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{{short description|Group of plant varieties cultivated for coca and cocaine production}}
{{about-distinguish|the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae|Cocaine|Coca-Cola|Cocoa (disambiguation)|Corpus of Contemporary American English|Coca (disambiguation){{!}}other meanings of "Coca"}}
{{Infobox botanical product
|name   = Coca
|image     = Erythroxylum novogranatense var. Novogranatense (retouched).jpg
|caption   = ''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''novogranatense'' leaves and berries
|plant     = {{Plain list|
* [[Erythroxylum coca|''Erythroxylum coca'' var. ''coca'',<br />''Erythroxylum coca'' var. ''ipadu'']]
* [[Erythroxylum novogranatense|''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''novogranatense'',<br /> ''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''truxillense'']]
}}
|part      = [[Leaves]], [[fruit]]s
|origin    = [[Andes]]<ref name="DEAMuseumArchive1">{{cite web|url=http://www.deamuseum.org/ccp/coca/history.html |title=Coca: History |author=Drug Enforcement Administration |date=April 23, 2013 |publisher=[[Internet Archive]] |access-date=February 16, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025153514/http://www.deamuseum.org/ccp/coca/history.html |archive-date=October 25, 2014 |author-link=Drug Enforcement Administration }}</ref>
|active    = [[Cocaine]], [[benzoylecgonine]], [[ecgonine]], [[coca alkaloid|others]]
|producers = 
|legal_AU  = S9
|legal_BR =  E
|legal_CA  = Schedule I
|legal_DE  = Anlage III
|legal_NZ  = Class A
|legal_UK  = Class A
|legal_US  = Schedule II
|legal_UN  = Narcotic Schedule I
|legal_status = Controlled unless decocainized, in general legal for religious, medical or traditional use, legal in South America except in Brazil and Paraguay.
}}

'''Coca''' is any of the four cultivated plants in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Erythroxylaceae]], native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its [[Psychoactive plant|psychoactive]] [[alkaloid]], [[cocaine]]. Coca leaves contain cocaine which acts as a mild [[stimulant]] when chewed or consumed as [[Herbal tea|tea]], with slower absorption than purified cocaine and no evidence of [[addiction]] or [[Drug withdrawal|withdrawal]] symptoms from natural use.<!--Per WP:CITELEAD, references are not needed in the lead if it is sourced in the body of the article.-->

The coca plant is a [[shrub]]-like bush with curved [[branch]]es, oval leaves featuring distinct curved lines, small yellowish-white [[flower]]s that develop into red berries. [[Genomic]] analysis reveals that coca, a culturally and economically important plant, was domesticated two or three separate times from the wild species ''[[Erythroxylum gracilipes]]'' by different South American groups during the [[Holocene]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Dawson M |last2=Huang |first2=Jen-Pan |last3=Jara-Muñoz |first3=Orlando Adolfo |last4=MadriñáN |first4=Santiago |last5=Ree |first5=Richard H |last6=Mason-Gamer |first6=Roberta J |date=2021-01-01 |editor-last=Carstens |editor-first=Bryan |title=The Origins of Coca: Museum Genomics Reveals Multiple Independent Domestications from Progenitor Erythroxylum gracilipes |url=https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/70/1/1/5912027 |journal=Systematic Biology |language=en |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syaa074 |issn=1063-5157 |pmc=7744036 |pmid=32979264}}</ref> Chewing coca in South America began at least 8,000 years ago, as evidenced by coca leaves and [[calcite]] found in house floors in [[Peru]]'s Nanchoc Valley, suggesting early communal use alongside the [[Neolithic Revolution|rise of farming]].<ref name="cambridge.org">{{cite journal| vauthors = Dillehay TD, Rossen J, Ugent D, Karathanasis A, Vásquez V, Netherly PJ |year=2010|title=Early Holocene coca chewing in northern Peru|journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]]|volume=84|issue=326|pages=939–953|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00067004|s2cid=162889680}}</ref> Coca use evolved from a sacred and [[elite]] [[ritual]] to widespread use under [[Inca]] rule. The Incas deeply integrated coca into their society for [[Labour (human activity)|labor]], [[religion]], and [[trade]], valuing it so highly that they colonized new lands to cultivate it. Despite later Spanish attempts to suppress its use, even they relied on it to sustain [[slave|enslaved laborers]]. Coca leaves have been traditionally used across Andean cultures for medicinal, nutritional, religious, and social purposes—serving as a stimulant, remedy for ailments, spiritual tool, and source of sustenance—especially through chewing and tea.<!--Per WP:CITELEAD, references are not needed in the lead if it is sourced in the body of the article.-->

Coca thrives in hot, humid environments, with harvesting occurring multiple times a year from plants grown in carefully tended plots. The plant is grown as a [[cash crop]] in the [[Argentine Northwest]], [[Bolivia]], [[Alto Rio Negro Indigenous Territory|Alto Rio Negro Territory]] in [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Ecuador]], and Peru, even in areas where its cultivation is unlawful.<ref name="Plowman1979">{{cite journal |last=Plowman|first=T |title=Botanical Perspectives on Coca|journal=Journal of Psychedelic Drugs|year=1979|volume=11 |issue=1–2|pages=103–117 |doi=10.1080/02791072.1979.10472095 |pmid=522163 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Ramos |first=Danilo Paiva |title=Círculos de coca e fumaça |date=2018 |isbn=978-85-7715-555-2 |edition=1a |location=São Paulo, SP, Brasil |oclc=1110459938}}</ref> There are some reports that the plant is being cultivated in the south of [[Mexico]], by using seeds imported from South America, as an alternative to [[Illegal drug trade|smuggling]] its recreational product cocaine.<ref>{{cite web|last1=De la Cruz|first1=Manuel|title=Policía mexicana realiza el primer hallazgo de cultivos de coca en el sur del país|trans-title=Mexican police make the first discovery of coca crops in the south of the country|url=http://larepublica.pe/11-09-2014/policia-mexicana-realiza-el-primer-hallazgo-de-cultivos-de-coca-en-el-sur-del-pais|website=[[La República (Peru)|La República]]|location=Lima|access-date=27 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910085132/http://larepublica.pe/11-09-2014/policia-mexicana-realiza-el-primer-hallazgo-de-cultivos-de-coca-en-el-sur-del-pais|archive-date=10 September 2017}}</ref>
It also plays a fundamental role in many traditional Amazonian and [[Andean civilization|Andean cultures]] as well as the [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta#Inhabitants|Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] in northern Colombia.<ref name=":1" /> Coca leaves are commercially and industrially used in teas, [[food]]s, [[cosmetics]], and beverages, with growing political and market support in countries like Bolivia and Peru, despite restrictions in others like Colombia. The international prohibition of coca leaf, established by the 1961 [[United Nations]] [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs|Single Convention]] despite its traditional use in Andean cultures, has been widely contested—particularly by Bolivia and Peru—leading to ongoing efforts, including a 2025 WHO review, to reevaluate its legal status based on cultural and scientific grounds. Coca leaf is illegal or heavily restricted in most countries outside South America, treated similarly to cocaine, with limited exceptions for scientific or medical use and a few authorized imports, such as in the U.S. for [[Coca-Cola]] flavoring.<!--Per WP:CITELEAD, references are not needed in the lead if it is sourced in the body of the article.-->

The cocaine alkaloid content of dry ''Erythroxylum coca'' var. ''coca'' leaves was measured ranging from 0.23% to 0.96%.<ref name="Plowman1983">{{cite journal |last=Plowman|first=T|author2=Rivier L |title=Cocaine and Cinnamoylcocaine content of thirty-one species of Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae) |journal=Annals of Botany|year=1983|volume=51|pages=641–659|location=London|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a086511}}</ref> Coca-Cola used coca leaf extract in its products from 1885 until about 1903, when it began using decocainized leaf extract.<ref name="NewYorkTimesMayCliffordD1">{{cite news|last=May|first=Clifford D|title=How Coca-Cola Obtains Its Coca|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/01/business/how-coca-cola-obtains-its-coca.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=1988-07-01|quote=A Stepan laboratory in Maywood, N.J., is the nation's only legal commercial importer of coca leaves, which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca-Cola, Stepan extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt Inc., a St. Louis pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify the product for medicinal use.}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite news|url=https://www.tni.org/en/collection/coca-leaf|title=Coca Leaf|date=1 January 2015|newspaper=Transnational Institute}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and a chemical process known as an [[acid–base extraction]], which can fairly easily extract the alkaloids from the plant.

== Description ==
The coca plant resembles a [[blackthorn]] bush, and grows to a height of {{convert|2|to|3|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The branches are curved, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an [[areolate]]d portion bounded by two longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Coca|volume=6|pages=614–615}}</ref>

The flowers are small, and disposed in clusters on short stalks; the corolla is composed of five yellowish-white [[petal]]s, the [[anther]]s are heart-shaped, and the [[pistil]] consists of three carpels united to form a three-chambered ovary. The flowers mature into red [[berry (botany)|berries]].<ref name="EB1911"/>

The leaves are sometimes eaten by the [[larva]]e of the [[moth]] ''[[Eloria noyesi]]''.

{{Gallery
|title=Morphology of the coca plant
|width=200
|File:Colcoca02.jpg|Leaves
|File:Colcoca04.jpg|Leaves and fruit
|File:Colcoca03.jpg|Leaves and branches
}}

== Species and evolution ==
There are two species of coca crops, each with two varieties:
*''[[Erythroxylum coca]]''
**''Erythroxylum coca'' var. ''coca'' (Bolivian or [[Huánuco]] coca) – well adapted to the eastern [[Andes]] of [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], an area of humid, tropical, [[montane forest]].
**''Erythroxylum coca'' var. ''ipadu'' (Amazonian coca) – cultivated in the lowland [[Amazon Basin]] in Peru and Colombia.
*''[[Erythroxylum novogranatense]]''
**''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''novogranatense'' (Colombian coca) – a highland variety that is utilized in lowland areas. It is cultivated in drier regions found in Colombia. However, ''E. novogranatense'' is very adaptable to varying ecological conditions. The leaves have parallel lines on either side of the central vein. These plants are called "Hayo" or "Ayu" among certain groups in Venezuela and Colombia.
**''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''truxillense'' ([[Trujillo Province, Peru|Trujillo]] coca) – grown primarily in the Cajamarca and Amazonas states in Peru, including for the [https://www.gob.pe/enaco Empresa Nacional de la Coca S.A]. and export by Coca-Cola for beverage flavoring.

