View source for Cockatoo

{{Short description|Any bird in the family Cacatuidae }}
{{Other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Cockapoo|Cockatiel|Kākāpō}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Cacatua galerita Tas 2.jpg
| image_caption = [[Sulphur-crested cockatoo]]
| image_alt = Cockatoo perching on a branch: Its plumage on the top of its head above its eyes is white and it has a horn-coloured beak. The rest of its head, its neck, and most of its front are pink. Its wings and tail are grey.
| taxon = Cacatuidae
| authority = [[George Robert Gray|G. R. Gray]] 1840
| type_genus = ''[[Cacatua]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Vieillot]] 1817<ref name="ICZN">{{Cite journal|author=ICZN|year=2000|title=Opinion 1949. ''Cacatua'' Vieillot, 1817 and Cacatuinae Gray, 1840 (Aves, Psittaciformes): conserved|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/45022#80|journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature|volume=57|pages=66–67|access-date=21 February 2018|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825024003/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/45022#80|url-status=live}}</ref>
| synonyms = *Plyctolophinae <small>[[Nicholas Aylward Vigors|Vigors]] 1825<ref>Suppressed by the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] in Opinion 1949 (2000). {{Cite journal|author=ICZN|year=2000|title=Opinion 1949. ''Cacatua'' Vieillot, 1817 and Cacatuinae Gray, 1840 (Aves, Psittaciformes): conserved|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/45022#80|journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature|volume=57|pages=66–67|access-date=21 February 2018|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825024003/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/45022#80|url-status=live}}</ref></small>
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = {{ubl
|''[[Cacatua]]''
|''[[Callocephalon]]''
|''[[Calyptorhynchus]]''
|''[[Eolophus]]''
|''[[Lophochroa]]''
|''[[Nymphicus]]''
|''[[Probosciger]]''
|''[[Zanda (bird)|Zanda]]''
}}
| range_map = Cockatoo distribution.png
| range_map_alt = Map showing southeastern Asia, Australia, Melanesia, and New Zealand. Islands in the Philippines and the Sunda Islands are colored red, east to the Solomon Islands, as is Australia with Tasmania. New Caledonia is colored blue.
| range_map_caption = Current range of cockatoos&nbsp;– red<br />Finds of recent fossils&nbsp;– blue
}}

A '''cockatoo''' is any of the 21 [[species]] of [[parrot]]s belonging to the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Cacatuidae''', the only family in the [[Superfamily (biology)|superfamily]] '''Cacatuoidea'''. Along with the Psittacoidea ([[true parrot]]s) and the Strigopoidea (large [[New Zealand parrot]]s), they make up the [[order (biology)|order]] Psittaciformes. The family has a mainly [[Australasia]]n distribution, ranging from the [[Philippines]] and the eastern [[Indonesia]]n islands of [[Wallacea]] to [[New Guinea]], the [[Solomon Islands]] and [[Australia]]. <!--The name ''cockatoo'' originated from the [[Indonesia]] language|Bahasa Indonesia]] name for these birds, ''kaka(k)tua'' (either from ''[[kaka (bird)|kaka]]'' "parrot" + ''tuwah'' or "older sibling" from ''kakak'' "older sibling" + ''tua'' "old").-->

Cockatoos are recognisable by their prominent [[Crest (feathers)|crests]] and curved [[beak|bills]]. Their [[plumage]] is generally less [[colourful]] than that of other parrots, being mainly white, grey, or black and often with coloured features in the crest, cheeks, or tail. On average, they are larger than other parrots; however, the [[cockatiel]], the smallest cockatoo species, is medium-sized.<ref>
[https://cockatielworld.co.uk/cockatiel-size/#:~:text=Cockatiels%20usually%20measure%20between%2012,they%20are%20beloved%20pets%20worldwide.|General Overview of Cockatiel Size, cockatielworld.co.uk]</ref> The phylogenetic position of the cockatiel remains unresolved, except that it is one of the earliest offshoots of the cockatoo lineage. The remaining species are in two main clades. The five large black-coloured cockatoos of the genus ''[[Calyptorhynchus]]'' form one branch. The second and larger branch is formed by the genus ''[[Cacatua]]'', comprising 12 species of white-plumaged cockatoos and three monotypic genera that branched off earlier, namely the pink and grey [[galah]], the mainly grey [[gang-gang cockatoo]] and the large black-plumaged [[palm cockatoo]].

Cockatoos prefer to eat seeds, [[tuber]]s, [[corm]]s, fruit, flowers, and insects. They often feed in large flocks, particularly when ground-feeding. Cockatoos are [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]] and nest in [[tree hollow]]s. Some cockatoo species have been adversely affected by [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]], particularly from a shortage of suitable nesting hollows after large, mature trees are cleared; conversely, some species have adapted well to human changes and are considered agricultural [[pest (organism)|pest]]s.

Cockatoos are popular birds in [[aviculture]], but their needs are difficult to meet. The cockatiel is the easiest cockatoo species to maintain and is by far the most frequently kept in captivity. White cockatoos are more commonly found in captivity than black cockatoos. Illegal trade in wild-caught birds contributes to the decline of some cockatoo species in the wild.

==Etymology==
{{Wiktionary}}
The word cockatoo dates from the 17th century and is derived from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''kaketoe'', which in turn is from  the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]/[[Malay language|Malay]] ''kakatua''. Seventeenth-century variants include cacato, cockatoon and crockadore, and cokato, cocatore and {{not a typo|cocatoo}} were used in the 18th century.<ref name="OED">{{cite encyclopedia|title=cockatoo|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor1=J. Simpson |editor2=E. Weiner |year=1989|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn = 978-0-19-861186-8}}</ref><ref name="Mynott">{{Cite book|last=Mynott|first=Jeremy |title=Birdscapes: Birds in Our Imagination and Experience|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|year=2009 |page=319|isbn=978-0-691-13539-7}}</ref> The derivation has also been used for the family and [[genus|generic]] names Cacatuidae and ''Cacatua'', respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to Dollarbird |editor= Higgins, Peter Jeffrey |year= 1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= Melbourne |isbn= 978-0-19-553071-1|page=127|title-link= Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds }}</ref>

