Cleopatra with gold."{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=151}}

=== Roman literature and historiography ===
{{further|Roman historiography|Greek historiography|Latin literature|Latin poetry}}

[[File:Alexandre Cabanel - Cléopatre essayant des poisons sur des condamnés à mort.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|''[[Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners]]'' (1887), by [[Alexandre Cabanel]]{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=36}}]]

Although almost 50 ancient works of [[Roman historiography]] mention Cleopatra, these often include only terse accounts of the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and Augustan propaganda about her personal deficiencies.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=7}} Despite not being a biography of Cleopatra, the ''[[Parallel Lives|Life of Antonius]]'' written by Plutarch in the 1st century AD provides the most thorough surviving account of Cleopatra's life.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=7–8}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=67, 93}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=32}} Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on [[primary source]]s, such as [[Philotas (physician)|Philotas of Amphissa]], who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's personal physician named Olympos, and Quintus Dellius, a close confidant of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=7–8, 44}} Plutarch's work included both the Augustan view of Cleopatra—which became canonical for his period—as well as sources outside of this tradition, such as eyewitness reports.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=7–8}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=32}}

The [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Jewish Roman]] historian [[Josephus]], writing in the 1st century AD, provides valuable information on the life of Cleopatra via her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=8}}{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|pp=57–58}} However, this work relies largely on Herod's memoirs and the biased account of [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], the tutor of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria before he moved to Judea to serve as an adviser and chronicler at Herod's court.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=8}}{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|pp=57–58}} The ''Roman History'' published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early 3rd century AD, while failing to fully comprehend the complexities of the late Hellenistic world, nevertheless provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=8}}

[[File:Cleopatra VII, marble, Vatican Museums, Pius-Clementine Museum, Room of the Greek Cross 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|A restructured marble [[Roman sculpture|Roman statue]] of Cleopatra wearing a [[diadem]] and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, found along the [[Via Cassia]] near the {{interlanguage link|Tomba di Nerone|it}}, Rome, and now located in the [[Museo Pio-Clementino]]{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Lippold|1936|pp=169–171}}{{sfnp|Curtius|1933|pp=184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25–27.}}]]

Cleopatra is barely mentioned in {{lang|la|[[De Bello Alexandrino]]}}, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Caesar.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=8–9}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=93}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=60–62}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=60}} offers speculation that the author of {{lang|la|De Bello Alexandrino}}, written in Latin prose sometime between 46 and 43 BC, was a certain [[Aulus Hirtius]], a military officer serving under Caesar.</ref> The [[writings of Cicero]], who knew her personally, provide an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=8–9}} The Augustan-period authors [[Virgil]], [[Horace]], [[Propertius]], and [[Ovid]] perpetuated the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=8–9}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=67}} although Virgil established the idea of Cleopatra as a figure of romance and epic [[melodrama]].{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|pp=66–70}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=30}} writes that Virgil, in his ''[[Aeneid]]'', described the Battle of Actium against Cleopatra "as a clash of civilizations in which Octavian and the Roman gods preserved Italy from conquest by Cleopatra and the barbaric animal-headed gods of Egypt."</ref> Horace also viewed Cleopatra's suicide as a positive choice,{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|pp=65–66}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=67}} an idea that found acceptance by the [[Late Middle Ages]] with [[Geoffrey Chaucer]].{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=54}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=68}}

The historians [[Strabo]], [[Velleius]], [[Valerius Maximus]], [[Pliny the Elder]], and [[Appian]], while not offering accounts as full as Plutarch, Josephus, or Dio, provided some details of her life that had not survived in other historical records.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=8–9}}<ref group="note">For further information and extracts of Strabo's account of Cleopatra in his ''[[Geographica]]'' see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=28–30}}.</ref> Inscriptions on contemporary Ptolemaic coinage and some [[List of ancient Egyptian papyri|Egyptian papyrus documents]] demonstrate Cleopatra's point of view, but this material is very limited in comparison to Roman literary works.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=8–9}}{{sfnp|Chauveau|2000|pp=2–3}}<ref group="note">As explained by {{harvtxt|Chauveau|2000|pp=2–3}}, this source material from Egypt dated to the reign of Cleopatra includes about 50 papyri documents in Ancient Greek, mostly from the city of [[Heracleopolis Magna|Heracleopolis]], and only a few papyri from [[Faiyum]], written in the [[Demotic Egyptian]] language. Overall, this is a much smaller body of surviving native texts than those of any other period of Ptolemaic Egypt.</ref> The fragmentary ''Libyka'' commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law Juba II provides a glimpse at a possible body of historiographic material that supported Cleopatra's perspective.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=8–9}}

Cleopatra's gender has perhaps led to her depiction as a minor if not insignificant figure in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the [[Greco-Roman world]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=1–2}} For instance, the historian [[Ronald Syme]] asserted that she was of little importance to Caesar and that the propaganda of Octavian magnified her importance to an excessive degree.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=1–2}} Although the common view of Cleopatra was one of a prolific seductress, she had only two known sexual partners, Caesar and Antony, the two most prominent Romans of the time period, who were most likely to ensure the survival of her dynasty.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=2}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=63}} Plutarch described Cleopatra as having had a stronger personality and charming wit than physical beauty.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=3}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=11}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|pp=37–38}}<ref group="note">For the description of Cleopatra by Plutarch, who claimed that her beauty was not "completely incomparable" but that she had a "captivating" and "stimulating" personality, see {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=32–33}}.</ref>

=== Cultural depictions ===
{{further|List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra}}

==== Depictions in ancient art ====
{{further|Hellenistic art|Art of ancient Egypt|Death of Cleopatra#Depictions in art and literature}}

===== Statues =====
{{further|Roman portraiture|Roman sculpture|Esquiline Venus|Sleeping Ariadne}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = Клеопатра VII.jpg
| width1            = 108
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Venus von Esquilin.jpg
| width2            = 112
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| footer            = Left: An Egyptian statue of either [[Arsinoe II]] or Cleopatra as an [[Egyptian goddess]] in black [[basalt]] from the second half of the 1st century BC,{{sfnp|Ashton|2008|pp=83–85}} located in the [[Hermitage Museum]], Saint Petersburg{{pb}}Right: The ''[[Esquiline Venus]]'', a [[Roman art|Roman]] or [[Hellenistic Egypt|Hellenistic-Egyptian]] statue of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ([[Aphrodite]]) that may be a depiction of Cleopatra,{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|pp=186, 194, footnote 10}} located in the [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome
}}

Cleopatra was depicted in various ancient works of art, in the [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] as well as [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic-Greek]] and [[Roman art|Roman]] styles.{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}} Surviving works include statues, [[Bust (sculpture)|busts]], [[relief]]s, and minted coins,{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=36}} as well as ancient [[Cameo (carving)|carved cameos]],{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=176}} such as one depicting Cleopatra and Antony in Hellenistic style, now in the [[Altes Museum]], Berlin.{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}} Contemporary images of Cleopatra were produced both in and outside of Ptolemaic Egypt. For instance, there was once a large [[gilded]] bronze statue of Cleopatra inside the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]] in Rome, the first time that a living person had their statue placed next to that of a deity in a [[Roman temple]].{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72, 175}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=195–196}} It was erected there by Caesar and remained in the temple at least until the 3rd century AD, its preservation perhaps owing to Caesar's patronage, although Augustus did not remove or destroy artworks in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=72, 151, 175}}{{sfnp|Varner|2004|p=20}}

[[:File:Cleopatra VII, marble, Vatican Museums, Pius-Clementine Museum, Room of the Greek Cross.jpg|A life-sized Roman-style statue of Cleopatra]] was found near the {{interlanguage link|Tomba di Nerone|it}}, Rome, along the {{lang|la|[[Via Cassia]]}}, and is now housed in the {{lang|it|[[Museo Pio-Clementino]]}}, part of the [[Vatican Museums]].{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Lippold|1936|pp=169–171}}{{sfnp|Curtius|1933|pp=184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25–27.}} Plutarch, in his ''Life of Antonius'', said that the public statues of Antony were [[damnatio memoriae|torn down]] by Augustus, but those of Cleopatra were preserved following her death thanks to her friend Archibius paying the emperor 2,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] to dissuade him from destroying hers.{{sfnp|Grout|2017a|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=151}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=65}}