All four of the cultivated cocas were domesticated from ''[[Erythroxylum gracilipes]]'' in pre-Columbian times,<ref name=":2" /> with significant archaeological sites reaching from Colombia to northern Chile, including the Las Vegas Culture in Ecuador, the [[Huaca Prieta]] site in Peru, and the Nanchoc valley in Peru – where leaf fragments and [[calcium hydroxide|slaked lime]] additives have been dated to over 8,000 years before present.<ref name="cambridge.org"/>

An initial theory of the origin and evolution of the cocas by [[Timothy Plowman|Plowman]]<ref name="Plowman1984">Plowman T. 1979. "Botanical Perspectives on Coca". ''Journal of Psychoactive Drugs,'' 11(1-2): 103-117. DOI: 10.1080/02791072.1979.10472095</ref> and Bohm<ref name="Bohm1982">{{cite journal |last=Bohm|first=B|author2=Ganders F|author3=Plowman T |title=Biosystematics and Evolution of Cultivated Coca (Erythroxylaceae) |journal=Systematic Botany|year=1982|volume=7 | issue = 2 |pages=121–133 |doi=10.2307/2418321 |jstor=2418321|bibcode=1982SysBo...7..121B}}</ref> suggested that ''Erythroxylum coca'' var. ''coca'' is ancestral, while ''[[Erythroxylum novogranatense]]'' var. ''truxillense'' is derived from it to be drought tolerant, and ''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''novogranatense'' was further derived from ''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' var. ''truxillense'' in a linear series. In addition, E. coca var. ipadu was separately derived from ''E. coca'' var. ''coca'' when plants were taken into the Amazon basin.

Genetic evidence (Johnson et al. in 2005,<ref name="Johnson2005">{{cite journal |last=Johnson|first=E|author2=Zhang D|author3=Emche S |title=Inter- and Intra-specific Variation among Five Erythroxylum Taxa Assessed by AFLP |journal=Annals of Botany|year=2005|volume=95|issue=4|pages=601–608|doi=10.1093/aob/mci062|pmid=15650009|pmc=4246853}}</ref> Emche et al. in 2011,<ref name="Emche2011">{{cite journal |last=Emche|first=S|author2=Zhang D|author3=Islam M|author4=Bailey B|author5=Meinhardt L |title=AFLP Phylogeny of 36 Erythroxylum Species Genetic Relationships Among Erythroxylum Species Inferred by AFLP Analysis |journal=Tropical Plant Biology |year=2011|volume=4|pages=126–133|doi=10.1007/s12042-011-9070-9|s2cid=19680835}}</ref> and Islam 2011<ref name="Islam2011">Islam M. [http://gradworks.umi.com/34/68/3468387.html Tracing the Evolutionary History of Coca (Erythroxylum)] [PhD thesis]. Boulder: University of Colorado, Boulder; 2011</ref>) does not support this linear evolution. None of the four coca varieties are found in the wild, despite prior speculation by Plowman that wild populations of E. coca var. coca occur in the Huánuco and San Martín provinces of Peru. Recent phylogenetic evidence shows the closest wild relatives of the coca crops are ''Erythroxylum gracilipes'' and ''[[Erythroxylum cataractarum]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Dawson M. |last2=Islam |first2=Melissa B. |last3=Mason-Gamer |first3=Roberta J. |date=January 2019 |title=Phylogenetic inference in section Archerythroxylum informs taxonomy, biogeography, and the domestication of coca ( Erythroxylum species) |journal=American Journal of Botany |language=en |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=154–165 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1224 |pmid=30629286 |s2cid=58624026 |issn=0002-9122|doi-access=free }}</ref> and dense sampling of these species along with the coca crops from throughout their geographic ranges supports independent origins of domestication of ''Erythroxylum novogranatense'' and ''Erythroxylum coca'' from ancestor ''Erythroxylum gracilipes''.<ref name=":2" /> It is possible that Amazonian coca was produced by yet a third independent domestication event from ''Erythroxylum gracilipes''.<ref name=":2" />

Thus, different early-Holocene peoples in different areas of South America independently transformed ''Erythroxylum gracilipes'' plants into quotidian stimulant and medicinal crops now collectively called coca.<ref name=":2" />

=== Herbicide-resistant varieties ===
Also known as ''supercoca'' or ''la millionaria'', [[Boliviana negra]] is a relatively new form of coca that is resistant to a [[herbicide]] called [[glyphosate]]. Glyphosate is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial [[coca eradication]] campaign undertaken by the government of Colombia with U.S. financial and military backing known as [[Plan Colombia]].

The herbicide resistance of this strain has at least two possible explanations: that a "[[peer-to-peer]]" network of coca farmers used [[plant breeding|selective breeding]] to enhance this trait through tireless effort, or the plant was [[genetic engineering|genetically modified]] in a laboratory. In 1996, a [[biological patent|patented]] glyphosate-resistant [[soybean]] was marketed by [[Monsanto Company]], suggesting that it would be possible to genetically modify coca in an analogous manner. Spraying ''Boliviana negra'' with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant [[weed]]s surrounding it. Joshua Davis, in the ''Wired'' article cited below, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by the glyphosate-resistant soybean, suggesting ''Bolivana negra'' was either created in a lab by a different technique or bred in the field.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DExN86ryRuwC
|title=Evolutionary History: Uniting History and Biology to Understand Life on Earth, Edmund Russell |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=2011-03-12|isbn=978-0-521-74509-3|year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| last  = Davis
| first = Joshua
| title = The Mystery of the Coca Plant That Wouldn't Die
| magazine = WIRED
| volume  = 12
| issue   = 11
| year    = 2004
| url     = https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.11/columbia.html
}}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Colcoca01.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Coca tree in Colombia]]

The seeds are sown from December to January in small plots ({{lang|es|almacigas}}) sheltered from the sun, and the young plants when at {{convert|40|to|60|cm|0|abbr=on}} in height are placed in final planting holes ({{lang|es|aspi}}), or if the ground is level, in furrows ({{lang|es|uachos}}) in carefully [[weed]]ed soil. The plants thrive best in hot, damp and humid locations, such as the clearings of forests; but the leaves most preferred are obtained in drier areas, on the hillsides. The leaves are gathered from plants varying in age from one and a half to upwards of forty years, but only the new fresh growth is harvested. They are considered ready for plucking when they break on being bent. The first and most abundant harvest is in March after the rainy season, the second is at the end of June, and the third in October or November. The green leaves (''matu'') are spread in thin layers on coarse [[wool]]len cloths and dried in the sun; they are then packed in sacks, which must be kept dry in order to preserve the quality of the leaves.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coca Cultivation and Cocaine Processing:An Overview|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/132907NCJRS.pdf}}</ref><ref name="EB1911"/>

===Regions===
{{distinguish|text=[[Mayorasgo de Koka]], for which there is no evidence that coca plants were grown on the estate}}

According to a 2006 report by the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] (UNODC), coca plants grow best in the humid, tropical climates and specific altitudes found in the [[#Andes|Andean regions]] of South America, particularly in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru, which together account for the vast majority of global coca cultivation—and produce 99% of all cocaine worldwide.<ref name="Andean_full_report">{{cite web |url=https://www.unodc.org/pdf/andean/Andean_full_report.pdf |title=COCA CULTIVATION IN THE ANDEAN REGION }}</ref>

As of 2023, coca cultivation has also rapidly expanded into northern Central America, in the [[highland]] areas of Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize.<ref name="Murillo-Sandoval_2024" /><ref name="plantaciones-laboratorios-y-narcorutas-de-coca-en-honduras-LJ17693091" /><ref name="uatemala-registra-record-produccion-coca-no-cocaina">{{cite news | vauthors = Papadovassilakis A, Voss G |title=Guatemala registra récord en producción de coca, pero no de cocaína |url=https://insightcrime.org/es/noticias/guatemala-registra-record-produccion-coca-no-cocaina/ |work=InSight Crime |date=10 February 2023 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref name="police-find-half-a-million-coca-plants-in-southern-belize" />

While regions like Taiwan and Java were prominent centers of coca leaf cultivation in Asia before [[World War II]], their climates and soils remain highly suitable for large-scale coca production today.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Musto |first1=DF |title=International traffic in coca through the early 20th century. |journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence |date=1 January 1998 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=145–56 |doi=10.1016/s0376-8716(97)00157-9 |pmid=9543651|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid39570053" /><ref name="Musto" /> This historical precedent suggests that, if demand or policy ever shifted, these areas could once again support thriving coca plantations. These examples highlight that, despite their current historical status, such regions retain the biophysical capacity for renewed coca production on a significant scale.

====Africa====
Records indicate that coca has been grown in the African countries of [[Ghana]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[West Cameroon]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.upwta.2_42 |title=Erythroxylum coca Lam. &#91;family ERYTHROXYLACEAE&#93; on JSTOR }}</ref> But there is no evidence that coca became a significant or economically important crop in these countries.

====Asia====

=====East Asia=====
* [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]] (then known as Formosa) became the second-largest producer of coca leaves in Asia before World War II, surpassed only by Java, and played a crucial role in making Japan the world's leading exporter of cocaine.<ref name="pmid39570053">{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=SL |title=A Promising Tropical Medicinal Plant: Taiwan as the Production Hub of Japan's Coca Empire. |journal=Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte |date=December 2024 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=352–381 |doi=10.1002/bewi.202400005 |pmid=39570053}}</ref>

=====South Asia=====
* Coca has been grown in [[Sri Lanka]] (then known as Ceylon) (De Witt, 1967).