In [[Australian English vocabulary|Australian slang]] or vernacular speech, a person who is assigned to keep watch while others undertake clandestine or illegal activities, particularly gambling, may be referred to as a "cockatoo".<ref name = "HBW"/> Proprietors of small agricultural undertakings are often jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as "cocky farmers".<ref name="NewsRadio">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1434326.htm|author=Richards, Kel|author-link=Kel Richards|title=ABC NewsRadio: wordwatch, Cockatoo|website=ABC website|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=20 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516005432/http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1434326.htm|archive-date=16 May 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
<div class="noprint">
{{cladogram
|width=350
|cladogram={{clade|style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
   |label1=[[Psittaciformes]]
   |1={{clade 
      |1={{clade 
         |1=[[Strigopidae]] – New Zealand parrots
         }}
      |2={{clade 
         |1='''Cacatuidae''' – cockatoos
         |2={{clade
            |1=[[Psittacidae]] – African and New World parrots
            |2=[[Psittaculidae]] – Old World parrots
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
|cladogram2={{clade|style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|1={{clade
   |label1='''Cacatuidae'''
   |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
         |1=''[[Calyptorhynchus]]'' – black cockatoos (2 species)
         |2=''[[Zanda (bird)|Zanda]]'' –  black cockatoos (3 species)
         }}
   |2={{clade
      |1=''[[Nymphicus]]'' – cockatiel
      |2={{clade
         |1=''[[Probosciger]]'' – palm cockatoo
         |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Callocephalon]]'' – gang-gang cockatoo
            |2={{clade
               |1=''[[Eolophus]]'' – galah
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Lophochroa]]'' – pink cockatoo
                  |2=''[[Cacatua]]'' – white cockatoos and corellas (13 species)
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}
}}
|caption=Genus level [[cladogram]] of the cockatoos based on a 2023 molecular phylogenetic study by Brian Smith and collaborators.<ref name=smith>{{Cite journal | last1=Smith | first1=B.T. | last2=Merwin | first2=J. | last3=Provost | first3=K.L. | last4=Thom | first4=G. | last5=Brumfield | first5=R.T. | last6=Ferreira | first6=M. | last7=Mauck | first7=W.M.I. | last8=Moyle | first8=R.G. | last9=Wright | first9=T.F. | last10=Joseph | first10=L. | date=2023 | title=Phylogenomic analysis of the parrots of the world distinguishes artifactual from biological sources of gene tree discordance | journal=Systematic Biology | volume=72 | issue=1 | pages=228–241 | doi=10.1093/sysbio/syac055 | pmid=35916751 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The number of species in each genus is from the list maintained by [[Frank Gill (ornithologist)|Frank Gill]], [[Pamela Rasmussen]] and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC), now the [[International Ornithologists' Union]].<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=January 2023 | title=Parrots, cockatoos | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/parrots/| publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=20 June 2023}}</ref>
}}
</div>
The cockatoos were first defined as a subfamily [[Cacatuinae]] within the parrot family [[Psittacidae]] by English naturalist [[George Robert Gray]] in 1840, with ''Cacatua'' the first listed and type genus.<ref name="Gray1840">{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=George Robert|title=A List of the Genera of Birds, with an indication of the typical species of each genus|publisher=R. & J.E. Taylor|location=London|year=1840|page=53|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13668970|access-date=2 November 2009|archive-date=1 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401184024/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13668970|url-status=live}}</ref> This group has alternately been considered as either a full or subfamily by different authorities. American ornithologist [[James L. Peters|James Lee Peters]] in his 1937 ''Check-list of Birds of the World'' and [[Charles Sibley|Sibley]] and [[Burt Monroe|Monroe]] in 1990 maintained it as a subfamily, while parrot expert [[Joseph Forshaw]] classified it as a family in 1973.<ref>{{harvnb|Christidis|Boles|2008|p=148}}</ref> Subsequent molecular studies indicate that the earliest offshoot from the original parrot ancestors were the [[New Zealand parrot]]s of the family Strigopidae, and following this the cockatoos, now a well-defined group or [[clade]], split off from the remaining parrots, which then radiated across the Southern Hemisphere and diversified into the many species of parrots, [[conure|parakeet]]s, [[macaw]]s, [[lories and lorikeets|lories, lorikeets]], [[lovebird]]s and other [[true parrot]]s of the superfamily [[Psittacoidea]].<ref name="White">{{cite journal|title=The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae)|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2011|volume=59|pages=615–622|author1=Nicole E. White|author2=Matthew J. Phillips|author3=M. Thomas P. Gilbert|author4=Alonzo Alfaro-Núñez|author5=Eske Willerslev|author6=Peter R. Mawson|author7=Peter B.S. Spencer|author8=Michael Bunce|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.011|issue=3|pmid=21419232|bibcode=2011MolPE..59..615W |url=http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4397/1/history_of_cockatoos.pdf|access-date=20 April 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731223649/https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4397/1/history_of_cockatoos.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Wright TF, Schirtzinger EE, Matsumoto T |title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=2141–56 |year=2008 |pmid=18653733 |pmc=2727385 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msn160|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="deKloet">{{Cite journal|last=de Kloet|first=RS|author2=de Kloet SR|year=2005|title=The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=36|pages=706–21|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013|pmid=16099384|issue=3|bibcode=2005MolPE..36..706D }}</ref><ref name="Tokita">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Tokita M, Kiyoshi T, Armstrong KN |title=Evolution of craniofacial novelty in parrots through developmental modularity and heterochrony |journal=Evolution & Development |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=590–601 |year=2007 |pmid=17976055 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-142X.2007.00199.x|s2cid=46659963 }}</ref><ref name="astuti2006">{{Cite journal|doi=10.2108/zsj.23.191 |title=Phylogenetic Relationships Within Parrots (Psittacidae) Inferred from Mitochondrial Cytochrome-bGene Sequences |year=2006 |last1=Astuti |first1=Dwi |last2=Azuma |first2=Noriko |last3=Suzuki |first3=Hitoshi |last4=Higashi |first4=Seigo |journal=Zoological Science |volume=23 |pmid=16603811|issue=2|pages=191–8|hdl=2115/54809 |s2cid=35879495 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Christidis1991">{{Cite journal|author=Christidis L|author2=Schodde R|author3=Shaw DD|author4=Maynes SF|year=1991|title=Relationships among the Australo-Papuan parrots, lorikeets, and cockatoos (Aves, Psittaciformes)&nbsp;– protein evidence|journal=Condor|volume=93|pages=302–17|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v093n02/p0302-p0317.pdf|doi=10.2307/1368946|issue=2|jstor=1368946|author2-link=Richard Schodde|access-date=3 March 2013|archive-date=31 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001815/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v093n02/p0302-p0317.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Schweizer">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Schweizer M, Seehausen O, Güntert M, Hertwig ST |title=The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=984–994 |year=2010 |pmid=19699808 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021|s2cid=1831016 }}</ref><ref name="Schweizer2011">{{cite journal|title=Macroevolutionary patterns in the diversification of parrots: effects of climate change, geological events and key innovations|year=2011|author1=Manuel Schweizer|author2=Ole Seehausen|author3=Stefan T. Hertwig|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=38|pages=2176–2194|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02555.x|issue=11|bibcode=2011JBiog..38.2176S |s2cid=85625053 |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A8824|access-date=13 July 2019|archive-date=17 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817224720/https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A8824|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Joseph">{{cite journal|title=Molecular systematics of two enigmatic genera ''Psittacella'' and ''Pezoporus'' illuminate the ecological radiation of Australo-Papuan parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes)|author1=Leo Joseph |author2=Alicia Toon |author3=Erin E. Schirtzinger |author4=Timothy F. Wright |year=2011|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=59|pages=675–684|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.017|issue=3|pmid=21453777|bibcode=2011MolPE..59..675J }}</ref>