Since the 1950s scholars have debated whether or not the ''[[Esquiline Venus]]''—discovered in 1874 on the [[Esquiline Hill]] in Rome and housed in the {{lang|it|[[Palazzo dei Conservatori]]}} of the [[Capitoline Museums]]—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the statue's [[commons:Category:Esquiline Venus (Musei Capitolini)|hairstyle and facial features]], apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the [[uraeus]] [[Egyptian cobra]] wrapped around the base.{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|pp=186, 194, footnote 10}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Higgs|2001|pp=208–209}} Detractors of this theory argue that the face in this statue is thinner than the face on [[:File:Berlín Cleopatra 01.JPG|the Berlin portrait]] and assert that it was unlikely she would be depicted as the naked goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] (or the Greek [[Aphrodite]]).{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|pp=186, 194, footnote 10}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Higgs|2001|pp=208–209}} However, she was depicted in an Egyptian statue as the goddess [[Isis]],{{sfnp|Ashton|2008|p=83}} while some of her coinage depicts her as Venus-Aphrodite.{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=205}}{{sfnp|Meadows|Ashton|2001|p=178}} She also dressed as Aphrodite when meeting Antony at Tarsos.{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=23}} The ''Esquiline Venus'' is generally thought to be a mid-1st-century AD [[Interpretatio graeca|Roman copy]] of a 1st-century BC Greek original from the school of [[Pasiteles]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}

===== Coinage portraits =====
{{further|Ptolemaic coinage|Roman currency|Ancient Greek coinage}}

[[File:Cleopatra Tetradrachm Antiochia.jpg|thumb|Cleopatra and [[Mark Antony]] on the [[obverse]] and reverse, respectively, of a silver [[tetradrachm]] struck at the [[Antioch]] mint in 36 BC, with Greek legends: BACIΛΙCCA KΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑ ΘΕΑ ΝΕωΤΕΡΑ ([[Basilissa]] Kleopatra [[Theia#Etymology|thea]] neotera – Queen Cleopatra younger goddess), ANTωNIOC AYTOKPATωP TPITON TPIωN ANΔPωN (Antonios [[autokrator]] triton trion andron – Antony [[imperator]] for the third time [[Second Triumvirate|triumvir]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Online Scholarly Catalogues at the Art Institute of Chicago |url=https://publications.artic.edu/roman/reader/romanart/section/510 |access-date=19 May 2024 |website=publications.artic.edu}}</ref>]]

Surviving coinage of Cleopatra's reign includes specimens from every regnal year, from 51 to 30 BC.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=182–186}} Cleopatra, the only Ptolemaic queen to issue coins on her own behalf, almost certainly inspired her partner Caesar to become the first living Roman to present his portrait on his own coins.{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=205}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=205}} writes the following: "Cleopatra was the only female Ptolemy to issue coins on her own behalf, some showing her as Venus-Aphrodite. Caesar now followed her example and, taking the same bold step, became the first living Roman to appear on coins, his rather haggard profile accompanied by the title 'Parens Patriae', 'Father of the Fatherland'."</ref> Cleopatra was the first foreign queen to have her image appear on [[Roman currency]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=107}} Coins dated to the period of her marriage to Antony, which also bear his image, portray the queen as having a very similar [[aquiline nose]] and prominent chin as that of her husband.{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=31, 34}} These similar facial features followed an artistic convention that represented the mutually-observed harmony of a royal couple.{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}}

Her strong, almost masculine facial features in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer, and perhaps idealized [[Ancient Greek sculpture|sculpted images]] of her in either the Egyptian or Hellenistic styles.{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}}{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|p=144}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=104}} Her masculine facial features on minted currency are similar to that of her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes,{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=18, 182}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=96}} and perhaps also to those of her Ptolemaic ancestor [[Arsinoe II]] (316–260 BC){{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=185}} and even depictions of earlier queens such as [[Hatshepsut]] and [[Nefertiti]].{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=104}} It is likely, due to political expediency, that Antony's visage was made to conform not only to hers but also to those of her [[Macedon|Macedonian Greek]] ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, to familiarize himself to her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}}[[File:011-Mark Antony, with Cleopatra VII -3.jpg|thumb|Cleopatra and [[Mark Antony]]. Silver [[denarius]], 32 BC, Obverse''':''' CLEOPATRA E REGINAE REGVM FILIORVM REGVM, bust of Cleopatra left, Reverse: ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA, Head of Mark Antony right.]]The inscriptions on the coins are written in Greek, but also in the [[nominative case]] of Roman coins rather than the [[genitive case]] of Greek coins, in addition to having the letters placed in a circular fashion along the edges of the coin instead of across it horizontally or vertically as was customary for Greek ones.{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}} These facets of their coinage represent the synthesis of Roman and [[Hellenistic culture]], and perhaps also a statement to their subjects, however ambiguous to modern scholars, about the superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other.{{sfnp|Sabino|Gross-Diaz|2016|}} [[Diana Kleiner]] argues that Cleopatra, in one of her coins minted with the dual image of her husband Antony, made herself more masculine-looking than other portraits and more like an acceptable [[Patronage in ancient Rome|Roman client queen]] than a Hellenistic ruler.{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|p=144}} Cleopatra had actually achieved this masculine look in coinage predating her affair with Antony, such as the coins struck at the [[Ascalon]] mint during her brief period of exile to Syria and the [[Levant]], which [[Joann Fletcher]] explains as her attempt to appear like her father and as a legitimate successor to a male Ptolemaic ruler.{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=96}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=182}}

Various coins, such as a silver [[tetradrachm]] minted sometime after Cleopatra's marriage with Antony in 37 BC, depict her wearing a royal diadem and a [[Greco-Roman hairstyle|'melon' hairstyle]].{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=182}} The combination of this hairstyle with a diadem is also featured in two surviving sculpted marble heads.{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2017|}}{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=36}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=195}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}.</ref> This hairstyle, with hair braided back into a bun, is the same as that worn by her Ptolemaic ancestors Arsinoe II and [[Berenice II]] in their own coinage.{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=87}} After her visit to Rome in 46–44 BC it became fashionable for [[Roman women]] to adopt it as one of [[Roman hairstyles|their hairstyles]], but it was abandoned for a more modest, austere look during the conservative rule of Augustus.{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2017|}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=195}}

===== Greco-Roman busts and heads =====
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Cleopatra bust in the British Museum.jpg
| width1 = 145
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Cleopatra_bust_in_the_British_Museum,_side_view.jpg
| width2 = 162
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = An ancient [[Roman sculpture|Roman]] [[Roman portraiture|portrait head]], {{circa|50–30 BC}}, now located in the [[British Museum]], London, that depicts a woman from Ptolemaic Egypt, either Queen Cleopatra or a member of her entourage during her 46–44 BC visit to Rome with her lover [[Julius Caesar]]{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2017|}}
}}

Of the surviving Greco-Roman-style busts and heads of Cleopatra,<ref group="note">There is academic disagreement on whether the following portraits are considered "heads" or "busts". For instance, {{harvtxt|Raia|Sebesta|2017}} exclusively uses the former, while {{harvtxt|Grout|2017b|}} prefers the latter.</ref> the sculpture known as the "[[commons:Category:Bust of Cleopatra VII in the Altes Museum Berlin|Berlin Cleopatra]]", located in the [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] collection at the Altes Museum, possesses her full nose, whereas the head known as the "[[commons:Category:Bust of Cleopatra VII in the Vatican Museums, Museo Gregoriano Profano|Vatican Cleopatra]]", located in the Vatican Museums, is damaged with a missing nose.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=174–175}}{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|pp=185–186}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=198–199}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Curtius|1933|pp=182–192}}, {{harvtxt|Walker|2008|p=348}}, {{harvtxt|Raia|Sebesta|2017}} and {{harvtxt|Grout|2017b|}}.</ref> Both the Berlin Cleopatra and Vatican Cleopatra have royal diadems, similar facial features, and perhaps once resembled the face of her bronze statue housed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix.{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|pp=185–186}}{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|pp=151–153, 155}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=198–199}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation, see {{harvtxt|Grout|2017b|}} and {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=174–175}}.</ref>