=====Southeast Asia=====
* [[Java]] (today part of Indonesia) became the world's leading exporter of coca leaf in the early 20th century, surpassing Peru by 1912 and maintaining this position until the late 1920s, except during World War I.<ref name="Musto" /> The success of coca cultivation in Java demonstrates that the island's climate and soils were highly suitable for the coca plant, as evidenced by the thriving plantations and high yields recorded during this period.

====Latin America and the Caribbean====

=====South America=====
[[Venezuela]], once mainly a cocaine transit country, is now also producing cocaine, with coca cultivation and processing labs emerging in border and remote regions. While coca crops remain far smaller than in Colombia, their presence is growing, aided by Colombian armed groups and Venezuela's political and economic instability. The Maduro government is accused of tolerating and managing the drug trade to maintain power, while international oversight has diminished.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.elpais.com/international/2023-03-15/venezuela-from-transit-country-to-cocaine-producer.html |title=Venezuela, from transit country to cocaine producer |work=EL PAÍS |date=15 March 2023 }}</ref>

======Andes======
{{See also|Coca production in Colombia}}

Coca is traditionally cultivated in the lower altitudes of the eastern slopes of the [[Andes]] (the [[Yungas]]), or the highlands depending on the species grown. Coca production begins in the valleys and upper jungle regions of the Andean region, where the countries of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia<ref>{{cite web|title=South American Cocaine Production|url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/south-american-cocaine-production|access-date=2020-08-13|website=www.culturalsurvival.org|date=19 February 2010 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=colombiareports|date=2019-08-08|title=Coca production {{!}} Colombia Reports|url=https://colombiareports.com/coca-cultivation-statistics/|access-date=2020-08-13|website=Colombia News {{!}} Colombia Reports|language=en-US}}</ref> are host to more than 98 percent of the global land area planted with coca;<ref name="Dion2008">{{cite journal |last=Dion|first=Michelle L|author2=Russler, Catherine |s2cid=17370223|title=Eradication Efforts, The State, Displacement And Poverty: Explaining Coca Cultivation In Colombia During Plan Colombia |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies|year=2008|volume=40|issue=3|pages=399–421|doi=10.1017/s0022216x08004380}}<!--|access-date=15 June 2013--></ref> [[Coca production in Colombia]] takes place predominantly in the departments of [[Putumayo Department|Putumayo]], [[Caquetá Department|Caquetá]], [[Meta Department|Meta]], [[Guaviare Department|Guaviare]], [[Nariño Department|Nariño]], [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]], and [[Vichada Department|Vichada]].<ref name=steiner>Roberto Steiner and Hernan Vallejo. "Illegal drugs". In Hudson, Rex A. (ed.). [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pdf/CS_Colombia.pdf ''Colombia: A Country Study'']. [[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]] (2010). page 188-190</ref> Bolivia's regions of [[Apolo, La Paz]] and [[Chapare Province|Chapare]] are known for coca cultivation.<ref name="Andean_full_report" /> Peru's primary coca growing and [[drug trafficking]] activities have been centered in the [[Huallaga River|Upper Huallaga Valley]] since the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/govpubs/peru1.htm | title=U.S. Antidrug Efforts in Peru's Upper Huallaga Valley }}</ref>

=====Central America=====
In 2014, coca plantations were discovered in [[Mexico]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Casale |first1=John F. |last2=Mallette |first2=Jennifer R. |title=Illicit coca grown in Mexico: An alkaloid and isotope profile unlike coca grown in South America |journal=Forensic Chemistry |date=1 August 2016 |volume=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1016/j.forc.2016.05.001 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468170916300133 |issn=2468-1709|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>[https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-discovery-of-mexicos-first-coca-plantation-could-upend-the-cocaine-business/ The discovery of Mexico's first coca plantation] ''Vice''</ref> and in 2020 in [[Honduras]],<ref>[https://www.laprensa.hn/sucesos/1401752-410/colon-droga-narcolaboratorios-honduras-antinarcoticos-colombia-honduras]"in La Prensa 17 August 2020"</ref> which could have major implications for the illegal cultivation of the plant.

Since then coca production in Central America has surged dramatically. In 2022, authorities destroyed over 6.5 million coca plants in Honduras, 4 million in [[Guatemala]], and more than half a million in southern [[Belize]]. By 2024, the number of coca plantations found and eradicated in Honduras had nearly doubled compared to the previous year, and a record number of processing labs were dismantled across the region. Unlike the Andes, where small farmers typically grow coca, cultivation in Central America is controlled by organized crime groups with backing from major foreign cartels.<ref name="plantaciones-laboratorios-y-narcorutas-de-coca-en-honduras-LJ17693091">{{cite news |title=Plantaciones, laboratorios y narcorutas de coca en Honduras |url=https://www.elheraldo.hn/elheraldoplus/interactivos/plantaciones-laboratorios-y-narcorutas-de-coca-en-honduras-LJ17693091 |work=www.elheraldo.hn |language=es-HN}}</ref><ref name="guatemala-registra-record-produccion-coca-no-cocaina">{{cite news |last1=Papadovassilakis |first1=Alex |last2=Voss |first2=Gavin |title=Guatemala registra récord en producción de coca, pero no de cocaína |url=https://insightcrime.org/es/noticias/guatemala-registra-record-produccion-coca-no-cocaina/ |work=InSight Crime |date=10 February 2023 |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref name="police-find-half-a-million-coca-plants-in-southern-belize">{{cite news |title=Police find half a million coca plants in Southern Belize |url=https://www.breakingbelizenews.com/2023/08/31/police-find-half-a-million-coca-plants-in-southern-belize/ |work=Belize News and Opinion on www.breakingbelizenews.com |date=31 August 2023}}</ref> A 2024 study found that coca cultivation suitability increased most in northern Central America, particularly in Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador (collectively known as the [[Northern Triangle of Central America]]), and Belize. The study also reported that 47% of northern Central America—limited to Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize—has biophysical characteristics highly suitable for coca growing, suggesting that [[environmental factor]]s are unlikely to limit the crop's spread in those countries. The latitudinal and altitudinal gradients of these countries are especially analogous to the altitudinal diversity of Colombia's coca cultivation zones, though their soils tend to fall near the upper limit of what is considered suitable for coca in Colombia.<ref name="Murillo-Sandoval_2024">{{cite journal | vauthors = Murillo-Sandoval PJ, Sesnie SE, Ordoñez Armas ME, Magliocca N, Tellman B, Devine JA, Nielsen E, McSweeney K | title = Central America's agro-ecological suitability for cultivating coca, Erythroxylum spp | journal = Environmental Research Letters | volume = 19 | issue = 10 | page = 104068 | date = 1 October 2024 | doi = 10.1088/1748-9326/ad7276 | bibcode = 2024ERL....19j4068M | doi-access = free }}</ref>

====Other regions====
[[Hawaii]]: In December 2017, Kauai police, working with several state and federal agencies, seized 15 mature coca plants—some up to six feet tall—and one pound of hashish during a two-day operation in [[Kalalau Valley]], on Kauai in the state of Hawaii. The coca plants are notable because they are the source of cocaine's active ingredient. Kauai Police Chief Darryl Perry described the operation as a success in the ongoing fight against illegal drugs on the island.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Staff |first1=Star-Advertiser |title=Kauai police seize more than a dozen coca plants in Kalalau Valley |url=https://www.staradvertiser.com/2017/12/06/breaking-news/kauai-police-seize-more-than-a-dozen-coca-plants-in-kalalau-valley/ |work=Honolulu Star-Advertiser |date=7 December 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

== Pharmacological aspects ==
[[File:Cocaine-2D-skeletal.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|225px|[[Cocaine]], the psychoactive constituent of coca]]
The [[pharmacology|pharmacologically]] active ingredient of coca is the cocaine alkaloid, which has a concentration of about 0.3 to 1.5%, averaging 0.8%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/cocaine.illicit.production.html
|title=Illicit Production of Cocaine – [www.rhodium.ws&#93; |publisher=Erowid.org |access-date=2013-03-26}}</ref> in fresh leaves. Besides cocaine, the coca leaf contains a number of other alkaloids, including [[methylecgonine cinnamate]], [[benzoylecgonine]], truxilline, [[hydroxytropacocaine]], [[tropacocaine]], [[ecgonine]], [[cuscohygrine]], [[dihydrocuscohygrine]], and [[hygrine]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jenkins|first1=Amanda|last2=Llosa|first2=Teobaldo|last3=Montoya|first3=Ivan|last4=Cone|first4=Edward|title=Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea|journal=Forensic Sci Int|date=February 9, 1996|volume=77|issue=3|pages=179–189|doi=10.1016/0379-0738(95)01860-3|pmid=8819993|pmc=2705900}}</ref> When chewed, coca acts as a mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue.<ref name="Weil">{{cite journal
|last=Weil|first=AT
|title=The therapeutic value of coca in contemporary medicine
|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|date=Mar–May 1981|volume=3|issue=2–3|pages=367–76|pmid=6113306|doi=10.1016/0378-8741(81)90064-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/researchreports/cocaine/effects.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608202014/http://www.nida.nih.gov/ResearchReports/Cocaine/effects.html|archive-date=June 8, 2009|title=Letter from the Director – National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)|author=National Institute on Drug Abuse|work=nih.gov}}</ref> Absorption of coca from the leaf is less rapid than nasal application of purified forms of the alkaloid (almost all of the coca alkaloid is absorbed within 20 minutes of nasal application,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=BS|first1=Liao|last2=RL|first2=Hilsinger|last3=BM|first3=Rasgon|last4=K|first4=Matsuoka|last5=KK|first5=Adour|title=A preliminary study of cocaine absorption from the nasal mucosa|journal=Laryngoscope|date=Jan 1999|volume=109|issue=1|pages=98–102|pmid=9917048|doi=10.1097/00005537-199901000-00019|s2cid=25605617}}</ref> while it takes 2–12 hours after ingestion of the raw leaf for alkaline concentrations to peak.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mazor|first1=Susan|last2=Mycyk|first2=Mark|last3=Wills|first3=Brandon|last4=Brace|first4=Larry|last5=Gussow|first5=Leon|last6=Erickson|first6=Timothy|title=Coca tea consumption causes positive urine cocaine assay|journal=Eur J Emerg Med|date=Dec 2006|volume=13|issue=6|page=341|url=http://www.lwwpartnerships.com/assets/files/Coca_tea_consumption_causes_positive_urine_cocaine.5(1).pdf|access-date=August 4, 2014|doi=10.1097/01.mej.0000224424.36444.19|pmid=17091055|s2cid=27984168|archive-date=September 10, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910070648/http://www.lwwpartnerships.com/assets/files/Coca_tea_consumption_causes_positive_urine_cocaine.5(1).pdf}}</ref>). When the raw leaf is consumed in tea, between 59 and 90% of the coca alkaloid is absorbed.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=GF|last2=Saady|first2=JJ|last3=Poklis|first3=A|title=Urinary excretion of benzoylecgonine following ingestion of Health Inca Tea|journal=Forensic Sci Int|date=Jan–Feb 1991|volume=49|issue=1|pages=57–64|pmid=2032667|doi=10.1016/0379-0738(91)90171-e}}</ref>