The relationships among various cockatoo genera are largely resolved,<ref name=White/><ref name="Wright"/><ref name="Tokita"/><ref name=BrownToft>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Brown DM, Toft CA |year=1999 |title=Molecular systematics and biogeography of the cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae) |journal=[[Auk (journal)|Auk]] |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=141–57 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/26031 |doi=10.2307/4089461 |jstor=4089461 |access-date=3 March 2013 |archive-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527205233/https://sora.unm.edu/node/26031 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=astuti2004>{{Cite thesis|last=Astuti|first=D|year=2004|title=A phylogeny of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) inferred from DNA sequences of the seventh intron of nuclear ''β''-fibrinogen gene|type=PhD|publisher=Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Japan|url=http://www.ees.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/J/study/17RA/dwi.pdf|access-date=7 April 2009|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001042120/https://www.ees.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/J/study/17RA/dwi.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=adams1984>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Adams M, Baverstock PR, Saunders DA, Schodde R, Smith GT|year=1984|title=Biochemical systematics of the Australian cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuinae)|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology |volume=32|issue=3|pages=363–77|doi=10.1071/ZO9840363}}</ref> although the placement of the [[cockatiel]] (''Nymphicus hollandicus'') at the base of the cockatoos remains uncertain. The cockatiel is alternatively placed basal to all other cockatoo species,<ref name=White/><ref name=astuti2004/> as the sister taxon to the black cockatoo species of the genus ''Calyptorhynchus''<ref name="Tokita"/><ref name="BrownToft"/><ref name=adams1984/> or as the sister taxon to a clade consisting of the white and pink cockatoo genera as well as the [[palm cockatoo]].<ref name="Wright"/> The remaining species are within two main clades, one consisting of the black species of the genus ''Calyptorhynchus'' while the other contains the remaining species.<ref name=White/><ref name="Wright"/><ref name="Tokita"/><ref name=astuti2004/><ref name=adams1984/> According to most authorities, the second clade includes the black palm cockatoo (''Probosciger''), the grey and reddish [[galah]] (''Eolophus''), and the [[gang-gang cockatoo]] (''Callocephalon''),<ref name=White/><ref name="Wright"/><ref name="Tokita"/><ref name=astuti2004/> although ''Probosciger'' is sometimes placed basal to all other species.<ref name="BrownToft"/> The remaining species are mainly white or slightly pinkish and all belong to the genus ''Cacatua''.<ref name=White/><ref name="Wright"/><ref name="deKloet"/><ref name="Tokita"/><ref name=astuti2004/> The genera ''Eolophus'' and ''Cacatua'' are [[Leucism|hypomelanistic]]. The genus ''Cacatua'' is further subdivided into the [[subgenus|subgenera]] ''Licmetis'', commonly known as [[Corella (bird)|corellas]], and ''Cacatua'', referred to as white cockatoos.<ref name=White/><ref name=BrownToft/><ref name=astuti2004/><ref name=adams1984/><ref name=CB151>{{harvnb|Christidis|Boles|2008|p=151}}</ref> Confusingly, the term "white cockatoo" has also been applied to the whole genus.<ref name=Forshaw124>{{harvnb|Forshaw|Cooper|1978|p=124}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cayley|Lendon|1973|p=84}}</ref> The five cockatoo species of the genus ''Calyptorhynchus'' are commonly known as black cockatoos,<ref name=CB151/> and are divided into two subgenera—''Calyptorhynchus'' and ''Zanda''. The former group are [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dichromatic]], with the females having prominently barred plumage.<ref name=CB150>{{harvnb|Christidis|Boles|2008|p=150}}</ref> The two are also distinguished by differences in the [[Begging in animals|food-begging calls]] of juveniles.<ref name="Court96">{{Cite journal|last=Courtney |first=J |year=1996 |title=The juvenile food-begging calls, food-swallowing vocalisation and begging postures in Australian Cockatoos |journal=Australian Bird Watcher |volume=16 |pages=236–49 |issn=0045-0316}}</ref>

The [[fossil]] record of cockatoos is even more limited than that of parrots in general, with only one truly ancient cockatoo fossil known: a species of ''Cacatua'', most probably subgenus ''Licmetis'', found in Early [[Miocene]] (16–23 million [[year]]s ago) deposits of [[Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh)|Riversleigh]], Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boles|first= Walter E|year=1993|title=A new cockatoo (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae) from the Tertiary of Riversleigh, northwestern Queensland, and an evaluation of rostral characters in the systematics of parrots|journal=[[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]]|volume=135|issue=1|pages=8–18|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1993.tb02804.x}}</ref> Although fragmentary, the remains are similar to the [[western corella]] and the galah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waterhouse|first=DM|year=2006|title=Parrots in a nutshell: The fossil record of Psittaciformes (Aves)|journal=Historical Biology|volume=18|issue=2|pages=223–34|doi=10.1080/08912960600641224 |bibcode=2006HBio...18..227W |s2cid=83664072}}</ref> In [[Melanesia]], [[subfossil]] bones of ''Cacatua'' species which apparently did not survive early human settlement have been found on [[New Caledonia]] and [[New Ireland (island)|New Ireland]].<ref name=Steadman06/><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prehistoric birds from New Ireland, Papua New Guinea: Extinctions on a large Melanesian island|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|year=1999| last = Steadman | first = D |author2=White P|author3=Allen J|volume=96|issue=5|pages=2563–68|doi=10.1073/pnas.96.5.2563 |pmid=10051683|pmc=26825|bibcode=1999PNAS...96.2563S|doi-access=free}}</ref> The bearing of these fossils on cockatoo evolution and phylogeny is fairly limited, although the Riversleigh fossil does allow tentative dating of the divergence of subfamilies.

===Genera and species<!-- Parrot links to this heading -->===

[[File:Probosciger aterrimus-20030511.jpg|right|thumb|The [[palm cockatoo]] has a strong bill and red cheeks. At {{convert|55|–|60|cm|abbr=on}} long and weighing {{convert|910|–|1200|g|lb|abbr=on}}, it is the largest cockatoo.<ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 1.">{{harvnb|Forshaw|2006|p= plate 1}}</ref>|alt=Closeup of head of black-plumaged cockatoo with bare red skin on its face. It has a large beak, which is open with its tongue visible.]]
[[File:Calyptorhynchus latirostris -Taronga Zoo (female)-8a.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carnaby's black cockatoo]] with a zoo keeper at [[Taronga Zoo Sydney]], Australia|alt=A mainly black cockatoo perched on a left hand on a sunny day. The cockatoo has a ring on its right leg. The Sydney Harbour Bridge is in the distance]]
[[File:Cacatua leadbeateri -flying -Australia Zoo-8-2cr.jpg|right|thumb|[[Pink cockatoo]] flying at [[Taronga Zoo Sydney]].|alt=A pink and white coloured cockatoo with a raised crest flying against a background of blue sky]]
There are about 44 different birds in the cockatoo family Cacatuidae including recognized subspecies. The current subdivision of this family is as follows:<small>{{refn|Parentheses around authority name indicate originally in a different genus.|group=Note}}</small>