Both heads are dated to the mid-1st century BC and were found in Roman villas along the [[Via Appia]] in Italy, the Vatican Cleopatra having been unearthed in the [[Villa of the Quintilii]].{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=174–175}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=198–199}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Curtius|1933|pp=182–192}}, {{harvtxt|Walker|2008|p=348}} and {{harvtxt|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}.</ref> Francisco Pina Polo writes that Cleopatra's coinage present her image with certainty and asserts that the sculpted portrait of the Berlin head is confirmed as having a similar profile with her hair pulled back into a bun, a diadem, and a hooked nose.{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|pp=184–186}}<ref group="note">[[Blaise Pascal]] remarked in his ''[[Pensées]]'' (1670): "Cleopatra's nose: had it been shorter, the whole aspect of the world would have been altered." {{harv|Pascal|1910|loc=sec. II, no. 162}} According to {{harv|Perry|Williams|2019}}, a less aquiline nose would have diminished her chances of becoming ruler of Egypt and attract men of the [[First Triumvirate|First]] and [[Second Triumvirate]], which would have changed the [[Battle of Actium]], and subsequent European history.</ref>

A third [[commons:category:Bust of Cleopatra Selene II (Archaeological Museum of Cherchell)|sculpted portrait of Cleopatra]] accepted by scholars as being authentic survives at the [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell]], Algeria.{{sfnp|Varner|2004|p=20}}{{sfnp|Ferroukhi|2001a|p=219}}{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|pp=155–156}} This portrait features the royal diadem and similar facial features as the Berlin and Vatican heads, but has a more unique hairstyle and may actually depict Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|pp=155–156}}{{sfnp|Preston|2009|p=305}}{{sfnp|Roller|2003|p=139}}<ref group="note" name="Cherchel bust">{{harvtxt|Ferroukhi|2001a|p=219}} provides a detailed discussion about [[commons:category:Bust of Cleopatra Selene II (Archaeological Museum of Cherchell)|this bust]] and its ambiguities, noting that it could represent Cleopatra, but that it is more likely her daughter [[Cleopatra Selene II]]. {{harvtxt|Kleiner|2005|pp=155–156}} argues in favor of its depicting Cleopatra rather than her daughter, while {{harvtxt|Varner|2004|p=20}} mentions only Cleopatra as a possible likeness. {{harvtxt|Roller|2003|p=139}} observes that it could be either Cleopatra or Cleopatra Selene II, while arguing the same ambiguity applies to [[commons:File:An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt2.jpg|the other sculpted head from Cherchel featuring a veil]]. In regards to the latter head, {{harvtxt|Ferroukhi|2001b|p=242}} indicates it as a possible portrait of Cleopatra, not Cleoptra Selene II, from the early 1st century AD while also arguing that its masculine features, earrings, and apparent [[toga]] (the veil being a component of it) could likely mean it was intended to depict a [[Numidians|Numidian]] nobleman. {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|loc=image plates between pp. 246–247}} disagrees about the veiled head, arguing that it was commissioned by Cleopatra Selene II at Iol (Caesarea Mauretaniae) and was meant to depict her mother, Cleopatra.</ref> A possible [[Parian marble|Parian-marble]] [[:File:Isismontemartini.JPG|sculpture of Cleopatra]] wearing a vulture headdress in Egyptian style is located at the Capitoline Museums.{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=199–200}} Discovered near a sanctuary of Isis in Rome and dated to the 1st century BC, it is either Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian in origin.{{sfnp|Ashton|2001a|p=217}}

Other possible sculpted depictions of Cleopatra include one in the [[British Museum]], London, made of limestone, which perhaps only depicts a woman in her entourage during her trip to Rome.{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2017|}} The woman in [[commons:Category:Bust of Cleopatra VII in the British Museum|this portrait]] has facial features similar to others (including the pronounced aquiline nose), but lacks a royal diadem and sports a different hairstyle.{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2017|}} However, the British Museum head, once belonging to a full statue, could potentially represent Cleopatra at a different stage in her life and may also betray an effort by Cleopatra to discard the use of royal insignia (i.e. the diadem) to make herself more appealing to the citizens of Republican Rome.{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2017|}} [[Duane W. Roller]] speculates that the British Museum head, along with those in the [[Egyptian Museum]], Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, and in the private collection of Maurice Nahmen, while having similar facial features and hairstyles as the Berlin portrait but lacking a royal diadem, most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's popular hairstyle.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=175–176}}

<gallery widths="165px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Cleopatra VII, Marble, 40-30 BC, Vatican Museums 001.jpg|Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, with a "melon" hairstyle and [[Hellenistic]] royal [[diadem]] worn over her head, now in the [[Vatican Museums]]{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=174–175}}
File:Cleopatra VII, Marble, 40-30 BC, Vatican Museums 003.jpg|Profile view of the Vatican Cleopatra
File:-0035 Altes Museum Portrait Kleopatra VII anagoria.JPG|Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, showing Cleopatra with a "melon" hairstyle and [[Hellenistic]] royal [[diadem]] worn over the head, now in the [[Altes Museum]]{{sfnp|Raia|Sebesta|2017}}{{sfnp|Grout|2017b|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=174–175}}
File:Bust of Cleopatra VII - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017 (3).jpg|Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra
</gallery>

===== Paintings =====
{{multiple image|total_width=400
|image1=Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII (2).jpg
|image2=Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII (5).jpg
|footer=A Roman [[Pompeian Styles|Second Style]] painting in the [[commons:Category:House of Marcus Fabius Rufus|House of Marcus Fabius Rufus]] at [[Pompeii]], Italy, depicting Cleopatra as [[Venus (mythology)#Epithets|Venus Genetrix]] and her son [[Caesarion]] as a [[cupid]], mid-1st century BC{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Walker|2008|pp=35, 42–44}}}}

In the [[commons:Category:House of Marcus Fabius Rufus|House of Marcus Fabius Rufus]] at [[Pompeii]], Italy, a mid-1st century BC [[Pompeian Styles|Second Style]] wall painting of the goddess Venus holding a [[cupid]] near massive temple doors is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra as [[Venus (mythology)#Epithets|Venus Genetrix]] with her son Caesarion.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Walker|2008|pp=35, 42–44}} The commission of the painting most likely coincides with the erection of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the [[Forum of Caesar]] in September 46 BC, where Caesar had a gilded statue erected depicting Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Walker|2008|pp=35, 42–44}} This statue likely formed the basis of her depictions in both sculpted art as well as [[:File:Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII.jpg|this painting at Pompeii]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Walker|2008|pp=35, 44}}

The [[:File:Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII (full view).jpg|woman in the painting]] wears a royal diadem over her head and is strikingly similar in appearance to the Vatican Cleopatra, which bears possible marks on the marble of its left cheek where a cupid's arm may have been torn off.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Walker|2008|p=40}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=198–199}}<ref group="note">The observation that the left cheek of the [[:commons:Category:Bust of Cleopatra VII in the Vatican Museums, Museo Gregoriano Profano|Vatican Cleopatra]] once had a cupid's hand that was broken off was first suggested by [[Ludwig Curtius]] in 1933. Kleiner concurs with this assessment. See {{harvtxt|Kleiner|2005|p=153}}, as well as {{harvtxt|Walker|2008|p=40}} and {{harvtxt|Curtius|1933|pp=182–192}}. While {{harvtxt|Kleiner|2005|p=153}} has suggested the lump on top of this marble head perhaps contained a broken-off uraeus, {{harvtxt|Curtius|1933|p=187}} offered the explanation that it once held a sculpted representation of a jewel.</ref> The room with the painting was walled off by its owner, perhaps in reaction to the execution of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Octavian, when public depictions of Cleopatra's son would have been unfavorable with the new Roman regime.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}{{sfnp|Walker|2008|pp=43–44}}

Behind her golden diadem, crowned with a red jewel, is a translucent veil with crinkles that suggest the "melon" hairstyle favored by the queen.{{sfnp|Walker|2008|p=40}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Curtius|1933|p=187}} wrote that the damaged lump along the hairline and diadem of the [[:commons:Category:Bust of Cleopatra VII in the Vatican Museums, Museo Gregoriano Profano|Vatican Cleopatra]] likely contained a sculpted representation of a jewel, which {{harvtxt|Walker|2008|p=40}} directly compares to the painted red jewel in the diadem worn by Venus, most likely Cleopatra, in the [[fresco]] from Pompeii.</ref> Her [[ivory-white skin]], round face, long aquiline nose, and large round eyes were features common in both Roman and Ptolemaic depictions of deities.{{sfnp|Walker|2008|p=40}} Roller affirms that "there seems little doubt that this is a depiction of Cleopatra and Caesarion before the doors of the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium and, as such, it becomes the only extant contemporary painting of the queen."{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=175}}