Coca users ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] (UNODC).<ref>{{cite web |title=UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1952 Issue 2 - 008 |url=https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1952-01-01_2_page009.html |website=www.unodc.org}}</ref> The coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance addiction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biondich AS, Joslin JD | title = Coca: The History and Medical Significance of an Ancient Andean Tradition | journal = Emergency Medicine International | volume = 2016 | article-number = 4048764 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27144028 | pmc = 4838786 | doi = 10.1155/2016/4048764 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Hanna">Hanna JM, Hornick CA., "Use of coca leaf in southern Peru: adaptation or addiction," Bull Narc. 1977 Jan–Mar;29(1):63–74.</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite journal|title=Report of the Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf|journal=United Nations Economic and Social Council|date=May 1950|page=31|url=http://www.ungassondrugs.org/images/stories/cocainquiry-e.pdf|access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Due to its alkaloid content and non-addictive properties, coca has been suggested as a method to help recovering cocaine addicts with [[tapering (medicine)|tapering]] off the drug.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hurtado-Gumucio|first1=J|title=Coca leaf chewing as therapy for cocaine maintenance|journal=Ann Med Interne|date=October 2000|pmid=11104945|volume=151 Suppl B|pages=B44-8}}<!--|access-date=August 4, 2014--></ref><ref>Oswaldo Francisco Ribas Lobos Fernández, doctoral thesis, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), 2007; "Coca Light?"</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Coquero (Figure Chewing Coca), 850-1500 C.E..jpg|thumbnail|left|Coquero (Figure Chewing Coca), 850–1500 C.E. [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
[[File:Arbeiders die cocabladeren fijnstampen op Java.jpg|thumb|Workers in [[Java]] prepared coca leaves. This product was mainly traded in [[Amsterdam]], and was further processed into cocaine ([[Dutch East Indies]], before 1940).]]
Traces of coca leaves found in northern Peru dates the communal chewing of coca with [[calcium hydroxide|slaked lime]] 8,000 years back.<ref name="cambridge.org" /> Other evidence of coca traces have been found in [[mummies]] dating 3,000 years back in northern Chile.<ref name="Rivera">{{cite journal|author=Rivera MA|author2=Aufderheide AC|author3=Cartmell LW|author4=Torres CM|author5=Langsjoen O|date=December 2005|title=Antiquity of coca-leaf chewing in the south central Andes: a 3,000 year archaeological record of coca-leaf chewing from northern Chile|journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs|volume=37|issue=4|pages=455–458|doi=10.1080/02791072.2005.10399820|pmid=16480174|s2cid=28661721}}</ref> Beginning with the Valdivian culture, {{circa|3000 BC}}, there is an unbroken record of coca leaf consumption by succeeding cultural groups on the coast of Ecuador until European arrival as shown in their ceramic sculpture and abundant caleros or lime pots. Lime containers found in the north coast of Peru date around 2000 BC as evidenced by the findings at [[Huaca Prieta]] and the Jetetepeque river valley. Extensive archaeological evidence for the chewing of coca leaves dates back at least to the 6th century AD [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] period, and the subsequent [[Inca]] period, based on mummies found with a supply of coca leaves, pottery depicting the characteristic cheek bulge of a coca chewer, spatulas for extracting alkali and figured bags for coca leaves and lime made from precious metals, and gold representations of coca in special gardens of the Inca in [[Cuzco]].<ref name="Petersen">{{cite web |title=NIDA research monograph #13: Cocaine 1977, Chapter I |url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/monographs/13.pdf |author=Robert C. Petersen, Ph.D. |date=May 1977 |access-date=2007-05-26 |archive-date=2009-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929005611/http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/monographs/13.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Carroll">{{cite web |url=http://sad.health.org/pub/AD03991.pdf |title=Coca: the plant and its use |author=Eleanor Carroll, M.A. |access-date=2007-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926135600/http://sad.health.org/pub/AD03991.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-26 }}</ref>

Coca chewing may originally have been limited to the eastern Andes before its introduction to the Inca. As the plant was viewed as having a divine origin, its cultivation became subject to a [[state monopoly]] and its use restricted to nobles and a few favored classes (court orators, couriers, favored public workers, and the army) by the rule of the [[Topa Inca]] (1471–1493). As the Incan empire declined, the leaf became more widely available. After some deliberation, [[Philip II of Spain]] issued a decree recognizing the drug as essential to the well-being of the Andean Indians but urging missionaries to end its religious use. The Spanish are believed to have effectively encouraged use of coca by an increasing majority of the population to increase their labor output and tolerance for starvation, but it is not clear that this was planned deliberately.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.taironatrust.org/about-the-kogi/the-culture/logi-culture-and-cultivating-harmony|title=Tairona Heritage Trust|website=www.taironatrust.org|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-03-31|archive-date=2022-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325090141/https://www.taironatrust.org/about-the-kogi/the-culture/logi-culture-and-cultivating-harmony}}</ref>

Andean people first started chewing coca leaf (Ertyhroxylum) and its popularity has been spread throughout the Northern and Central Andes, making its way down to Southern Central America, including areas like Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The coca leaf itself includes the active cocaine alkaloid which may be released through chewing or consumed in a powder-like form. This powder is usually extracted and made from burnt plant ashes, limestone or granite, and seashells. Andean people living in Central America have used a method to withdraw the lime from the coca plant using containers with sticks and have been able to indicate whether the coca leaves were either chewed historically even though many coca leaves haven't been discovered by archaeologists. There have been numerous effects that have been noted from the coca leaf as they are milder and more concentrated compared to pure cocaine. When Andean people began to first use the coca leaf, they noticed that it could produce a "high" and can be very addictive compared to tobacco if consumed in large quantities. Many Andean and Inca civilizations used to chew the coca leaf instead of consuming it as it provided a better "high" experience. Because of its strong addiction and high, the Incas only allowed this substance within honorary celebrations and rituals. Workers dealing with rigorous tasks such as long-distance travels, and more were allowed to take the substance as it eased their hardships along the way. There is little history before Andean people and the Incas to indicate if coca was restricted before these times and what instances it was initially used in. Sometimes coca leaves from the plant were used as offerings in rituals. Due to the nature of politics and religion in the Inca Empire, wealthy inhabitants handed out coca leaves during ritual ceremonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Quilter |first=Jeffrey |title=The Ancient Central Andes |publisher=Routledge World Archaeology |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-367-48151-3 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY |pages=38–39, 279 |language=English}}</ref>

Coca was first introduced to Europe in the 16th century, but did not become popular until the mid-19th century, with the publication of an influential paper by Dr. [[Paolo Mantegazza]] praising its stimulating effects on cognition. This led to the invention of [[coca wine]] and the first production of pure cocaine. Coca wine (of which [[Vin Mariani]] was the best-known brand) and other coca-containing preparations were widely sold as patent medicines and tonics, with claims of a wide variety of health benefits. The original version of [[Coca-Cola]] was among these. These products became illegal in most countries outside of South America in the early 20th century, after the addictive nature of cocaine was widely recognized. In 1859, [[Albert Niemann (chemist)|Albert Niemann]] of the [[University of Göttingen]] became the first person to isolate the chief alkaloid of coca, which he named "cocaine".<ref>{{cite book
  |last = Inciardi
  |first = James A.
  |title = The War on Drugs II
  |publisher = Mayfield Publishing Company
  |year = 1992
  |page = 6
  |isbn = 1-55934-016-9}}</ref>

In the early 20th century, the Dutch colony of [[Java]] became a leading exporter of coca leaf. By 1912 shipments to Amsterdam, where the leaves were processed into cocaine, reached 1000 tons, overtaking the Peruvian export market. Apart from the years of the First World War, Java remained a greater exporter of coca than Peru until the end of the 1920s.<ref name="Musto">{{cite journal |last=Musto|first=DF |title=International traffic in coca through the early 20th century |journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|year=1998|volume=49 | issue = 2 |pages=145–156|doi=10.1016/s0376-8716(97)00157-9|pmid=9543651 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other colonial powers also tried to grow coca (including the British in India), but with the exception of the Japanese in [[Formosa]], these were relatively unsuccessful.<ref name=Musto/>

In recent times (2006), the governments of several South American countries, such as Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela, have defended and championed the traditional use of coca, as well as the modern uses of the leaf and its extracts in household products such as teas and toothpaste. The coca plant was also the inspiration for Bolivia's [[Coca Museum]].