Subfamily Nymphicinae
* Genus ''Nymphicus''
**[[Cockatiel]], ''Nymphicus hollandicus'' <small>([[Robert Kerr (writer)|Kerr]], 1792)</small>
Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: Black cockatoos
* Genus ''[[Calyptorhynchus]]''&nbsp;– black-and-red cockatoos
**[[Red-tailed black cockatoo]], ''Calyptorhynchus banksii'' <small>([[John Latham (ornithologist)|Latham]], 1790)</small> (5 subspecies)
**[[Glossy black cockatoo]], ''Calyptorhynchus lathami'' <small>([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1807)</small> (3 subspecies)
* Genus ''[[Zanda (bird)|Zanda]]''&nbsp;– black-and-yellow/white cockatoos
**[[Yellow-tailed black cockatoo]], ''Zanda funerea'' <small>([[George Shaw (biologist)|Shaw]], 1794)</small> (2–3 subspecies)
**[[Carnaby's black cockatoo]], ''Zanda latirostris'' <small>(Carnaby, 1948)</small>
**[[Baudin's black cockatoo]], ''Zanda baudinii'' <small>([[Edward Lear|Lear]], 1832)</small>

Subfamily [[Cacatuinae]]
*Tribe Microglossini: One genus with one species, the black [[palm cockatoo]].
** Genus ''[[Palm cockatoo|Probosciger]]''
***Palm cockatoo, ''Probosciger aterrimus''<small> ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)</small> (4 subspecies)
*Tribe [[Cacatuini]]: Four genera of white, pink and grey species.
** Genus ''[[Gang-gang cockatoo|Callocephalon]]''
***[[Gang-gang cockatoo]], ''Callocephalon fimbriatum'' <small>([[James Grant (navigator)|Grant]], 1803)</small>
** Genus ''[[Galah|Eolophus]]''
***[[Galah]], ''Eolophus roseicapilla'' <small>([[Louis Pierre Vieillot|Vieillot]], 1817)</small> (3 subspecies)
** Genus ''[[Cacatua]]'' (13 species)
*** Subgenus ''[[Cacatua (subgenus)|Cacatua]]''&nbsp;– true white cockatoos
****[[Yellow-crested cockatoo]] or lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo, ''Cacatua sulphurea'' <small>([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)</small> (5 subspecies)
****[[Citron-crested cockatoo]], ''Cacatua citrinocristata'' <small>([[Louis Fraser|Fraser]], 1844)</small>
****[[Sulphur-crested cockatoo]], ''Cacatua galerita'' <small>([[John Latham (ornithologist)|Latham]], 1790)</small> (4 subspecies)
****[[Blue-eyed cockatoo]], ''Cacatua ophthalmica'' <small>[[Philip Sclater|Sclater]], 1864</small>
****[[White cockatoo]] or umbrella cockatoo, ''Cacatua alba'' <small>([[Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller|Müller]], 1776)</small>
****[[Salmon-crested cockatoo]] or Moluccan cockatoo, ''Cacatua moluccensis'' <small>([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)</small>
*** Subgenus ''[[Licmetis]]''&nbsp;– corellas
****[[Long-billed corella]], ''Cacatua tenuirostris'' <small>([[Heinrich Kuhl|Kuhl]], 1820)</small>
****[[Western corella]], ''Cacatua pastinator'' <small>([[John Gould|Gould]], 1841)</small> (2 subspecies)
****[[Little corella]] (also bare-eyed cockatoo), ''Cacatua sanguinea'' <small>[[John Gould|Gould]], 1843</small> (4 subspecies)
****[[Tanimbar corella]] or Goffin's cockatoo, ''Cacatua goffiniana'' <small>Roselaar and Michels, 2004</small><ref name="Roselaar">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Roselaar CS, Michels JP|year=2004|title=Systematic notes on Asian birds. 48. Nomenclatural chaos untangled, resulting in the naming of the formally undescribed ''Cacatua'' species from the Tanimbar Islands, Indonesia (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae)|journal=Zoologische Verhandelingen|volume=350|pages=183–96|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43942|access-date=5 December 2009|archive-date=18 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818123322/http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43942|url-status=live}}</ref>
****[[Solomons cockatoo]] or Ducorps's cockatoo, ''Cacatua ducorpsii'' <small>[[Jacques Pucheran|Pucheran]], 1853</small>
****[[Red-vented cockatoo]] or Philippine cockatoo, ''Cacatua haematuropygia'' <small>([[Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller|Müller]], 1776)</small>
***Subgenus ''[[Lophochroa]]'' – pink cockatoos
****[[Pink cockatoo]] or Major Mitchell's/Leadbeater's cockatoo, ''Cacatua leadbeateri'' <small>([[Nicholas Aylward Vigors|Vigors]], 1831)</small> (2 subspecies)

==Morphology==
[[File:Cacatua galerita -perching on branch -crest-8a-2c.jpg|right|thumb|A captive [[sulphur-crested cockatoo]] displaying its crest in the U.S.|alt=A mainly-white cockatoo with a black beak perched on a wooden perch. Its yellow crest is raised and very conspicuous.]]
The cockatoos are generally medium to large parrots of stocky build, which range from {{convert|30|–|60|cm|abbr=on}} in length and {{convert|300|–|1200|g|lb|abbr=on}} in weight; however, one species, the cockatiel, is considerably smaller and slimmer than the other species, being {{convert|32|cm|abbr=on}} long (including its long pointed tail feathers) and {{convert|80|–|100|g|abbr=on}} in weight.<ref name = "HBW"/><ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 1."/><ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 6.">{{harvnb|Forshaw|2006|p=plate 6}}</ref><ref name=Cam1>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=1}}.</ref> The movable [[Crest (feathers)|headcrest]], which is present in all cockatoos, is spectacular in many species;<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=57}}.</ref> it is raised when the bird lands from flying or when it is aroused.<ref name=Forshaw110/> Cockatoos share many features with other parrots, including the characteristic curved beak shape and a [[Dactyly#In birds|zygodactyl]] foot, with the two middle toes forward and the two outer toes backward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=69}}.</ref> They differ in the presence of an erectile crest and their lack of the [[Dyck texture]] feather composition which causes the bright blues and greens seen in true parrots.<ref name=Cam1/>

Like other parrots, cockatoos have short legs, strong claws, a waddling gait<ref name=Cam1/> and often use their strong bill as a third limb when climbing through branches. They generally have long broad wings used in rapid flight, with speeds up to {{convert|70|km/h|abbr=on}} being recorded for galahs.<ref name=Cam67>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=67}}.</ref> The members of the genus ''Calyptorhynchus'' and larger white cockatoos, such as the [[sulphur-crested cockatoo]] and the [[pink cockatoo]], have shorter, rounder wings and a more leisurely flight.<ref name=Cam67/>
[[File:Callocephalon fimbriatum (pair) -NSW -Australia-8.jpg|thumb|left|A pair of [[gang-gang cockatoo]]s in NSW, Australia (male with red head feathers). Cockatoos make lasting [[pair bond]]s.|alt=Two grey cockatoos on a lichen-covered tree branch. The red crested male is on the left.]]
Cockatoos have a large bill, which is kept sharp by rasping the two jaws together when resting. The bill is complemented by a large muscular tongue which helps manipulate seeds inside the bill so that they can be de-husked before eating.<ref name = "HBW"/> During the de-husking, the lower jaw applies the pressure, the tongue holds the seed in place and the upper jaw acts as an anvil. The eye region of the skull is reinforced to support muscles which move the jaws sideways.<ref name=Cam1/> The bills of male cockatoos are generally slightly larger than those of their female counterparts, but this size difference is quite marked in the palm cockatoo.<ref name=Cam61>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=61}}.</ref>