{{multiple image
| image1 = Cleopatra VII, steel engraving of the encaustic painting found at Hadrian's Villa in 1818.jpg
| width1 = 120
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Egitto tolemaico, tolomeo V, octodracma di alessandria, 204-203 ac ca.JPG
| width2 = 167
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = A [[steel engraving]] published by [[John Sartain]] in 1885 (left) depicting the now lost painted death portrait of Cleopatra, an [[encaustic painting]] discovered in 1818 in the ancient Roman ruins of the [[Egyptian temple]] of [[Serapis]] at [[Hadrian's Villa]] in [[Tivoli, Lazio]];{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|pp=14–15}} she is seen here wearing the knotted garment of [[Isis]] (corresponding with [[Plutarch]]'s description of her wearing the robes of Isis),{{sfnp|Plutarch|1920|p=9}} as well as the [[radiant crown]] of the [[Ptolemaic rulers]] such as [[Ptolemy V]] (pictured to the right in a golden [[Drachm|octodrachm]] minted in 204–203 BC).{{sfnp|Sartain|1885|pp=41, 44}}
}}

[[:File:Roman Wall painting from the House of Giuseppe II, Pompeii, 1st century AD, death of Sophonisba, but more likely Cleopatra VII of Egypt consuming poison (2).jpg|Another painting from Pompeii]], dated to the early 1st century AD and located in the House of Giuseppe II, contains a possible depiction of Cleopatra with her son Caesarion, both wearing royal diadems while she reclines and consumes poison in an act of suicide.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}}{{sfnp|Elia|1956|pp=3–7}}<ref group="note">For further information about the painting in the House of Giuseppe II (Joseph II) at Pompeii and the possible identification of Cleopatra as one of the figures, see {{harvtxt|Pucci|2011|pp=206–207, footnote 27}}.</ref> The painting was originally thought to depict the Carthaginian noblewoman [[Sophonisba]], who, toward the end of the [[Second Punic War]] (218–201 BC), drank poison and committed suicide at the behest of her lover [[Masinissa]], [[King of Numidia]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}} Arguments in favor of it depicting Cleopatra include the strong connection of her house with that of the Numidian royal family, Masinissa and [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon]] having been associates, and Cleopatra's own daughter marrying the Numidian prince Juba II.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}}

Sophonisba was also a more obscure figure when the painting was made, while Cleopatra's suicide was far more famous.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}} An asp is absent from the painting, but many Romans held the view that she received poison in another manner than a venomous snakebite.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=148, 178–179}} A set of double doors on the rear wall of the painting, positioned very high above the people in it, suggests the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}} A male servant holds the mouth of an artificial [[Nile crocodile|Egyptian crocodile]] (possibly an elaborate tray handle), while another man standing by is [[Toga|dressed as a Roman]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=178–179}}

In 1818, a now lost [[encaustic painting]] was discovered in the Temple of [[Serapis]] at [[Hadrian's Villa]], near [[Tivoli, Lazio]], Italy, that [[:File:Encaustic painting cleopatra.png|depicted Cleopatra committing suicide]] with an asp biting her bare chest.{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|pp=14–15}} A chemical analysis performed in 1822 confirmed that the medium for the painting was composed of one-third [[wax]] and two-thirds [[resin]].{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|pp=14–15}} The thickness of the painting over Cleopatra's bare flesh and her drapery was reportedly similar to the paintings of the [[Fayum mummy portraits]].{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|p=14}} A [[steel engraving]] published by [[John Sartain]] in 1885 depicting the painting as described in the archaeological report shows Cleopatra wearing [[Clothing in ancient Greece|authentic clothing]] and jewelry of Egypt in the late Hellenistic period,{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|p=15}} as well as the [[radiant crown]] of the Ptolemaic rulers, as seen in their portraits on various coins minted during their respective reigns.{{sfnp|Sartain|1885|pp=41, 44}} After Cleopatra's suicide, Octavian commissioned a painting to be made depicting her being bitten by a snake, parading this image in her stead during his triumphal procession in Rome.{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|p=14}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=149}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=xxiii, 31}} The portrait painting of Cleopatra's death was perhaps among the great number of artworks and treasures taken from Rome by Emperor [[Hadrian]] to decorate his private villa, where it was found in an [[Egyptian temple]].{{sfnp|Pratt|Fizel|1949|pp=14–15}}<ref group="note">In {{harvtxt|Pratt|Fizel|1949|pp=14–15}}, Frances Pratt and Becca Fizel rejected the idea proposed by some scholars in the 19th and early 20th centuries that the painting was perhaps done by an artist of the [[Italian Renaissance]]. Pratt and Fizel highlighted the [[Classical antiquity|Classical style]] of the painting as preserved in textual descriptions and [[:File:Cleopatra VII, steel engraving of the encaustic painting found at Hadrian's Villa in 1818.jpg|the steel engraving]]. They argued that it was unlikely for a Renaissance period painter to have created works with encaustic materials, conducted thorough research into Hellenistic period Egyptian clothing and jewelry as depicted in the painting, and then precariously placed it in the ruins of the Egyptian temple at Hadrian's Villa.</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Fresco of a woman in profile, possibly Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt, from the House of the Orchard at Pompeii.jpg
| width1 = 120
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| image2 = Fresco of a woman in profile, possible portrait bust of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from the House of the Orchard at Pompeii.jpg
| width2 = 180
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| caption2 =
| footer = An ancient Roman fresco in the [[Pompeian Styles|Pompeian Third Style]] possibly depicting Cleopatra, from the House of the Orchard at [[Pompeii]], Italy, mid-1st century AD{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}}
}}

A Roman [[panel painting]] from [[Herculaneum]], Italy, dated to the 1st century AD possibly depicts Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|loc=p. 87, image plates and captions between pp. 246–247}} In it she wears a royal diadem, red or reddish-brown hair pulled back into a bun,<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}} describe her hair as reddish brown, while {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=87}} describes her as a flame-haired redhead and, in {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|loc=image plates and captions between pp. 246–247}}, likewise describes her as a red-haired woman.</ref> pearl-studded hairpins,{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|loc=image plates and captions between pp. 246–247}} and earrings with ball-shaped pendants, [[:File:Posthumous painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from Herculaneum, Italy.jpg|the white skin of her face and neck set against a stark black background]].{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}} Her hair and facial features are similar to those in the sculpted Berlin and Vatican portraits as well as her coinage.{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}} A highly similar painted bust of a woman with a blue headband in the [[House of the Orchard]] at Pompeii features Egyptian-style imagery, such as a Greek-style [[sphinx]], and may have been created by the same artist.{{sfnp|Walker|Higgs|2001|pp=314–315}}

===== Portland Vase =====
{{further|Portland Vase}}

[[File:Portland Vase BM Gem4036 n6.jpg|thumb|A possible depiction of [[Mark Antony]] on the [[Portland Vase]] being lured by Cleopatra, straddling a serpent, while Anton, Antony's alleged ancestor, looks on and [[Eros]] flies above{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=178}}{{sfnp|Caygill|2009|p=146}}|upright]]

The [[Portland Vase]], a [[Roman glass|Roman]] [[cameo glass]] vase dated to the Augustan period and now in the British Museum, includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Antony.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=178}}{{sfnp|Walker|2004|pp=41–59}} In this interpretation, Cleopatra can be seen grasping Antony and drawing him toward her while a serpent (i.e. the asp) rises between her legs, [[Eros]] floats above, and Anton, the alleged ancestor of the Antonian family, looks on in despair as his descendant Antony is led to his doom.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=178}}{{sfnp|Caygill|2009|p=146}} The other side of the vase perhaps contains a scene of Octavia, abandoned by her husband Antony but watched over by her brother, the emperor Augustus.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=178}}{{sfnp|Caygill|2009|p=146}} The vase would thus have been created no earlier than 35 BC, when Antony sent his wife Octavia back to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=178}}

===== Native Egyptian art =====
{{further|Portraiture in ancient Egypt|Reign of Cleopatra#Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra}}

[[File:Denderah3 Cleopatra Cesarion.jpg|thumb|right|A carved relief of Cleopatra and her son [[Caesarion]] at the [[Temple of Dendera]], Egypt, 1st century BC|upright]]