==Coca use by the Incas==

===Ethnohistorical sources===
While many historians are in agreement that coca was a contributing factor to the daily life of the [[Inca]], there are many different theories as to how this civilization came to adopt it as one of its [[Staple food|staple crops]] and as a valued commodity. The Incas were able to accomplish significant things while stimulated by the effects of coca. The Incas did not have a graphical written language, but used the ''[[quipu]]'', a fiber recording device. Spanish documents make it clear that coca was one of the most important elements of Inca culture. Coca was used in Inca feasts and religious rituals, among many other things.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last1=Mortimer |first1=William Golden |author1-link=W. Golden Mortimer |title=Peru. History of coca, 'the divine plant' of the Incas; with an introductory account of the Incas, and of the Andean Indians of to-day |date=1901 |publisher=J. H. Vail & Company |location=New York |via=[[archive.org]] |url=https://archive.org/details/peruhistoryofcoc00mortrich}}</ref> It was a driving factor in the labor efforts that Inca kings asked of their citizens, and also used to barter for other goods. Coca was vital to the Inca civilization and its culture. The Incas valued coca so much that they colonized tropical rain forests to the north and east of their capital in [[Cuzco]] so that they could increase and control their supply. The Incas colonized more humid regions because coca cannot grow above 2600 meters in elevation (coca is not frost-resistant).<ref name="auto">Valdez, Lidio M., Juan Taboada, and J. Ernesto Valdez. 2015. "Ancient Use of Coca Leaves in the Peruvian Central Highlands." Journal of Anthropological Research 71 (2): 231–58. doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0071.204 .</ref>

===Coca use in labor and military service===
One of the most common uses of coca during the reign of the Inca was in the context of ''[[mit'a]]'' labor, a labor tax required of all able-bodied men in the Inca empire, and also in military service. [[Pedro Cieza de León]] wrote that the indigenous people of the Andes always seemed to have coca in their mouths. ''Mit'a'' laborers, soldiers, and others chewed coca to alleviate hunger and thirst while they were working and fighting. The results of this are evident in monumental construction and the successful expansion of the Inca empire through conquest. By chewing coca, laborers and soldiers were able to work harder and for longer periods. Some historians believe that coca and ''chicha'' (fermented corn beer) made it possible for the Incas to move large stones in order to create architectural masterpieces, especially ones of [[monolith]]ic construction such as [[Sacsayhuamán]].<ref name="auto"/>

===Coca use in religious rituals===
Due to the [[Spanish conquest]] of the Inca Empire, the Spaniards had direct access to the Inca. They had insight to their everyday lives, and it is through their lens that we learn about [[religion in the Inca Empire]]. While the indigenous author [[Pedro Cieza de León]] wrote about the effects coca had on the Inca, multiple Spanish men wrote about the importance of coca in their spirituality. For example [[Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa]], Father [[Bernabé Cobo]], and Juan de Ulloa Mogollón noted how the Incas would leave coca leaves at important locations throughout the empire. They considered coca to be the highest form of plant offering that the Incas made.<ref name="auto"/>

The Incas would put coca leaves in the mouths of mummies, which were a sacred part of Inca culture. Mummies of Inca emperors were regarded for their wisdom and often consulted for important matters long after the body had deteriorated. Not only did many Inca mummies have coca leaves in their mouths, but they also carried coca leaves in bags.<ref name="auto"/> These are believed to be Inca sacrifices, and like the Aztecs, the Inca participated in sacrifices as well. It is clear that the Incas had a strong belief in the divinity of the coca leaf as there is now evidence that both the living and the dead were subjected to coca use. They even sent their sacrifices off to their death with a sacrificial bag of coca leaves. The coca leaf affected all stages of life for the Inca. Coca was also used in divination as ritual priests would burn a mixture of coca and llama fat and predict the future based on the appearance of the flame.<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Hagen|first=Adriana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEqwCQAAQBAJ|title=Encyclopedia of the Incas|date=4 June 2015|isbn=978-0-7591-2363-2|page=88|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref>

===Coca use after the Spanish invasion and colonization===
After the Spanish invasion and colonization of the Inca Empire, the use of coca was restricted and appropriated by the Spaniards. By many historical accounts, the Spaniards made haphazard attempts to eradicate the coca leaf from Inca life. Although the Spaniards reported state-controlled storage facilities that the Inca had built to distribute to its workers,<ref name="auto"/> The Spanish allowed local communities to continue to use coca to endure the labor associated with working conditions.<ref name="auto1"/> After seeing the effects and powers of the coca plant, many Spaniards saw another opportunity and started growing and selling coca themselves.

== Traditional uses ==
[[File:Folha de coca.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Man holding coca leaf in Bolivia]]
[[File:Three coca leaves.jpeg|thumb|Three coca leaves on one stem are lucky in Quechuan folklore]]

=== Medicine ===
Traditional medical uses of coca are foremost as a stimulant to overcome fatigue, hunger, and thirst. It is considered particularly effective against [[altitude sickness]].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=https://www.tni.org/en/primer/coca-leaf-myths-and-reality|title=Coca leaf: Myths and Reality|date=5 August 2014|website=tni.org}}</ref> It also is used as an [[anesthetic]] and analgesic to alleviate the pain of headache, [[rheumatism]], wounds and sores, etc. Before stronger anaesthetics were available, it also was used for broken bones, childbirth, and during [[trepanning]] operations on the skull.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The high calcium content in coca explains why people used it for bone fractures.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Because coca constricts blood vessels, it also serves to oppose bleeding, and coca seeds were used for [[nosebleed]]s. Indigenous use of coca has also been reported as a treatment for [[malaria]], [[peptic ulcer|ulcers]], [[asthma]], to improve [[digestion]], to guard against bowel laxity, as an [[aphrodisiac]], and credited with improving [[longevity]]. Modern studies have supported a number of these medical applications.<ref name="Weil"/><ref name="ReferenceB"/>

=== Nutrition ===
Raw coca leaves, chewed or consumed as tea or mate de coca, are rich in nutritional properties. Specifically, the coca plant contains essential minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus), vitamins ([[vitamin B1|B1]], [[vitamin B2|B2]], [[vitamin C|C]], and [[vitamin E|E]]) and nutrients such as protein and fiber.<ref>James, A., Aulick, D., Plowman, T., 1975 "Nutritional Value of Coca", Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 24 (6): 113–119.</ref><ref>Harvard Study – Nutritional Value of Coca Leaf (Duke, Aulick, Plowman 1975)</ref>

=== Religion ===
Coca has also been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and northwest Argentina from the [[Pre-Inca cultures|pre-Inca period]] through to the present. Coca leaves play a crucial part in offerings to the [[apus]] (mountains), [[Inti]] (the sun), or [[Pachamama]] (the earth). Coca leaves are also often read in a form of [[divination]] analogous to [[reading tea leaves]] in other cultures. As one example of the many traditional beliefs about coca, it is believed by the miners of [[Cerro de Pasco]] to soften the veins of [[ore]], if masticated (chewed) and thrown upon them<ref name="EB1911"/> (see '''Cocamama''' in [[Inca mythology]]). In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta would chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer.<ref name="banrep.gov.co">{{cite web |author=Museo del Oro, Banco de la Republica |url=http://www.banrep.gov.co/museo/eng/expo_bogota3c.htm |title=Museo del Oro, Colombia |language=es |publisher=Banrep.gov.co |access-date=2012-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511180916/http://www.banrep.gov.co/museo/eng/expo_bogota3c.htm |archive-date=2013-05-11 }}</ref>

==== Chewing ====
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2011}}
In Bolivia bags of coca leaves are sold in local markets and by street vendors. The activity of chewing coca is called ''mambear'', ''chacchar'' or ''acullicar'', borrowed from [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], ''coquear'' (Northwest Argentina), or in Bolivia, ''picchar'', derived from the [[Aymara language]]. The Spanish ''masticar'' is also frequently used, along with the slang term "bolear," derived from the word "bola" or ball of coca pouched in the cheek while chewing. Typical coca consumption varies between 20 and 60 grams per day,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1952-01-01_2_page009.html|title=UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1952 Issue 2 - 008|last=ZAPATA-ORTIZ|first=Vicente|website=www.unodc.org|access-date=2018-06-20}}</ref> and contemporary methods are believed to be unchanged from ancient times.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Coca is kept in a woven pouch (''[[Chuspas|chuspa]]'' or ''huallqui''). A few leaves are chosen to form a quid ''(acullico)'' held between the mouth and gums. Doing so may cause a tingling and numbing sensation in the mouth, in similar fashion to the formerly ubiquitous dental anaesthetic [[procaine|novocaine]] (as both [[cocaine]] and novocaine belong to the [[Amino esters|amino ester]] class of [[local anesthetics]]).