The [[plumage]] of the cockatoos is less brightly coloured than that of the other parrots, with species generally being either black, grey or white. Many species have smaller areas of colour on their plumage, often yellow, pink and red, usually on the crest or tail.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=58}}.</ref> The galah and Major Mitchell's cockatoo are more broadly coloured in pink tones.<ref name=Cam59>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=59}}.</ref> Several species have a brightly coloured bare area around the eye and face known as a periophthalmic ring; the large red patch of bare skin of the palm cockatoo is the most extensive and covers some of the face, while it is more restricted in some other species of white cockatoo, notably the [[corella (bird)|corellas]] and [[blue-eyed cockatoo]].<ref name=Cam59/> The plumage of males and females is similar in most species. The plumage of the female cockatiel is duller than the male, but the most marked [[sexual dimorphism]] occurs in the gang-gang cockatoo and the two species of black cockatoos in the subgenus ''Calyptorhynchus'', namely the [[red-tailed black cockatoo|red-tailed]] and [[glossy black cockatoo]]s.<ref name=Cam61/> The [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] colour differs in a few species, being pink or red in the female galah and the pink cockatoo and red-brown in some other female white cockatoo species. The males all have dark brown irises.<ref name=Cam61/>
[[File:Fuß eines Weißhaubenkakadus.JPG|upright|right|thumb|A [[white cockatoo]]'s left foot clasping aviary bars showing claws, scaly skin and [[Dactyly#In birds|zygodactyly]]—the middle two toes forward and the outer two toes backward.|alt=Closeup of a cockatoo's left foot grasping the wires of a cage. The foot is covered with grey-scaly skin and has four toes each with a dark grey curved claw]]
Cockatoos maintain their plumage with frequent [[preening (bird)|preening]] throughout the day. They remove dirt and oil and realign feather barbs by nibbling their feathers. They also preen other birds' feathers that are otherwise hard to get at. Cockatoos produce preen-oil from a [[uropygial gland|gland]] on their lower back and apply it by wiping their plumage with their heads or already oiled feathers. [[Down feather|Powder-down]] is produced by specialised feathers in the lumbar region and distributed by the preening cockatoo all over the plumage.<ref name=Cam68>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=68}}.</ref><!-- ref cites whole paragraph as is. Duplicate if extra info inserted -->

[[Moulting]] is very slow and complex. Black cockatoos appear to replace their [[flight feather]]s one at a time, their moult taking two years to complete. This process is much shorter in other species, such as the galah and [[long-billed corella]], which each take around six months to replace all their flight feathers.<ref name=Cam68/>

===Voice===
The [[bird vocalization|vocalisations]] of cockatoos are loud and harsh.<ref name = "HBW"/> They serve a number of functions, including allowing individuals to recognize one another, alerting others of predators, indicating individual moods, maintaining the cohesion of a flock and as warnings when defending nests. The use of calls and number of specific calls varies by species; the Carnaby's black cockatoo has as many as 15 types of call, whereas others, such as the pink cockatoo, have fewer. Some, like the gang-gang cockatoo, are comparatively quiet but do have softer growling calls when feeding. In addition to vocalisations, palm cockatoos communicate over large distances by drumming on a dead branch with a stick.<ref name="Palm"/> Cockatoo species also make a characteristic hissing sound when threatened.<ref name=Forshaw110/>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Cacatua goffiniana -eating rambutan-6.jpg|thumb|The [[Tanimbar corella]] is restricted to the islands of Tanimbar in Indonesia; a few feral escapees are found in [[Singapore]].|alt=A mainly white cockatoo with a few pale-pink feathers on its face. The cockatoo is perched on a branch in a tree standing on its right foot while holding what appears to be a rambutan fruit up to its open beak with its left foot]]
Cockatoos have a much more restricted range than the true parrots, occurring naturally only in [[Australia]], [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]], and some Pacific regions.<ref name = "HBW">{{Cite book | first = Ian | last = Rowley | editor = del Hoyo, Josep | editor2 = Elliott, Andrew | editor3 = Sargatal, Jordi | contribution = Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos) | title = Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 4, Sandgrouse to Cuckoos | year = 1997 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/246 246–69] | place = Barcelona | publisher = Lynx Edicions | isbn = 978-84-87334-22-1 | title-link = Handbook of the Birds of the World }}</ref> Eleven of the 21 species exist in the wild only in Australia, while seven species occur only in the islands of the [[Philippines]], Indonesia, [[Papua New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]]. No cockatoo species are found in [[Borneo]], despite their presence on nearby [[Palawan]] and [[Sulawesi]] or many Pacific islands,<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=86}}.</ref> although fossil remains have been recorded from [[New Caledonia]].<ref name=Steadman06>{{Cite book| last = Steadman | first = D | author-link = David Steadman | title = Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 2006 | location = Chicago | page = 348| isbn = 978-0-226-77142-7 }}</ref>

Three species occur in both New Guinea and Australia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=3}}.</ref> Some species have widespread distributions, with the galah, for example, occurring over most of Australia, whereas other species have tiny distributions, confined to a small part of the continent, such as the [[Baudin's black cockatoo]] of Western Australia or to a small island group, such as the [[Tanimbar corella]], which is restricted to the [[Tanimbar Islands]] of Indonesia. Some cockatoos have been introduced accidentally to areas outside their natural range such as New Zealand, Singapore, and [[Palau]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/?base=19344 |title=Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, ''Cacatua galerita'' |date=31 October 2011 |publisher=Parks & Wildlife Service Tasmania |access-date=24 October 2015 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326112218/http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/?base=19344 |url-status=live }}</ref> while two Australian corella species have been introduced to parts of the continent where they are not native.

Cockatoos occupy a wide range of habitats from forests in subalpine regions to mangroves. However, no species is found in all types of habitat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=71}}.</ref> The most widespread species,<ref name = "HBW"/> such as the galah and cockatiel,<ref name=Cam10304/> are open-country specialists that feed on grass seeds.<ref name = "HBW"/> They are often highly mobile fast flyers and are nomadic. Flocks of birds move across large areas of the inland, locating and feeding on seed and other food sources. Drought may force flocks from more arid areas to move further into farming areas.<ref name=Cam10304>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|pp=103–4}}.</ref> Other cockatoo species, such as the glossy black cockatoo, inhabit woodlands, rainforests, shrublands and even alpine forests. The [[red-vented cockatoo]] inhabits mangroves and its absence from northern [[Luzon]] may be related to the lack of mangrove forests there.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=77}}.</ref> Forest-dwelling cockatoos are generally sedentary, as the food supply is more stable and predictable.<ref name=Cam104>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=104}}.</ref> Several species have adapted well to human modified habitats and are found in agricultural areas and even busy cities.<ref name = "Temby">{{Cite conference| first=Ian| last=Temby| title=Urban wildlife issues in Australia| book-title=Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Urban Wildlife Conservation| editor=Shaw Williams| editor2=Lisa Harris| editor3=Larry Vandruff| publisher=University of Arizona| place=Tucson, Arizona| year=1999| url=http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/adjunct/snr0704/snr07041d.pdf| access-date=11 December 2009| conference=| archive-date=27 September 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927063500/http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/adjunct/snr0704/snr07041d.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