The ''[[Bust of Cleopatra]]'' in the [[Royal Ontario Museum]] represents a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style.{{sfnp|Ashton|2002|p=39}} Dated to the mid-1st century BC, it is perhaps the earliest depiction of Cleopatra as both a goddess and ruling pharaoh of Egypt.{{sfnp|Ashton|2002|p=39}} The sculpture also has pronounced eyes that share similarities with Roman copies of Ptolemaic sculpted works of art.{{sfnp|Ashton|2002|p=36}} The [[Dendera Temple complex]], near Dendera, Egypt, contains Egyptian-style carved relief images along the exterior walls of the Temple of [[Hathor]] depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as a grown adult and ruling pharaoh making [[Ancient Egyptian offering formula|offerings to the gods]].{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|p=87}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=113–114, 176–177}} Augustus had his name inscribed there following the death of Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Kleiner|2005|p=87}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=113–114}}

A large Ptolemaic black [[basalt]] statue measuring {{convert|41|in|cm|order=flip|0}} in height, now in the [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Saint Petersburg]], is thought to represent Arsinoe II, wife of [[Ptolemy II]], but recent analysis has indicated that it could depict her descendant Cleopatra due to the three uraei adorning her headdress, an increase from the two used by Arsinoe II to symbolize her rule over [[Lower Egypt|Lower]] and [[Upper Egypt]].{{sfnp|Grout|2017a|}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=176}}{{sfnp|Ashton|2008|pp=83–85}} The woman in the basalt statue also holds a divided, double [[cornucopia]] (''dikeras''), which can be seen on coins of both Arsinoe II and Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Grout|2017a|}}{{sfnp|Ashton|2008|pp=83–85}} In his {{lang|de|Kleopatra und die Caesaren}} (2006), {{interlanguage link|Bernard Andreae|de}} contends that this basalt statue, like other idealized Egyptian portraits of the queen, does not contain realistic facial features and hence adds little to the knowledge of her appearance.{{sfnp|Pina Polo|2013|p=194, footnote 11}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Preston|2009|p=305}} comes to a similar conclusion about native Egyptian depictions of Cleopatra: "Apart from certain temple carvings, which are anyway in a highly stylised pharaonic style and give little clue to Cleopatra's real appearance, the only certain representations of Cleopatra are those on coins. The marble head in the Vatican is one of three sculptures generally, though not universally, accepted by scholars to be depictions of Cleopatra."</ref> [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] writes that, despite these representations in the traditional Egyptian style, Cleopatra would have dressed as a native only "perhaps for certain rites" and instead would usually dress as a Greek monarch, which would include the Greek headband seen in her Greco-Roman busts.{{sfnp|Goldsworthy|2010|p=8}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Bust of Cleopatra at the Royal Ontario Museum.jpg|A granite Egyptian [[bust of Cleopatra]] from the [[Royal Ontario Museum]], mid-1st century BC
File:Statue of a Ptolemaic Queen, perhaps Cleopatra VII MET 89.2.660 EGDP013678.jpg|A marble statue of Cleopatra with her [[cartouche]] inscribed on the upper right arm and wearing a [[diadem]] with a triple [[uraeus]], from the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]{{sfnp|Ashton|2001b|p=165}}
File:Isismontemartini.JPG|Possible sculpted head of Cleopatra VII wearing an Egyptian-style vulture headdress, discovered in Rome, either [[Roman art|Roman]] or [[Hellenistic Egypt]]ian art, [[Parian marble]], 1st century BC, from the [[Capitoline Museums]]{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=199–200}}{{sfnp|Ashton|2001a|p=217}}
</gallery>

==== Medieval and early modern reception ====
{{further||Medieval art|Medieval literature|Renaissance art|Renaissance literature|Early Modern literature|}}

[[File:Giambattista Tiepolo - The Banquet of Cleopatra - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|''[[The Banquet of Cleopatra (Tiepolo)|The Banquet of Cleopatra]]'' (1744), by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], now in the [[National Gallery of Victoria]], Melbourne{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|pp=11–36}}]]

In modern times, Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture,{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=36}} a reputation shaped by theatrical representations dating back to the Renaissance as well as paintings and films.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=6–7}} This material largely surpasses the scope and size of existing historiographic literature about her from classical antiquity and has made a greater impact on the general public's view of Cleopatra than the latter.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=6–9}} The 14th-century English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], in ''[[The Legend of Good Women]]'', contextualized Cleopatra for the Christian world of the [[Middle Ages]].{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|pp=73–74}} His depiction of Cleopatra and Antony, her shining [[knight]] engaged in [[courtly love]], has been interpreted in modern times as being either playful or misogynistic satire.{{sfnp|Gurval|2011|pp=73–74}}

Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men as hardly the life of a seductress and wrote his works partly in reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in {{lang|la|[[De Mulieribus Claris]]}} and {{lang|la|[[De Casibus Virorum Illustrium]]}}, Latin works by the 14th-century Italian poet [[Giovanni Boccaccio]].{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|pp=51–54}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|p=68}} The [[Renaissance humanist]] {{interlanguage link|Bernardino Cacciante|it}}, in his 1504 ''Libretto apologetico delle donne'', was the first Italian to defend the reputation of Cleopatra and criticize the perceived moralizing and misogyny in Boccaccio's works.{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|pp=54–55}} Works of Islamic historiography [[Arabic literature|written in Arabic]] covered the reign of Cleopatra, such as the 10th-century ''[[Meadows of Gold]]'' by [[Al-Masudi]],{{sfnp|Preston|2009|p=25}} although his work erroneously claimed that Octavian died soon after Cleopatra's suicide.{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=271–274}}

Cleopatra appeared in [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]] for [[illuminated manuscript]]s, such as a [[:File:Tomb of Cleopatra and Mark Antony, illuminated manuscript of Boccaccio, miniature by the Boucicaut master, 1409 AD (cropped).jpg|depiction of her and Antony]] lying in a [[International Gothic|Gothic-style]] tomb by the [[Boucicaut Master]] in 1409.{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=54}} In the visual arts, the sculpted depiction of Cleopatra as a free-standing nude figure committing suicide began with the 16th-century sculptors [[Bartolommeo Bandinelli]] and [[Alessandro Vittoria]].{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=60}} [[Old master print|Early prints]] depicting Cleopatra include designs by the Renaissance artists [[Raphael]] and [[Michelangelo]], as well as 15th-century [[woodcut]]s in illustrated editions of Boccaccio's works.{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|pp=51, 60–62}}

In the performing arts, the death of [[Elizabeth I of England]] in 1603, and the German publication in 1606 of alleged letters of Cleopatra, inspired [[Samuel Daniel]] to alter and republish his 1594 play ''Cleopatra'' in 1607.{{sfnp|Rowland|2011|p=232}} He was followed by [[William Shakespeare]], whose ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'', largely based on Plutarch, was first performed in 1608 and provided a somewhat salacious view of Cleopatra in stark contrast to England's own [[Virgin Queen]].{{sfnp|Rowland|2011|pp=232–233}} Cleopatra was also featured in operas, such as [[George Frideric Handel]]'s 1724 ''[[Giulio Cesare in Egitto]]'', which portrayed the love affair of Caesar and Cleopatra;{{sfnp|Woodstra|Brennan|Schrott|2005|p=548}} [[Domenico Cimarosa]] wrote ''[[Cleopatra (Cimarosa)|Cleopatra]]'' on a similar subject in 1789.{{sfnp|Woodstra|Brennan|Schrott|2005|p=299}}

==== Modern depictions and brand imaging ====
{{further|List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra|Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination}}

[[File:Etty Cleopatra.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|''[[The Triumph of Cleopatra]]'' (1821), by [[William Etty]], now in the [[Lady Lever Art Gallery]], [[Port Sunlight]], England|alt=Bare-breasted woman on a boat, surrounded by naked and semi-naked people]]

In [[Victorian Britain]], Cleopatra was highly associated with many aspects of ancient [[Egyptian culture]] and her image was used to market various household products, including oil lamps, [[lithograph]]s, postcards and cigarettes.{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=173–174}} [[Victorian literature|Fictional novels]] such as [[H. Rider Haggard]]'s ''[[Cleopatra (Haggard novel)|Cleopatra]]'' (1889) and [[Théophile Gautier]]'s ''[[One of Cleopatra's Nights]]'' (1838) depicted the queen as a sensual and mystic Easterner, while the Egyptologist [[Georg Ebers]]'s ''Cleopatra'' (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy.{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=173–174}}{{sfnp|Pucci|2011|p=201}} The French dramatist [[Victorien Sardou]] and Irish playwright [[George Bernard Shaw]] produced plays about Cleopatra, while [[Victorian burlesque|burlesque]] shows such as [[F. C. Burnand]]'s ''Antony and Cleopatra'' offered satirical depictions of the queen connecting her and the environment she lived in with the modern age.{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=173–177}}

Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'' was considered canonical by the Victorian era.{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|p=173}} Its popularity led to the perception that [[:File:Lawrence Alma-Tadema- Anthony and Cleopatra.JPG|the 1885 painting]] by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] depicted the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on her pleasure barge in Tarsus, although Alma-Tadema revealed in a private letter that it depicts a subsequent meeting of theirs in Alexandria.{{sfnp|DeMaria Smith|2011|p=161}} Also based on Shakespeare's play was [[Samuel Barber]]'s opera ''[[Antony and Cleopatra (1966 opera)|Antony and Cleopatra]]'' (1966), commissioned for the opening of the [[Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)|Metropolitan Opera House]].{{sfnp|Woodstra|Brennan|Schrott|2005|p=1175}} In his unfinished 1825 short story ''[[:Wikisource:The Egyptian Nights (Pushkin/Keane)|The Egyptian Nights]]'', [[Alexander Pushkin]] popularized the claims of the 4th-century Roman historian [[Aurelius Victor]], previously largely ignored, that Cleopatra had prostituted herself to men who paid for sex with their lives.{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=260–263}}{{sfnp|Pucci|2011|pp=198, 201}} Cleopatra also became appreciated outside the Western world and Middle East, as the [[Qing-dynasty]] Chinese scholar [[Yan Fu]] wrote an extensive biography of her.{{sfnp|Hsia|2004|p=227}}

[[Georges Méliès]]'s ''[[Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb]]'' ({{langx|fr|link=no|Cléopâtre}}), an 1899 French [[Silent film|silent]] horror film, was the first film to depict the character of Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=325}} [[Hollywood (film industry)|Hollywood]] films of the 20th century were influenced by earlier Victorian media, which helped to shape the character of Cleopatra played by [[Theda Bara]] in ''[[Cleopatra (1917 film)|Cleopatra]]'' (1917), [[Claudette Colbert]] in ''[[Cleopatra (1934 film)|Cleopatra]]'' (1934), and [[Elizabeth Taylor]] in ''[[Cleopatra (1963 film)|Cleopatra]]'' (1963).{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=172–173, 178}} In addition to her portrayal as a "[[vampire]]" queen, Bara's Cleopatra also incorporated tropes familiar from 19th-century [[Orientalist painting]], such as [[despotism|despotic behavior]], mixed with dangerous and overt female sexuality.{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=178–180}} Colbert's character of Cleopatra served as a [[glamour model]] for selling Egyptian-themed products in department stores in the 1930s, targeting female moviegoers.{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=181–183}} In preparation for the film starring Taylor as Cleopatra, [[women's magazines]] of the early 1960s advertised how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the "Egyptian" look similar to the queens Cleopatra and [[Nefertiti]].{{sfnp|Wyke|Montserrat|2011|pp=172–173}} By the end of the 20th century there were forty-three films, two hundred plays and novels, forty-five operas, and five ballets associated with Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Pucci|2011|p=195}}

=== Written works ===
{{further|Ancient Greek literature|Ancient Egyptian literature}}

Whereas myths about Cleopatra persist in popular media, important aspects of her career go largely unnoticed, such as her command of naval forces and administrative acts. Publications on [[ancient Greek medicine]] attributed to her are, likely to be the work of a [[Cleopatra the Physician|physician]] by the same name writing in the late first century AD.{{sfnp|Plant|2004|pp=135–144}} Ingrid D. Rowland, who highlights that the "Berenice called Cleopatra" cited by the 3rd- or 4th-century female Roman physician [[Metrodora]] was likely conflated by medieval scholars as referring to Cleopatra.{{sfnp|Rowland|2011|pp=141–142}} Only fragments exist of these medical and cosmetic writings, such as those preserved by [[Galen]], including remedies for [[hair disease]], baldness, and dandruff, along with a list of [[Ancient Greek units of measurement|weights and measures]] for [[pharmacological]] purposes.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=50–51}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11–12}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=81–82}} [[Aëtius of Amida]] attributed a recipe for [[History of perfume|perfumed]] soap to Cleopatra, while [[Paul of Aegina]] preserved alleged instructions of hers for [[Hair coloring|dyeing and curling hair]].{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=50–51}}

== Ancestry ==
{{see also|Ethnicity of Cleopatra}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Ptolemy I Soter Louvre Ma849.jpg
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| footer = Left: A [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic bust]] of [[Ptolemy I Soter]], now in the [[Louvre]], Paris{{pb}}Right: A bust of [[Seleucus I Nicator]], a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of a Greek original, from the [[Villa of the Papyri]], [[Herculaneum]], and now in the [[National Archaeological Museum, Naples]]
}}
{{multiple image
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| footer = A likely sculpture of [[Cleopatra V Tryphaena]] (also known as [[Cleopatra VI]]), 1st century BC, from Lower Egypt, now in the [[Musée Saint-Raymond]]{{sfnp|Musée Saint-Raymond}}
}}

Cleopatra belonged to the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian Greek]] dynasty of the [[Ptolemies]],{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=15–16}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|pp=xiii, 3, 279}}{{sfnp|Southern|2009|p=43}}<ref group="note">For further information on Cleopatra's Macedonian Greek lineage, see {{harvtxt|Pucci|2011|p=201}}, {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=3–5}}, {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=3, 34, 36, 43, 63–64}} and {{harvtxt|Royster|2003|pp=47–49}}.</ref> their [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European origins]] tracing back to [[northern Greece]].{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=1, 23}} Through her father, she was a descendant of two [[Somatophylakes|prominent companions]] of [[Alexander the Great]] of [[History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]: the general [[Ptolemy I Soter]], founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and [[Seleucus I Nicator]], the Macedonian Greek founder of the [[Seleucid Empire]] of West Asia.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=15–16}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=3, 34, 36, 51}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=23, 37–42}}<ref group="note">For further information and validation of the foundation of Hellenistic Egypt by Alexander the Great and Cleopatra's ancestry stretching back to Ptolemy I Soter, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=7–8}} and {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=3}}.</ref> While Cleopatra's [[paternal line]] can be traced, the identity of her mother is uncertain.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=15–16, 164–166}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiii}}{{sfnp|Dodson|Hilton|2004|p=273}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=3–4}} and {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=11}}.</ref> She was presumably the daughter of [[Cleopatra V Tryphaena]],<ref group="note" name="cleopatra v or vi">{{harvtxt|Grant|1972|pp=3–4, 17}}, {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=69, 74, 76}}, {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|p=xiii}}, {{harvtxt|Preston|2009|p=22}}, {{harvtxt|Schiff|2011|p=28}} and {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=11}} label the wife of [[Ptolemy XII Auletes]] as Cleopatra V Tryphaena, while {{harvtxt|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=268–269, 273}} and {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|p=18}} call her Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, due to the confusion in primary sources conflating these two figures, who may have been one and the same. As explained by {{harvtxt|Whitehorne|1994|p=182}}, Cleopatra VI may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII who appeared in 58 BC to rule jointly with her alleged sister [[Berenice IV]] (while Ptolemy XII was exiled and living in Rome), whereas Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra V perhaps died as early as the winter of 69–68 BC, when she disappears from historical records. {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=18–19}} assumes that Ptolemy XII's wife, whom he numbers as Cleopatra VI, was merely absent from the court for a decade after being expelled for an unknown reason, eventually ruling jointly with her daughter Berenice IV. {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=76}} explains that the Alexandrians deposed Ptolemy XII and installed "his eldest daughter, Berenike IV, and as co-ruler recalled Cleopatra V Tryphaena from 10 years' exile from the court. Although later historians assumed she must have been another of Auletes' daughters and numbered her 'Cleopatra VI', it seems she was simply the fifth one returning to replace her brother and former husband Auletes."</ref> the sister-wife of Ptolemy XII who had previously given birth to their daughter Berenice IV.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=18}}{{sfnp|Jones|2006|p=xiii}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11, 75}}<ref group="note">For further information, see {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|pp=69, 74, 76}}. Contrary to other sources cited here, {{harvtxt|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=268–269, 273}} refer to [[Cleopatra V Tryphaena]] as a possible cousin or sister of Ptolemy XII Auletes.</ref>