Chewing coca leaves is most common in indigenous communities across the central Andean region,<ref name="banrep.gov.co"/> particularly in places like the highlands of Argentina, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru, where the cultivation and consumption of coca is a part of the national culture, similar to [[chicha]]. It also serves as a powerful symbol of indigenous cultural and religious identity, amongst a diversity of indigenous nations throughout South America.<ref name="banrep.gov.co"/> Chewing plants for medicinal mostly stimulating effects has a long history throughout the world: [[khat]] in [[East Africa]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[tobacco]] in North America, [[pituri]] in [[Australia]], and [[areca nut]] in South/Southeast Asia and the Pacific Basin. [[Tobacco]] leaves were also traditionally chewed in the same way in North America (modern [[chewing tobacco]] is typically heavily processed). Khat chewing also has a history as a social custom dating back thousands of years analogous to the use of coca leaves.<ref name="Kciy2">{{cite journal|last=Al-Mugahed|first=Leen|year=2008|title=Khat Chewing in Yemen: Turning over a New Leaf: Khat Chewing Is on the Rise in Yemen, Raising Concerns about the Health and Social Consequences|url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-188738635/khat-chewing-in-Yemen-turning-over-a-new-leaf-khat|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|volume=86|issue=10|pages=741–42|doi=10.2471/BLT.08.011008|pmc=2649518|pmid=18949206|access-date=9 January 2014|archive-date=10 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310045753/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-188738635/khat-chewing-in-yemen-turning-over-a-new-leaf-khat}}</ref>

[[File:Llipta on coca leaf.jpeg|thumb|''Llipta'' is used to improve extraction when chewing coca (Museo de la Coca, [[Cusco]], Peru).]]
One option for chewing coca is with a tiny quantity of ''ilucta'' (a preparation of the ashes of the [[quinoa]] plant) added to the coca leaves; it softens their [[astringent]] flavor and activates the [[alkaloids]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Other names for this basifying substance are ''llipta'' in Peru and the Spanish word ''lejía'', ''[[bleach]]'' in English. The consumer carefully uses a wooden stick (formerly often a spatula of precious metal) to transfer an alkaline component into the quid without touching his flesh with the corrosive substance. The alkali component, usually kept in a gourd (''ishcupuro'' or ''poporo''), can be made by burning [[limestone]] to form unslaked [[quicklime]], burning quinoa stalks, or the bark from certain trees, and may be called ''llipta'', ''tocra'' or ''mambe'' depending on its composition.<ref name="Petersen"/><ref name="Carroll"/> Many of these materials are salty in flavor, but there are variations. The most common base{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} in the [[La Paz]] area of Bolivia is a product known as ''lejía dulce'' (''sweet lye''), which is made from quinoa ashes mixed with [[aniseed]] and cane sugar, forming a soft black putty with a sweet and pleasing flavor. In some places, [[baking soda]] is used under the name ''bico''.

In the [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]], on the Caribbean Coast of Colombia, coca is consumed<ref name="banrep.gov.co"/> by the [[Kogi people|Kogi]], [[Arhuaco people|Arhuaco]], and [[Wiwa language|Wiwa]] by using a special device called [[poporo]].<ref name="banrep.gov.co"/> The poporo is the mark of manhood; it is regarded by men as a good companion that means "food", "woman", "memory", and "meditation". When a boy is ready to be married, his mother initiates him in the use of the coca. This act of initiation is carefully supervised by the Mamo, a traditional priest-teacher-leader.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}

Fresh samples of the dried leaves, uncurled, are a deep green colour on the upper surface, and a grey-green on the lower surface, and have a strong [[tea]]-like aroma. When chewed, they produce a pleasurable numbness in the mouth, and have a pleasant, [[Piquance|pungent]] taste. They are traditionally chewed with [[calcium hydroxide|slaked lime]] or some other reagent such as [[bicarbonate of soda]] to increase the release of the active ingredients from the leaf. Older species have a [[camphor]]aceous smell and a brownish color, and lack the pungent taste.<ref name="EB1911"/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Biondich AS, Joslin JD |title=Coca: The History and Medical Significance of an Ancient Andean Tradition |journal=Emerg Med Int |volume=2016 |article-number=4048764 |date=2016 |pmid=27144028 |pmc=4838786 |doi=10.1155/2016/4048764 |doi-access=free }}</ref> See also ''[[Erythroxylum coca]], and [[Erythroxylum novogranatense]]'' spp.

[[Ypadu|Ypadú]] is an unrefined, unconcentrated powder made from coca leaves and the ash of various other plants.

==== Tea ====
[[File:Mate de Coca Cusco.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A cup of ''[[mate de coca]]'' served in a coffee shop in [[Cuzco]], Peru]]
{{Main|Coca tea}}
Although coca leaf chewing is common only among the indigenous populations,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> the consumption of coca tea (''[[Mate de coca]]'') is common among all sectors of society in the Andean countries, especially due to their high elevations from sea level,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and is widely held to be beneficial to health, mood, and energy.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Coca leaf is sold packaged into teabags in most grocery stores in the region, and establishments that cater to tourists generally feature coca tea. Coca tea is legal in [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Argentina]], and [[Ecuador]].<ref>{{cite news|title=When Hugo met Oliver|url=https://www.ft.com/content/964f5618-7997-11df-85be-00144feabdc0|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211181200/https://www.ft.com/content/964f5618-7997-11df-85be-00144feabdc0#axzz1uDD4DUIq|archive-date=11 December 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|newspaper=[[Financial Times]] Magazine|date=June 18, 2010|author=Matthew Garrahan|access-date=7 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard K. Ries|author2=Shannon C. Miller|author3=David A. Fiellin|title=Principles of Addiction Medicine|year=2009|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-7477-2|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=j6GGBud8DXcC&pg=PT165 165]}}</ref>

== Commercial and industrial uses ==
[[File:Huancayo Peru- coca leaf sellers.jpg|thumb|Store selling coca leaf in Peru]]
In the Andes, commercially manufactured coca teas, granola bars, cookies, hard candies, etc. are available in most stores and supermarkets, including upscale suburban supermarkets.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

Coca is used industrially in the cosmetics and food industries. A decocainized extract of coca leaf is one of the flavoring ingredients in [[Coca-Cola]]. Before the criminalization of cocaine, however, the extract was not decocainized, and hence Coca-Cola's original formula did indeed include cocaine.<ref name="NewYorkTimesMayCliffordD1"/><ref name=":0">Benson, Drew. "[http://www.mindfully.org/Food/2004/Kdrink-Coca-Drink19apr04.htm Coca kick in drinks spurs export fears] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120530045600/http://www.mindfully.org/Food/2004/Kdrink-Coca-Drink19apr04.htm |date=2012-05-30 }}", ''[[The Washington Times]]'', April 20, 2004. "Coke dropped cocaine from its recipe around 1900, but the secret formula still calls for a cocaine-free coca extract produced at a Stepan Co. factory in Maywood, N.J. Stepan buys about 100 metric tons of dried Peruvian coca leaves each year, said Marco Castillo, spokesman for Peru's state-owned National Coca Co."</ref><ref name="cocayes"/>

[[Coca tea]] is produced industrially from coca leaves in South America by a number of companies, including Enaco S.A. (National Company of the Coca), a government enterprise in Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.enaco.com.pe/|title=ENACO - Empresa Nacional de la Coca S.A.|website=www.enaco.com.pe|access-date=May 21, 2020}}</ref><ref>[http://www.narconews.com/Issue35/article1159.html Peruvian Drug Control Agency: Coca Cola Buys Coca Leaves], ''The Narco News Bulletin'', January 28, 2005</ref> Coca leaves are also found in a brand of herbal [[liqueur]] called "Agwa de Bolivia" (grown in Bolivia and de-cocainized in Amsterdam),<ref>[http://www.agwabuzz.com/us/about01.html Agwabuzz.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215200241/http://agwabuzz.com/us/about01.html |date=2009-02-15 }} Agwa de Bolivia herbal liqueur official site</ref> and a natural flavouring ingredient in [[Red Bull Cola]], that was launched in March 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redbullusa.com/en/ArticlePage.1211909336018-1300670935/htmlArticlePage.action#page=Cola|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603083804/http://www.redbullusa.com/en/ArticlePage.1211909336018-1300670935/htmlArticlePage.action#page=Cola|title=The Cola from Red Bull|archive-date=June 3, 2013|access-date=May 21, 2020}}</ref>

=== New markets ===
Coca has figured more prominently in the politics of Bolivia and Peru in the early 21st century.<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 2013"Cocaine Capitalisms & Social Trauma in Peruvian Amazonia", Panoramas, University of Pittsburgh (July 17) [http://www.panoramas.pitt.edu/content/cocaine-capitalisms-social-trauma-peruvian-amazonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927183200/http://www.panoramas.pitt.edu/content/cocaine-capitalisms-social-trauma-peruvian-amazonia|date=2013-09-27}}</ref> President Morales asserted that "''la coca no es cocaína''"—the coca leaf is not cocaine. During his speech to the [[General Assembly of the United Nations]] on September 19, 2006, he held a coca leaf in his hand to demonstrate its innocuity.<ref>[http://webcast.un.org/ramgen/ga/61/ga060919pm.rm Statement of Evo Morales Aima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307074826/http://webcast.un.org/ramgen/ga/61/ga060919pm.rm |date=2008-03-07 }}, President of Bolivia at the 61st session of the United Nations General Assembly, September 19, 2006</ref>

[[Alan García]], former president of Peru, has recommended its use in salads and other edible preparations. A Peruvian-based company has announced plans to market a modern version of [[Vin Mariani]], which will be available in both natural and de-cocainized varieties.