==Behaviour==

[[File:Parrot - Henry Stacy Marks - 9078-2048x1994.jpg|thumb|Watercolour and gouache sketch by [[Henry Stacy Marks]]]]

Cockatoos are [[diurnality|diurnal]] and require daylight to find their food.<ref name = "HBW"/> They are not early risers, instead waiting until the sun has warmed their roosting sites before feeding. All species are generally highly social and roost, forage and travel in colourful and noisy [[flock (birds)|flocks]]. These vary in size depending on availability of food; in times of plenty, flocks are small and number a hundred birds or less, while in droughts or other times of adversity, they may swell up to contain thousands or even tens of thousands of birds; one record from the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] noted a flock of 32,000 [[little corella]]s. Species that inhabit open country form larger flocks than those of forested areas.<ref name=Cam126>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=126}}.</ref>

Some species require roosting sites that are located near drinking sites; other species travel great distances between the roosting and feeding sites.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Roosting of the Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo ''Cacatua galerita''|journal=Emu|year=1996|last=Lindenmayer|first=DB|author2=Pope MP|author3=Cunningham RB|author4=Donnelly CF|author5=Nix HA|volume=96|issue=3|pages=209–12 |doi=10.1071/MU9960209|bibcode=1996EmuAO..96..209L }}</ref> Cockatoos have several characteristic methods of bathing; they may hang upside down or fly about in the rain or flutter in wet leaves in the canopy.<ref name=Forshaw110>{{harvnb|Forshaw|Cooper|1978|p=110}}</ref> Cockatoos have a preferred "footedness" analogous to human handedness. Most species are left-footed with 87–100% of individuals using their left feet to eat, but a few species favor their right foot.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9h15z1vr#page-4|title=Laterality in Animals|last=Rogers|first=Lesley J.|date=1 January 1989|journal=International Journal of Comparative Psychology|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.46867/C48W2Q |s2cid=53355461 |access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=7 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307152436/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9h15z1vr#page-4|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Researchers at [[Charles Sturt University]] in Australia have documented spontaneous, individually distinctive, dance-like movements in several cockatoo species. These sequences, which sometimes resemble courtship displays and can occur even without musical stimuli, may indicate complex social and cognitive abilities.<ref name="CSUdance">{{cite web
 |title=Dancing cockatoos’ research reveals implications for cognitive processes and welfare
 |url=https://news.csu.edu.au/latest-news/dancing-cockatoos-research-reveals-implications-for-cognitive-processes-and-welfare
 |website=Charles Sturt University News
 |publisher=Charles Sturt University
 |date=2025-08-07
 |access-date=2025-10-13
}}</ref>

===Breeding===
[[File:Umbrella cockatoo chicks 31l07.JPG|right|thumb|Hand-reared [[white cockatoo]] chicks bred for sale as pets.|alt=Two pink-skinned chicks sparsely covered with incompletely formed whitish feathers standing in a plastic bowl. The pre-feathers are round and pointed and are pinkish towards the base fading to white at the tips]]
Cockatoos are [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]] breeders, with [[pair bond]]s that can last many years. Many birds pair up in flocks before they reach sexual maturity and delay breeding for a year at least. Females breed for the first time anywhere from three to seven years of age and males are often older. Sexual maturity is delayed so birds can develop the skills for raising and parenting young, which is prolonged compared with other birds; the young of some species remain with their parents for up to a year.<ref name=Cam1434>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|pp=143–44}}.</ref><!-- ref cites all previous segment --> Cockatoos may also display [[philopatry|site fidelity]], returning to the same nesting sites in consecutive years.<ref name="Palm">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Murphy S, Legge S, Heinsohn R |title=The breeding biology of palm cockatoos (''Probosciger aterrimus''): a case of a slow life history|journal=Journal of Zoology|year=2003|volume=261|pages=327–39|doi=10.1017/S0952836903004175|issue=4|citeseerx=10.1.1.475.7031}}</ref> Courtship is generally simple, particularly for established pairs, with the black cockatoos alone engaging in [[Nuptial gift|courtship feeding]]. Established pairs do engage in preening [[Social grooming|each other]], but all forms of courtship drop off after [[avian incubation|incubation]] begins, possibly due to the strength of the pair-bond.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The function of displays in the breeding of the White-tailed Black Cockatoo|journal=Emu|year=1974|first=DA|last=Saunders |volume=74|issue=1|pages=43–46 |doi=10.1071/MU974043|bibcode=1974EmuAO..74...43S }}</ref>

Like most parrots, the cockatoos are cavity [[bird nest|nesters]], nesting in holes in trees,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nesting habitat of the glossy black-cockatoo in central New South Wales |journal=Biological Conservation|year= 2006| first=M|last =Cameron| volume=127 |issue=4|pages=402–10 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.08.019|bibcode=2006BCons.127..402C }}</ref> which they are unable to excavate themselves.<ref name=Cam129>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=129}}</ref> These hollows are formed from decay or destruction of wood by branches breaking off, fungi or insects such as termites or even [[woodpecker]]s where their ranges overlap.<ref name=Cam130>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=130}}</ref> In many places these holes are scarce and the source of competition, both with other members of the same species and with other species and types of animal.<ref>{{Cite journal|title= Overlap and competition for nest holes among eclectus parrots, palm cockatoos and sulphur-crested cockatoos|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology|first=R|last= Heinsohn|author2=Murphy S|author3=Legge S |volume=51|issue=1|pages=81–94 |doi=10.1071/ZO02003|year= 2003}}</ref> In general, cockatoos choose hollows only a little larger than themselves, hence different-sized species nest in holes of corresponding (and different) sizes. If given the opportunity, cockatoos prefer nesting over {{convert|7|or|8|m|ft}} above the ground<ref name=Cam130/> and close to water and food.<ref name=Cam131>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=131}}.</ref>

The nesting hollows are lined with sticks, wood chips and branches with leaves. The eggs of cockatoos are oval and initially white, as their location makes camouflage unnecessary.<ref name=Cam137>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=137}}.</ref> However, they do become discoloured over the course of incubation. They range in size from {{convert|55|x|37|mm|abbr=on}} in the palm and red-tailed black cockatoos, to {{convert|26|x|19|mm|abbr=on}} in the cockatiel.<ref name=Cam137/> [[Clutch (eggs)|Clutch]] size varies within the family, with the palm cockatoo and some other larger cockatoos laying only a single egg and the smaller species laying anywhere between two and eight eggs. Food supply also plays a role in [[avian clutch size|clutch size]].<ref name=Cam138>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=138}}</ref><!-- refs previous two sentences --> Some species can lay a second clutch if the first fails.<ref name=Cam139>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=139}}</ref> Around 20% of eggs laid are infertile.<ref name=Cam147>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=147}}.</ref> The cockatoos' incubation and brooding responsibilities may either be undertaken by the female alone in the case of the black cockatoos or shared amongst the sexes as happens in the other species. In the case of the black cockatoos, the female is provisioned by the male several times a day. The young of all species are born covered in yellowish down, bar the palm cockatoo, whose young are born naked.<ref name=Cam1394>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|pp=139–40}}.</ref> Cockatoo incubation times are dependent on species size, with the smaller cockatiels having a period of around 20&nbsp;days and the larger Carnaby's black cockatoo incubating its eggs for up to 29&nbsp;days.<ref name="HBW"/>