[[Cleopatra I Syra]] was the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty known for certain to have introduced some non-Greek ancestry.{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=5}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=56, 73}} Her mother [[Laodice III]] was a daughter born to King [[Mithridates II of Pontus]], a Persian of the [[Mithridatic dynasty]], and his wife [[Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus)|Laodice]] who had a mixed Greek-Persian heritage.{{sfnp|McGing|2016}} Cleopatra I Syra's father [[Antiochus III the Great]] was a descendant of Queen [[Apama]], the [[Sogdia]]n [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] wife of Seleucus I Nicator.{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=5}}{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|pp=56, 73}}{{sfnp|Lendering|2020}}<ref group="note">For the Sogdian ancestry of Apama, wife of Seleucus I Nicator, see {{harvtxt|Holt|1989|pp=64–65, footnote 63}}.</ref> It is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with native [[Egyptians]].{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=73}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=69–70}}<ref group="note">As explained by {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|pp=47–50}}, the main ethnic groups of Ptolemaic Egypt were Egyptians, [[Greeks]], and Jews, each of whom were legally segregated, living in different residential quarters and forbidden to intermarry with one another in the multicultural cities of [[Alexandria]], [[Naucratis]], and [[Ptolemais Hermiou]]. It had been speculated in some circles that [[Pasherienptah III]], the [[High Priest of Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt]], was Cleopatra's half-cousin, speculation which has been recently refuted by {{harvtxt|Cheshire|2011|pp=20–30}}.</ref> [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]] asserts that there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemy and no known Egyptian wife of a Ptolemy, further arguing that Cleopatra probably did not have any Egyptian ancestry and "would have described herself as Greek".{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=5}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=5}} argues that Cleopatra's grandmother, i.e. the mother of Ptolemy XII, might have been a [[Syrian]] (though conceding that "it is possible she was also partly Greek"), but almost certainly not an Egyptian because there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemaic ruler throughout their entire dynasty.</ref>

[[Stacy Schiff]] writes that Cleopatra was a Macedonian Greek with some Persian ancestry, arguing that it was rare for the Ptolemies to have an Egyptian mistress.{{sfnp|Schiff|2011|pp=2, 42}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Schiff|2011|p=42}} further argues that, considering Cleopatra's ancestry, she was not dark-skinned, though notes Cleopatra was likely not among the Ptolemies with fair features, and instead would have been honey-skinned, citing as evidence that her relatives were described as such and it "would have presumably applied to her as well." {{harvtxt|Goldsworthy|2010|pp=127, 128}} agrees to this, contending that Cleopatra, having Macedonian blood with a little Syrian, was probably not dark-skinned (as Roman propaganda never mentions it), writing "fairer skin is marginally more likely considering her ancestry," though also notes she could have had a "darker more Mediterranean complexion" because of her mixed ancestry. {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=5}} agrees with Goldsworthy's latter speculation of her skin color, that though almost certainly not Egyptian, Cleopatra had a darker complexion due to being Greek mixed with Persian and possibly Syrian ancestry. {{harvtxt|Preston|2009|p=77}} agrees with Grant that, considering this ancestry, Cleopatra was "almost certainly dark-haired and olive-skinned." {{harvtxt|Bradford|2000|p=14}} contends that it is "reasonable to infer" Cleopatra had dark hair and "pale olive skin."</ref> [[Duane W. Roller]] speculates that Cleopatra could have been the daughter of a theoretical half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman from [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] in northern Egypt belonging to a family of priests dedicated to [[Ptah]] (a hypothesis not generally accepted in scholarship),<ref group="note">For further information on the identity of Cleopatra's mother, see {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=11}}, {{harvtxt|Fletcher|2008|p=73}}, {{harvtxt|Goldsworthy|2010|pp=127, 128}}, {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=4}}, {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=165–166}} and {{harvtxt|Bennett|1997|pp=39–66}}. [[Joann Fletcher]] finds this hypothesis to be dubious and lacking evidence. [[Stanley M. Burstein]] claims that strong circumstantial evidence suggests Cleopatra's mother could have been a member of the [[High Priest of Ptah|priestly family of Ptah]], but that historians generally assume her mother was Cleopatra V Tryphaena, wife of Ptolemy XII. [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] dismisses the idea of Cleopatra's mother being a member of an Egyptian priestly family as "pure conjecture," adding that either Cleopatra V or a concubine "probably of Greek origin" would be Cleopatra VII's mother. [[Michael Grant (classicist)|Michael Grant]] contends that Cleopatra V was most likely Cleopatra VII's mother. [[Duane W. Roller]] notes that while Cleopatra could have been the daughter of the priestly family of Ptah, the other main candidate would be Cleopatra VI, maintaining the uncertainty stems from Cleopatra V/VI's "loss of favor" that "obscured the issue." He also posits that Cleopatra being the only known ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to speak Egyptian, along with her daughter [[Cleopatra Selene II]] as Queen of Mauretania publicly honoring the native Egyptian elite, both lend credence to the priestly class mistress hypothesis for maternity. Christopher Bennett points out that with Cleopatra VII having a birthdate of 69 BC, she was "certainly conceived before Cleopatra V disappears from the record" and thus it follows that Cleopatra V had to be the mother of Cleopatra VII. He further argues that this fact alone, among others he discusses, is "sufficient to dispose" of the argument of a hypothetical Egyptian Memphite aristocrat as the mother of Cleopatra VII. Part of Burstein's and Roller's argument rests on a speculated earlier marriage between Psenptais II and a certain "Berenice", once argued to possibly be a daughter of [[Ptolemy VIII]]. However, this speculation was refuted by Egyptologist Wendy Cheshire, who was later validated by papyrologist Sandra Lippert. See {{harvtxt|Cheshire|2011|pp=20–30}} and {{harvtxt|Lippert|2013|pp=33–48}}.</ref> but contends that whatever Cleopatra's ancestry, she valued her Greek Ptolemaic heritage the most.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=15, 18, 166}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Schiff|2011|pp=2}} concurs with this, concluding that Cleopatra "upheld the family tradition." As noted by {{harvtxt|Dudley|1960|pp=57}}, Cleopatra and her family were "the successor[s] to the native Pharaohs, exploiting through a highly organized bureaucracy the great natural resources of the Nile Valley."</ref> [[Ernle Bradford]] writes that Cleopatra challenged Rome not as an Egyptian woman "but as a civilized Greek".{{sfnp|Bradford|2000|p=17}}

Claims that Cleopatra was an [[illegitimate]] child never appeared in Roman propaganda against her.{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=4}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=165}}<ref group="note">{{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=4}} argues that if Cleopatra had been illegitimate, her "numerous Roman enemies would have revealed this to the world."</ref> Strabo was the only ancient historian who claimed that Ptolemy XII's children born after Berenice IV, including Cleopatra, were illegitimate.{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=4}}{{sfnp|Roller|2010|p=165}}{{sfnp|Burstein|2004|pp=11, 69}} Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra, while Ptolemy XII's three younger children were all born during the absence of his wife.{{sfnp|Roller|2010|pp=18–19}} The high degree of [[inbreeding]] among the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra's immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.<ref group="note" name="family tree">The family tree and short discussions of the individuals can be found in {{harvtxt|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=268–281}}. Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI and [[Cleopatra Selene of Syria]] is called Cleopatra V Selene. Dotted lines in the chart below indicate possible but disputed parentage.</ref>

The family tree given below also lists Cleopatra V as a daughter of [[Ptolemy X Alexander I]] and [[Berenice III]]. This would make her a cousin of her husband, Ptolemy XII, but she could have been a daughter of [[Ptolemy IX Lathyros]], which would have made her a sister-wife of Ptolemy XII instead.{{sfnp|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=268–269, 273}}{{sfnp|Grant|1972|p=4}} The confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI; the latter may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII. Fletcher and John Whitehorne assert that this is a possible indication Cleopatra V had died in 69 BC rather than reappearing as a co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC (during Ptolemy XII's exile in Rome).{{sfnp|Fletcher|2008|p=76}}{{sfnp|Whitehorne|1994|p=182}}