In Venezuela, former president [[Hugo Chávez]] said in a speech in January 2008 that he chews coca every day, and that his "hook up" is Bolivian president Evo Morales. Chávez reportedly said "I chew coca every day in the morning... and look how I am" before showing his [[biceps]] to his audience, the [[Venezuelan National Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.upi.com/Chavez-admits-to-chewing-coca-leaves/63211200880207/|title=Chavez admits to chewing coca leaves|work=UPI|access-date=2018-10-06|language=en}}</ref>

On the other hand, the Colombian government has recently moved in the opposite direction. For years, [[Bogotá]] has allowed indigenous coca farmers to sell coca products, promoting the enterprise as one of the few successful commercial opportunities available to recognized tribes like the [[Paez people|Nasa]], who have grown it for years and regard it as sacred.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7280906.stm Bolivia and Peru Defend Coca Use] March 6, 2008. "The United Nations lacks respect for the indigenous people of Peru and Bolivia who have used the coca leaf since forever," said Peruvian Congresswoman Maria Sumire. "For indigenous people, coca is a sacred leaf that is part of their cultural identity," she said.</ref> In December 2005, the Paeces – a Tierradentro ([[Choco language|Cauca]]) indigenous community – started to produce a carbonated soft drink called "[[Coca Sek]]". The production method belongs to the resguardos of Calderas (Inzá) and takes about {{convert|150|kg|0|abbr=on}} of coca per 3,000 produced bottles. The drink was never sold widely in Colombia and efforts to do so ended in May 2007 when it was abruptly banned by the Colombian government.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}}

[[Coca Colla]] is an [[energy drink]] which is produced in Bolivia with the use of coca extract as its base. It was launched on the Bolivian markets in [[La Paz]], [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz]], and [[Cochabamba]] in mid-April 2010.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/bolivia/6962746/Evo-Morales-launches-Coca-Colla.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/bolivia/6962746/Evo-Morales-launches-Coca-Colla.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live
|title=Evo Morales launches 'Coca Colla'
|date=10 January 2010|newspaper=Telegraph|access-date=22 January 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="AFP">{{cite web
|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jFUaMjoArM16Nqy4rY--1-Z2lPpg
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115055623/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jFUaMjoArM16Nqy4rY--1-Z2lPpg
|archive-date=January 15, 2010
|title=Bolivia banks on 'Coca Colla,' fizzy coca-leaf drink|date=10 January 2010|publisher=AFP|access-date=22 January 2010}}</ref>

== Literary references ==

Probably the earliest reference to coca in English literature is in "Pomona", the fifth book of [[Abraham Cowley]]'s posthumously published Latin work, ''Plantarum libri sex'' (1668; translated as ''Six Books of Plants'' in 1689).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/peruhistoryofcoc00mortrich/peruhistoryofcoc00mortrich_djvu.txt ''Peru. History of coca, "the divine plant" of the Incas; with an introductory account of the Incas, and of the Andean Indians of to-day'']. W. Golden Mortimer, M.D. Ed. J. H. Vail & Co, 1901. [[Abraham Cowley]]'s poem "A Legend of Coca" : in chapter I ''An introduction to the history of coca'', pp. 25–27.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Third Part of the Works of Mr. Abraham Cowley Being his Six Books of Plants|url=https://cowley.lib.virginia.edu/CowPlan/CowPlan.part_5.div1.html|access-date=2022-01-21|website=cowley.lib.virginia.edu}}</ref> In the series of [[Aubrey–Maturin series|Aubrey–Maturin]] novels by [[Patrick O'Brian]], set during the Napoleonic wars, Dr. Stephen Maturin, a naval physician, naturalist, and British intelligence agent discovers the use of coca leaves on a mission to Peru, and makes regular use of them in several of the later novels in the series.

== International prohibition of coca leaf ==
Coca leaf is the raw material for the manufacture of the [[psychoactive drug|drug]] cocaine, a powerful stimulant and [[anaesthetic]] extracted chemically from large quantities of coca leaves. Today, since it has mostly been replaced as a medical anaesthetic by synthetic analogues such as [[procaine]], cocaine is best known as an illegal [[recreational drug]]. The cultivation, sale, and possession of unprocessed coca leaf (but not of any processed form of cocaine) is generally legal in the countries – such as Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and [[Argentine Northwest]] – where traditional use is established, although cultivation is often restricted in an attempt to control the production of cocaine. 

The prohibition of the use of the coca leaf except for medical or scientific purposes was established by the United Nations in the 1961 [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]]. The coca leaf is listed on [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs#Schedules of drugs|Schedule I]] of the 1961 Single Convention together with cocaine and heroin. The Convention determined that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated" (Article 26), and that, "Coca leaf chewing must be abolished within twenty-five years from the coming into force of this Convention" (Article 49, 2.e).<ref name=single>{{cite web|url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/conv/convention_1961_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509063404/http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/conv/convention_1961_en.pdf|title=Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs|archive-date=May 9, 2008|access-date=May 21, 2020}}</ref>

The historic rationale for international prohibition of coca leaf in the 1961 Single Convention comes from "The Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf study" published in 1950. It was requested of the United Nations by the permanent representative of Peru, and was prepared by a commission that visited Bolivia and Peru briefly in 1949 to "investigate the effects of chewing the coca leaf and the possibilities of limiting its production and controlling its distribution." It concluded that the effects of chewing coca leaves were negative, even though chewing coca was defined as a habit, not an addiction.<ref name=com>[https://www.tni.org/en/issues/unscheduling-the-coca-leaf/item/995-report-of-the-commission-of-enquiry-on-the-coca-leaf Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf], UNGASS 10-year review website, Transnational Institute</ref><ref name=bul>[http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1949-01-01_1_page006.html The Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf], Bulletin on Narcotics{{snd}}1949 Issue 1</ref>

The report was sharply criticised for its arbitrariness, lack of precision, and racist connotations.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The team members' professional qualifications and parallel interests were also criticised, as were the methodology used and the incomplete selection and use of existing scientific literature on the coca leaf. Questions have been raised as to whether a similar study today would pass the scrutiny and critical review to which scientific studies are routinely subjected.<ref name=cocayes>[https://www.tni.org/en/issues/unscheduling-the-coca-leaf/item/689-coca-yes-cocaine-no Coca Yes, Cocaine No? Legal Options for the Coca Leaf], Transnational Institute, Drugs & Conflict Debate Paper 13, May 2006</ref>

Despite the legal restriction among countries party to the international treaty, coca chewing and drinking of coca tea is carried out daily by millions of people in the Andes as well as considered sacred within indigenous cultures. Coca consumers claim that most of the information provided about the traditional use of the coca leaf and its modern adaptations is erroneous.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> This has made it impossible to shed light on the plant's positive aspects and its potential benefits for the physical, mental, and social health of the people who consume and cultivate it.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name=cocayes/>

In an attempt to obtain international acceptance for the legal recognition of traditional use of coca in their respective countries, Peru and Bolivia successfully led an amendment, paragraph 2 of Article 14 into the 1988 [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]], stipulating that measures to eradicate illicit cultivation and to eliminate illicit demand "should take due account of traditional licit use, where there is historic evidence of such use."<ref name=ambi>[https://www.tni.org/en/issues/unscheduling-the-coca-leaf/item/1005-the-resolution-of-ambiguities-regarding-coca The resolution of ambiguities regarding coca], Transnational Institute, March 2008</ref> Bolivia also made a formal reservation to the 1988 Convention, which required countries to adopt measures to establish the use, consumption, possession, purchase or cultivation of the coca leaf for personal consumption as a criminal offence. Bolivia stated that "the coca leaf is not, in and of itself, a narcotic drug or psychotropic substance" and stressed that its "legal system recognizes the ancestral nature of the licit use of the coca leaf, which, for much of Bolivia's population, dates back over centuries."<ref name="UNconvention1988">{{cite book |title=United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances |date=December 1988 |publisher=United Nations |location=Vienna |url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=treaty&mtdsg_no=vi-19&chapter=6 |access-date=18 September 2025 |chapter=Chapter VI |quote=The Republic of Bolivia places on record its express reservation to article 3, paragraph 2, and declares the inapplicability to Bolivia of those provisions of that paragraph which could be interpreted as establishing as a criminal offence the use, consumption, possession, purchase or cultivation of the coca leaf for personal consumption}}</ref><ref>[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterVI/treaty25.asp Status of treaty adherence], United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances</ref>

However, the [[International Narcotics Control Board]] (INCB) – the independent and [[quasi-judicial]] control organ for the implementation of the United Nations drug conventions – denied the validity of article 14 in the 1988 Convention over the requirements of the 1961 Convention, or any reservation made by parties, since it does not "absolve a party of its rights and obligations under the other international drug control treaties."<ref>[http://www.incb.org/pdf/annual-report/2007/en/annual-report-2007.pdf Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910190052/http://www.incb.org/pdf/annual-report/2007/en/annual-report-2007.pdf |date=2008-09-10 }}, paragraph 220</ref>

The INCB stated in its 1994 Annual Report that "mate de coca, which is considered harmless and legal in several countries in South America, is an illegal activity under the provisions of both the 1961 Convention and the 1988 Convention, though that was not the intention of the plenipotentiary conferences that adopted those conventions."<ref>[http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/ar/incb_report_1994_supplement_en_3.pdf Evaluation of the effectiveness of the international drug control treaties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514110720/http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/ar/incb_report_1994_supplement_en_3.pdf |date=2008-05-14 }}, Supplement to the INCB Annual Report for 1994 (Part 3)</ref> It implicitly also dismissed the original report of the Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf by recognizing that "there is a need to undertake a scientific review to assess the coca-chewing habit and the drinking of coca tea."<ref>[http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/ar/incb_report_1994_supplement_en_1.pdf Evaluation of the effectiveness of the international drug control treaties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514110830/http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/ar/incb_report_1994_supplement_en_1.pdf |date=2008-05-14 }}, Supplement to the INCB Annual Report for 1994 (Part 1)</ref>

Nevertheless, the INCB on other occasions did not show signs of an increased sensitivity towards the Bolivian claim on the rights of their indigenous population, and the general public, to consume the coca leaf in a traditional manner by chewing the leaf, and drinking coca tea, as "not in line with the provisions of the 1961 Convention."<ref>[http://www.incb.org/pdf/annual-report/2007/en/annual-report-2007.pdf Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910190052/http://www.incb.org/pdf/annual-report/2007/en/annual-report-2007.pdf |date=2008-09-10 }}, paragraph 217</ref><ref name=idpc>[http://www.idpc.info/php-bin/documents/IDPC_Response2INCB_AnnRpt07_EN.pdf Response to the 2007 Annual Report of the International Narcotics Control Board] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724041320/http://idpc.info/php-bin/documents/IDPC_Response2INCB_AnnRpt07_EN.pdf |date=2008-07-24 }}, International Drug Policy Consortium (IDPC), March 2008</ref> The Board considered Bolivia, Peru and a few other countries that allow such practises to be in breach with their treaty obligations, and insisted that "each party to the Convention should establish as a criminal offence, when committed intentionally, the possession and purchase of coca leaf for personal consumption."<ref>[http://www.incb.org/pdf/annual-report/2007/en/annual-report-2007.pdf Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910190052/http://www.incb.org/pdf/annual-report/2007/en/annual-report-2007.pdf |date=2008-09-10 }}, paragraph 219</ref>