The [[Nestling#Parental care and fledging|nestling]] period also varies by species size, with larger species having longer nestling periods. It is also affected by season and environmental factors and by competition with siblings in species with clutch sizes greater than one. Much of what is known about the nestling period of some species is dependent on aviary studies&nbsp;– aviary cockatiels can [[fledge]] after 5&nbsp;weeks and the large palm cockatoos after 11&nbsp;weeks.<ref name="HBW"/> During this period, the young become covered in juvenile plumage while remaining in the hollow. Wings and tail feathers are slow to grow initially but more rapid as the primary feathers appear. Nestlings quickly reach about 80–90% of adult weight about two-thirds of the time through this period, plateauing before they leave the hollow; they fledge at this weight with wing and tail feathers still to grow a little before reaching adult dimensions.<ref name=Cam141>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=141}}.</ref> Growth rate of the young, as well as numbers fledged, are adversely impacted by reduced food supply and poor weather conditions.<ref name=Cam143>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=143}}.</ref>

===Diet and feeding===
[[File:Cacatua tenuirostris -Joondalup-8-3c.jpg|left|thumb|Wild [[long-billed corella]]s in [[Perth]]. The bird on the right is using its long beak to dig for food in short grass.|alt=Two mainly white-plumaged cockatoos on what appears to be a lawn. One cockatoo is standing upright and has a long upper mandible and orange-pink feathers its face and chest. The other cockatoo has its head in the grass with its bill not visible.]]
Cockatoos are versatile feeders and consume a range of mainly vegetable food items. Seeds form a large part of the diet of all species; these are opened with their large and powerful bills. The galahs, corellas and some of the black cockatoos feed primarily on the ground; others feed mostly in trees.<ref name = "HBW"/><!-- this ref cites previous two sentences --> The ground-feeding species tend to forage in flocks, which form tight, squabbling groups where seeds are concentrated and dispersed lines where food is more sparsely distributed;<ref name=Cam1189>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|pp=118–9}}.</ref> they also prefer open areas where visibility is good. The [[western corella|western]] and long-billed corellas have elongated bills to excavate tubers and roots and the pink cockatoo walks in a circle around the doublegee (''[[Emex australis]]'') to twist out and remove the underground parts.<ref name=Cam113>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=113}}.</ref><!-- this ref cites previous two sentences -->

Many species forage for food in the canopy of trees, taking advantage of [[serotiny]] (the storage of a large supply of seed in cones or gumnuts by plant genera such as ''[[Eucalyptus]]'', ''[[Banksia]]'' and ''[[Hakea]]''), a natural feature of the Australian landscape in dryer regions. These woody fruiting bodies are inaccessible to many species and harvested in the main by parrots, cockatoos and rodents in more tropical regions. The larger cones can be opened by the large bills of cockatoos but are too strong for smaller animals.<ref name=Cam1167>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|pp=116–7}}.</ref> Many nuts and fruits lie on the end of small branches which are unable to support the weight of the foraging cockatoo, which instead bends the branch towards itself and holds it with its foot.<ref name=Cam114>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=114}}.</ref>

While some cockatoos are generalists taking a wide range of foods, others are specialists. The glossy black cockatoo specialises in the cones of trees of the genus ''[[Allocasuarina]]'', preferring a single species, ''[[Allocasuarina verticillata|A. verticillata]]''. It holds the cones in its foot and shreds them with its powerful bill before removing the seeds with its tongue.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Food value and tree selection by Glossy Black-Cockatoos ''Calyptorhynchus lathami''|journal=Austral Ecology|year=2001|first=GM|last=Crowley|author2=Garnett S|volume=26|issue=1|pages=116–26|doi=10.1046/j.1442-9993.2001.01093.x|doi-broken-date=11 July 2025 }}</ref> Some species take large numbers of insects, particularly when breeding; in fact the bulk of the [[yellow-tailed black cockatoo]]'s diet is made up of insects. The large bill is used in order to extract grubs and larvae from rotting wood. The amount of time cockatoos have to spend foraging varies with the season.<ref name=Cam114/> During times of plenty they may need to feed for only a few hours in the day, in the morning and evening, then spend the rest of the day roosting or preening in trees, but during the winter most of the day may be spent foraging. The birds have increased nutritional requirements during the breeding season, so they spend more time foraging for food during this time. Cockatoos have large [[crop (anatomy)|crops]], which allow them to store and digest food for some time after retiring to a tree.<ref name=Cam1223>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|pp=122–23}}.</ref><!-- this ref cites previous three sentences -->

===Predators and threats===
The [[peregrine falcon]] and [[little eagle]] have been reported taking galahs and the [[wedge-tailed eagle]] has been observed killing a sulphur-crested cockatoo.<ref name=Forshaw29/> Eggs and nestlings are vulnerable to many hazards. Various species of monitor lizard (''[[Varanus]]'') are able to climb trees and enter hollows. Other predators recorded include the [[spotted wood owl]] on Rasa Island in the Philippines; the [[Morelia amethistina|amethystine python]], [[black butcherbird]] and rodents including the [[giant white-tailed rat]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood GA|year=1987|title=Further field observations of the Palm Cockatoo ''Probosciger aterrimus'' in the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland|journal=Corella|volume=12|issue=2|pages=48–52|url=http://www.aainsects.com.au/Pdf-papers-aainsects/Bird/bird-Cacat-3.pdf|access-date=17 December 2009|archive-date=21 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921140624/http://www.aainsects.com.au/Pdf-papers-aainsects/Bird/bird-Cacat-3.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> in Cape York; and [[common brushtail possum|brushtail possum]] on Kangaroo Island. Furthermore, galahs and little corellas competing for nesting space with the glossy black cockatoo on Kangaroo Island have been recorded killing nestlings of the latter species there. Severe storms may also flood hollows drowning the young and termite or borer activity may lead to the internal collapse of nests.<ref name=Cam149>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=149}}.</ref><!-- cites all para-->

Like other parrots, cockatoos can be afflicted by [[psittacine beak and feather disease]] (PBFD). The viral infection causes feather loss and beak malformation and reduces the bird's overall immunity. Particularly prevalent in sulphur-crested cockatoos, little corellas and galahs, it has been recorded in 14 species of cockatoo to date. Although unlikely to significantly impact on large, healthy populations of birds in the wild, PBFD may pose a high risk to smaller stressed populations.<ref name="gov">{{cite web|url=http://fedlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/LegislativeInstrument1.nsf/previewlodgmentattachments/81FCCCA0AB589760CA25718E00044623/$file/F2005L02255.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706142728/http://fedlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/LegislativeInstrument1.nsf/previewlodgmentattachments/81FCCCA0AB589760CA25718E00044623/%24file/F2005L02255.htm |archive-date=6 July 2011 |title=Threat Abatement Plan for Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease Affecting Endangered Psittacine Species |last=Borthwick |first=David |date=May 2005 |website=Department of the Environment and Heritage website |publisher=Department of the Environment and Heritage, Commonwealth of Australia |access-date=7 December 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