{{tree chart/start|align=center|summary=Cleopatra VII's father was likely the brother or cousin, but possibly the uncle, of Cleopatra V, Cleopatra VII's presumed mother. Cleopatra had at least one [[avuncular marriage|uncle/niece relationship]] (up to three) and at least one [[sibling marriage|brother/sister relationship]] (also up to three) in her ancestry going back to a single set of either great-grandparents or great-great-grandparents (Ptolemy V and Cleopatra I), depending on how the ancestry was traced.}}
{{tree chart| | |PTOLEMY5|y|CLEO1|PTOLEMY5=[[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]]|CLEO1=[[Cleopatra I Syra]]}}
{{tree chart| | |,|-|-|+|-|-|-|.}}
{{tree chart| | |!| |PTOLEMY6|y|CLEO2|PTOLEMY6=[[Ptolemy VI Philometor]]|CLEO2=[[Cleopatra II]]}}
{{tree chart| | |!| | | | |!|}}
{{tree chart| |PTOLEMY8|y|~|CLEO3|PTOLEMY8=[[Ptolemy VIII Physcon]]|CLEO3=[[Cleopatra III]]}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|v|^|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| |!|CLEOSELENE|-|PTOLEMY9|-|CLEO4|CLEOSELENE=[[Cleopatra Selene of Syria]]|PTOLEMY9=[[Ptolemy IX Lathyros]]|CLEO4=[[Cleopatra IV]]}}
{{tree chart| |!| |Y|T|,|-|^|-|.|S|Z}}
{{tree chart|PTOLEMY10|r|BERENICE3| | |!|Q|PTOLEMY10=[[Ptolemy X Alexander I]]|BERENICE3=[[Berenice III]]}}
{{tree chart| | | |Q|S|P|P|P|P|p|Q}}
{{tree chart| | |CLEO5|~|~|~|PTOLEMY12|CLEO5=[[Cleopatra V Tryphaena]]|PTOLEMY12=[[Ptolemy XII Auletes]]}}
{{tree chart| | | |Y|P|P|P|P|T|!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | |CLEO7|CLEO7='''Cleopatra VII'''}}
{{tree chart/end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of female hereditary monarchs]]

{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}

=== Sources ===
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Bianchi |editor1-first=Robert S. |editor2-last=Fazzini |editor2-first=Richard A. |title=Cleopatra's Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies |date=1988 |publisher=Brooklyn Museum |isbn=978-0-87273-113-4 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Carlà-Uhink |editor1-first=Filippo |editor2-last=Weiber |editor2-first=Anja |title=Orientalism and the Reception of Powerful Women from the Ancient World |date=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-05010-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=When the Greeks Ruled Egypt: From Alexander the Great to Cleopatra |editor=Roberta Casagrande-Kim |year=2014 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-16554-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Chauveau |first=Michel |title=Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8014-8953-2 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Crawford |first=Amy |title=Who Was Cleopatra? Mythology, propaganda, Liz Taylor and the real Queen of the Nile |magazine=[[Smithsonian]] |date=31 March 2007 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/who-was-cleopatra-151356013/ |access-date=29 April 2023 |ref=none |archive-date=29 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429202542/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/who-was-cleopatra-151356013/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Daugherty |first=Gregory N. |title=The Reception of Cleopatra in the Age of Mass Media |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-06-092093-7 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Flamarion |first=Edith |translator-last=Bonfante-Warren |translator-first=Alexandra |title=Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh |series=[[Abrams Discoveries]] |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8109-2805-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatralifedea00flam |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Foss |first=Michael |title=The Search for Cleopatra |publisher=Arcade |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-55970-503-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=P. M. |title=Ptolemaic Alexandria |volume=1–3 |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-814278-2 |edition=reprint |ref=none}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Holland |first=Barbara |title=Cleopatra: What Kind of a Woman Was She, Anyway? |magazine=[[Smithsonian]] |date=February 1997 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/cleopatra-what-kind-of-a-woman-was-she-anyway-46632008/ |access-date=29 April 2023 |ref=none |archive-date=29 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429202152/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/cleopatra-what-kind-of-a-woman-was-she-anyway-46632008/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Hughes-Hallett |first=Lucy |author-link=Lucy Hughes-Hallett |title=Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams and Distortions |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-060-92093-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Prudence J. |title=Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-977-424-993-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Lindsay |first=Jack |author-link=Jack Lindsay |title=Cleopatra |year=1972 |publisher=Coward-McCann |location=New York |oclc=671705946 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Nardo |first=Don |title=Cleopatra |publisher=Lucent |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56006-023-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Pomeroy |first=Sarah B. |author-link=Sarah B. Pomeroy |title=Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra |year=1984 |publisher=Schocken |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8052-3911-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Samson |first=Julia |title=Nefertiti & Cleopatra |publisher=Stacey International |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-948695-18-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Southern |first=Pat |author-link=Pat Southern |title=Cleopatra |publisher=Tempus |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7524-1494-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Syme |title=The Roman Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/romanrevolution0000syme |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1962 |orig-date=1939 |oclc=404094 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Volkmann |first=Hans |title=Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda |year=1958 |publisher=Sagamore |location=New York |translator=T. J. Cadoux |oclc=899077769 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Watterson |first=Barbara |title=Cleopatra: Fact and Fiction |publisher=Amberley |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-445-66965-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Weigall |first=Arthur E. P. Brome |title=The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt |url=https://archive.org/details/ajl1424.0001.001.umich.edu |year=1914 |publisher=Blackwood |location=Edinburgh |oclc=316294139 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |commons=Category:Cleopatra VII of Egypt}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=boQOXk9ZEoc Ancient Roman depictions of Cleopatra VII of Egypt] at YouTube
* {{In Our Time|Cleopatra|b00w7clj|Cleopatra}}
* {{Gutenberg book|no=10992|name=Cleopatra|author=[[Jacob Abbott]]|year=1852|bullet=none}}, a Victorian children's book
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060811000057/http://www.discoverychannelasia.com/ontv_egyptweek/death_cleopatra/index.shtml Mysterious Death of Cleopatra] at the [[Discovery Channel]]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cleopatra.shtml Cleopatra VII] at [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/genres/factual/history BBC History]
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII Cleopatra VII] at [[World History Encyclopedia]]
* Eubanks, W. Ralph. (1 November 2010). "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130976125 How History and Hollywood Got 'Cleopatra' Wrong]". [[National Public Radio]] (NPR) (a book review of ''Cleopatra: A Life'', by [[Stacy Schiff]]).
* Jarus, Owen (13 March 2014). "[https://www.livescience.com/44071-cleopatra-biography.html Cleopatra: Facts & Biography]". ''[[Live Science]]''.
* Watkins, Thayer. "[http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/cleopatra.htm The Timeline of the Life of Cleopatra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813025922/https://sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/cleopatra.htm |date=13 August 2021 }}." [[San Jose State University]].
* Draycott, Jane (22 May 2018). "[https://www.historytoday.com/jane-draycott/cleopatras-daughter Cleopatra's Daughter: While Antony and Cleopatra have been immortalised in history and in popular culture, their offspring have been all but forgotten. Their daughter, Cleopatra Selene, became an important ruler in her own right]". ''[[History Today]]''.

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Ptolemaic dynasty]]||69&nbsp;BC||30&nbsp;BC}}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef
| before = [[Ptolemy XII]]
}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[List of pharaohs#Ptolemaic Dynasty|Pharaoh of Egypt]]
| years = 51–30&nbsp;BC
| regent1 = 
| regent2 = with [[Ptolemy XIII]],
| regent3 = [[Ptolemy XIV]] and
| regent4 = [[Ptolemy XV]]
}}
{{S-non
| reason = Office abolished<br />[[Roman Egypt|Egypt annexed by Roman Republic]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Hellenistic rulers}}
{{Pharaohs|late}}
{{Queens of Ancient Egypt}}
{{Julius Caesar}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Ancient Egypt|Ancient Greece|Ancient Rome|Biography}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cleopatra 7}}
[[Category:Cleopatra| ]]
[[Category:1st-century BC births]]
[[Category:30 BC deaths]]
[[Category:1st-century BC pharaohs]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Egyptian people]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Egyptian women]]
[[Category:1st-century BC queens regnant]]
[[Category:Deaths due to snake bites]]
[[Category:Female pharaohs]]
[[Category:Female Shakespearean characters]]
[[Category:Hellenistic-era people]]
[[Category:Mistresses of Julius Caesar]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty]]
[[Category:Ancient suicides]]
[[Category:1st-century BC women writers]]
[[Category:Hellenistic Cyprus]]
[[Category:Wives of Mark Antony]]
[[Category:People of Caesar's civil war]]
[[Category:Deified women]]
[[Category:Suicides in Egypt]]
[[Category:Female suicides]]
[[Category:Suicides by poison]]