In reaction to the 2007 Annual Report of the INCB, the Bolivian government announced that it would formally issue a request to the United Nations to unschedule the coca leaf of List 1 of the 1961 UN Single Convention.<ref>[http://www.undrugcontrol.info/en/issues/unscheduling-the-coca-leaf/item/2623-letter-evo-morales-to-un-secretary-general-ban-ki-moon Letter Evo Morales to UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon], March 8, 2008</ref> Bolivia led a diplomatic effort to do so beginning in March 2009, but eighteen countries out of a total of 184, those 18 being, listed chronologically: the United States, Sweden, United Kingdom, Latvia, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Mexico, Russian Federation, Malaysia, Singapore, and Ukraine, objected to the change before the January 2011 deadline. A single objection would have been sufficient to block the modification. The legally unnecessary step of supporting the change was taken formally by Spain, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Costa Rica.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Objections and support for Bolivia's coca amendment
|work=Transnational Institute
|date=March 2011
|url=https://www.tni.org/en/issues/unscheduling-the-coca-leaf/item/1184-objections-and-support-for-bolivias-coca-amendment
}}</ref> In June 2011, Bolivia moved to denounce the 1961 Convention over the prohibition of the coca leaf.<ref>{{cite news | title = Aprueban denuncia contra la Convención de Viena | work = Los Tiempos | access-date = 2011-06-23 | date = 2011-06-23 | url = http://www.lostiempos.com/diario/actualidad/nacional/20110623/aprueban-denuncia-contra-la-convencion-de-viena_130978_265038.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120120053143/http://www.lostiempos.com/diario/actualidad/nacional/20110623/aprueban-denuncia-contra-la-convencion-de-viena_130978_265038.html | archive-date = 2012-01-20 }}</ref>

At Bolivia's initiative, organized by Colombia and Bolivia with the support of Canada, Czechia, Malta, Mexico, Switzerland and OHCHR, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), is conducting a 'critical review' of the coca leaf. In 2025, based on its findings, the WHO may recommend changes in coca's classification under the UN drug control treaties.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Walsh |first1=John |last2=Jelsma |first2=Martin |title=Coca Chronicles: Bolivia Challenges UN Coca Leaf Ban |url=https://www.wola.org/analysis/coca-chronicles-bolivia-challenges-coca-leaf-ban/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=WOLA |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Jelsma |first1=Martin |last2=Walsh |first2=John |title=Coca Chronicles Issue #2: Coca Leaf Progress at the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs |url=https://www.wola.org/analysis/coca-chronicles-un-commission-narcotic-drugs/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=WOLA |language=en-US}}</ref>

Since the 1980s, the countries in which coca is grown have come under political and economic pressure from the United States to restrict the cultivation of the crop in order to reduce the supply of cocaine on the international market.<ref name="ReferenceB" />

[[Wikisource:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs#Article 26: THE COCA BUSH AND COCA LEAVES|Article 26]] of the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] requires nations that allow the cultivation of coca to designate an agency to regulate said cultivation and take physical possession of the crops as soon as possible after harvest, and to destroy all coca which grows wild or is illegally cultivated. The effort to enforce these provisions, referred to as [[coca eradication]], has involved many strategies, ranging from aerial spraying of [[herbicide]]s on coca crops to assistance and incentives to encourage farmers to grow alternative crops.<ref name="Coca Myths 2009">[https://www.tni.org/en/archives/know/305 Transnational Institute – Coca Myths, 2009].</ref>

This effort has been politically controversial,<ref name="economist.com">[https://www.economist.com/leaders/2009/03/05/how-to-stop-the-drug-wars Failed States and failed policies: how to stop the drug wars]. ''The Economist'', May 2009</ref> with proponents claiming{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} that the production of cocaine is several times the amount needed to satisfy legal demand and inferring that the vast majority of the coca crop is destined for the illegal market. As per the proclaimed view, this not only contributes to the major social problem of drug abuse but also financially supports insurgent groups that collaborate with drug traffickers in some cocaine-producing territories. Critics of the effort claim<ref name="ReferenceB"/> that it creates hardship primarily for the coca growers, many of whom are poor and have no viable alternative way to make a living, causes environmental problems, that it is not effective in reducing the supply of cocaine, in part because cultivation can move to other areas, and that any social harm created by drug abuse is only made worse by the [[war on drugs]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The environmental problems include "[[ecocide]]", where vast tracts of land and forest are sprayed with glyphosate or Roundup, with the intention of eradicating the coca plant.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> However, the incidental environmental damage is severe, because many plant species are wiped out in the process.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

Coca has been reintroduced to the United States as a flavoring agent in the herbal liqueur [[Agwa de Bolivia (liqueur)|Agwa de Bolivia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themanual.com/food-and-drink/agwa-de-bolivia-coca-spirit/ |title=Swill: We Drank a Bottle of Coca Leaf Liqueur, For Science |date=3 July 2015 |access-date=July 23, 2020 }}</ref>

Boliviana negra, a genetically engineered type of coca, resists glyphosate herbicides and increases yields.

== Legal status ==
{{See also|Coca in Bolivia|Legal status of cocaine}}
The primary organization authorized to purchase coca leaves is [https://web.archive.org/web/20081216025943/http://www.enaco.com.pe/ ENACO S.A.], headquartered in Peru.<ref>{{cite journal |title=COCA, DRUGS AND SOCIAL PROTEST IN BOLIVIA AND PERU |journal=International Crisis Group |date=18 January 2005 |volume=12 |page=39}}</ref> Outside of South America, most countries' laws make no distinction between the coca leaf and any other substance containing cocaine, so the possession of coca leaf is prohibited. In South America coca leaf is illegal in both Paraguay and Brazil.

===Netherlands===
In the Netherlands, coca leaf is legally in the same category as cocaine, as both are List I drugs of the [[Opium Law]]. The Opium Law specifically mentions the leaves of the plants of the genus ''Erythroxylon''. However, the possession of living plants of the genus ''Erythroxylon'' is not actively prosecuted, even though they are legally forbidden.

===United States===
Like cocaine, coca is controlled under the [[Controlled Substances Act]] (CSA) as a Schedule II drug meaning it is a restricted drug and is illegal to process without a prescription or a DEA registration.

In the United States, a [[Stepan Company]] plant in [[Maywood, New Jersey]] is a registered importer of coca leaf. The company manufactures pure cocaine for medical use and also produces a cocaine-free extract of the coca leaf, which is used as a flavoring ingredient in Coca-Cola. Other companies that have registrations with the DEA to import coca leaf according to 2011 Federal Register Notices for Importers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/imprt/reg/2011/ |title=Importers Notice of Registration{{snd}}2011 |publisher=deaDiversion.usdoj.gov |access-date=2012-11-09 |archive-date=2013-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615125804/http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/imprt/reg/2011/ }}</ref> include Johnson Matthey, Inc, Pharmaceutical Materials; Mallinckrodt Inc; Penick Corporation; and the Research Triangle Institute. Analysts have noted the substantial importation of coca leaf into the United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Owl59XeknxU| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140601164001/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Owl59XeknxU| archive-date=2014-06-01 |title=YouTube|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref> but the actual quantity is unknown because much of it is illegally imported, and there are many reports of coca leaves and coca teas being sold in the United States and being seized by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] throughout the States and Territories of the United States.

===Canada===
Coca leaf is listed as a Schedule I drug (most dangerous) according to the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of Canada (S.C. 1996, c.&nbsp;19) alongside Opium (Heroin) and synthetic opioid analgesics. Specifically, it lists Coca (Erythroxylon), its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids, and salts, including:(1) Coca leaves (2) Cocaine and (3) Ecgonine. Possession of a Schedule I substance is illegal and trafficking can result in punishment of up to life imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-38.8/page-2.html#docCont|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act|first=Legislative Services|last=Branch|date=2019-06-21|website=laws-lois.justice.gc.ca}}</ref>

===Australia===
Coca leaf is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons|Poisons Standard]] (October 2015).<ref name="Poisons Standard">Poisons Standard October 2015 https://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2015L01534</ref> A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and/or State or Territory Health Authorities.<ref name="Poisons Standard"/>

===India===
Coca leaf is a controlled narcotic drug in India by the [[Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (India)|Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act]], 1985 which is the principal legislation governing the subject. While its scientific and medical purposes are permissible in accordance with law, any other indulgence including cultivation, possession, sale, consumption, transportation, import, export, are prohibited.

== See also ==
*[[Alcohol and Drugs History Society]]
*[[Illegal drug trade in Latin America]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Erythroxylum coca}}
{{wikispecies|Erythroxylum coca}}
{{wikivoyage|Coca}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121222235733/http://www.sharedresponsibility.gov.co/ Shared Responsibility]
* [https://www.tni.org/en/primer/coca-leaf-myths-and-reality Coca leaf: Myths and Reality] Transnational Institute (TNI)
* [https://www.tni.org/en/collection/coca-leaf Unscheduling the coca leaf], Transnational Institute (TNI)
* [http://historyofalcoholanddrugs.typepad.com/alcohol_and_drugs_history/coca_leaf/index.html Coca leaf news page]
* https://web.archive.org/web/20170513140748/http://tairona.myzen.co.uk/index.php/culture/the_use_of_coca_in_south_america
* Turner C. E., Elsohly M. A., Hanuš L., Elsohly H. N. Isolation of dihydrocuscohygrine from Peruvian coca leaves. ''Phytochemistry'' 20 (6), 1403–1405 (1981)

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[[Category:Coca| ]]
[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Flora of the Andes]]
[[Category:Flora of western South America]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal stimulants]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of South America]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Peru]]
[[Category:Masticatories]]
[[Category:Crops originating from indigenous Americans]]