A [[white cockatoo]] and a sulphur-crested cockatoo were found to be infected with the protozoon ''[[Haemoproteus]]'' and another sulphur-crested cockatoo had the [[malaria]] parasite ''[[Plasmodium]]'' on analysis of faecal samples at Almuñecar ornithological garden in [[Granada]] in Spain.<ref name=VP09>{{Cite journal|last=Cordon|first=GP|author2=Hitos Prados A |author3=Romero D |author4=Sánchez Moreno M |author5=Pontes A |author6=Osuna A |author7=Rosales MJ |year=2009|title=Intestinal and haematic parasitism in the birds of the Almunecar (Granada, Spain) ornithological garden|journal=Veterinary Parasitology|volume=165|pmid=19682800|issue=3–4|pages=361–66|doi=10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.07.027}}</ref> Like amazon parrots and macaws, cockatoos frequently develop cloacal [[papilloma]]s. The relationship with malignancy is unknown, as is the cause, although a parrot [[Papillomaviridae|papilloma virus]] has been isolated from a [[grey parrot]] with the condition.<ref>{{cite conference |vauthors=Stedman NL, Latimer KS, Rakich PM |title=Cloacal papillomas in psittacine birds: A retrospective histopathologic review |book-title=Proceedings of International Virtual Conferences in Veterinary Medicine: Diseases of Psittacine Birds |year=1998 |journal=International Virtual Conferences in Veterinary Medicine |publisher=College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia |location=Athens, GA |url=http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/archives/ivcvm/1998/stedman/index.php |access-date=1 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720084405/http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/archives/ivcvm/1998/stedman/index.php |archive-date=20 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Social learning===
Cockatoos have been shown to learn new skills through social interaction. In [[New South Wales]], researchers and [[citizen scientists]] were able to track the spread of  lid-flipping skills as cockatoos learned from each other to open garbage bins. Bin-opening spread more quickly to neighbouring suburbs than suburbs further away. In addition, birds in different areas developed their own variants for accomplishing the complex task.<ref name="Conroy">{{cite news |last1=Conroy |first1=Gemma |last2=Swanston |first2=Tim |title=Cockies are learning how to bust into bins and their skills are spreading across suburbia |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-07-23/cockatoos-open-wheelie-bin-lid-social-learning-suburbs/100306786 |access-date=24 February 2022 |work=ABC News |date=22 July 2021 |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref name="Klump">{{cite journal |last1=Klump |first1=Barbara C. |last2=Martin |first2=John M. |last3=Wild |first3=Sonja |last4=Hörsch |first4=Jana K. |last5=Major |first5=Richard E. |last6=Aplin |first6=Lucy M. |title=Innovation and geographic spread of a complex foraging culture in an urban parrot |journal=Science |date=23 July 2021 |volume=373 |issue=6553 |pages=456–460 |doi=10.1126/science.abe7808 |pmid=34437121 |bibcode=2021Sci...373..456K |s2cid=236179560 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abe7808 |access-date=24 February 2022 |language=EN|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Relationship with humans==
[[File:Cacatua galerita -balcony -Sydney -Australia-8d-2cr.jpg|upright|thumb|right|A [[sulphur-crested cockatoo]] visiting a balcony in eastern Sydney for bird seeds|alt=A cockatoo is perched on a city balcony several floors above the ground. A suburban landscape is in the background.]]
Human activities have had positive effects on some species of cockatoo and negative effects on others. Many species of open country have benefited greatly from [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] changes to the landscape, with the great increase in reliable seed food sources, and available water contributing to their survival, as well as their adaption to a diet including foreign foodstuffs. This benefit appears to be restricted to Australian species, as cockatoos favouring open country outside Australia have not become more abundant. Predominantly forest-dwelling species have suffered greatly from [[habitat destruction]]; in the main, they appear to have a more specialised diet and have not been able to incorporate exotic food into their diet. A notable exception is the yellow-tailed black cockatoo in eastern Australia.<ref name=Cam153>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=153}}.</ref><!-- ref cites whole para -->

===Pests===
Several species of cockatoo can be serious agricultural [[pest (organism)|pests]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title= Australian research on bird pests: impact, management and future directions|journal=[[Emu (journal)|Emu]]|year=2002|first=Mary|last=B|author2=Sinclair R|volume=102|issue=1|pages=29–45|doi=10.1071/MU01028|bibcode=2002EmuAO.102...29B |s2cid=83464835}}</ref> They are sometimes [[pest control|controlled]] by shooting, [[poison]]ing or capture followed by [[gas chamber|gassing]]. Non-lethal damage mitigation methods used include scaring, habitat manipulation and the provision of decoy food dumps or sacrifice crops to distract them from the main crop. They can be a nuisance in urban areas due to destruction of property. They maintain their bills in the wild by chewing on wood, but in suburbia, they may chew outdoor furniture, door and window frames;<ref name = "Temby"/> soft decorative timbers such as [[western redcedar]] are readily demolished.<ref name=Cam155>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=155}}.</ref> Birds may also target external wiring and fixtures such as solar water heaters,<ref name = "Temby"/> television antennae and satellite dishes.<ref name=Cam155/> A business in central Melbourne suffered as sulphur-crested cockatoos repeatedly stripped the silicone sealant from the plate glass windows.<ref name=Cam156>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=156}}.</ref> Galahs and red-tailed black cockatoos have stripped electrical cabling in rural areas and tarpaulin is targeted elsewhere.<ref name=Cam156/> Outside Australia, the Tanimbar corella is a pest on [[Yamdena|Yamdena Island]] where it raids maize crops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=160}}.</ref>
[[File:Sulphur-crested Cockatoos damaging a shopping centre facade 4.jpg|left|thumb|Sulphur-crested cockatoos damaging the Sturt Mall shopping centre facade, made of polystyrene|alt=a number of white cockatoos are biting parts of the building wall, leaving chunks of polystyrene missing.]]
In 1995 the [[Government of Victoria|Government]] of the [[States and territories of Australia|state]] of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] published a report on problems caused by long-billed corellas, sulphur-crested cockatoos and galahs, three species which, along with the little corella, have large and growing populations, having benefited from anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Subsequent to the findings and publication of the report, these three species were declared unprotected by a [[King-in-Council|Governor in Council]] Order under certain conditions and are allowed to be killed where serious damage is being caused by them to trees, vineyards, orchards, recreational reserves and commercial crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/DPI/nreninf.nsf/childdocs/-C3270146B772814F4A2568B30006FFEE-7A5820241AEA1564CA256BC800078098-7B785784C934E20E4A256DEA00292002-00FD9A5C09190C59CA256BCF000B4D61?open|title=Victorian cockatoos. Victorian Department of Primary Industries Information Note|last=Temby|first=I|year=2003|website=Department of Primary Industries website|publisher=The State of Victoria|access-date=10 December 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070917115645/http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/DPI/nreninf.nsf/childdocs/-C3270146B772814F4A2568B30006FFEE-7A5820241AEA1564CA256BC800078098-7B785784C934E20E4A256DEA00292002-00FD9A5C09190C59CA256BCF000B4D61?open| archive-date = 17 September 2007}}</ref> Damage covered by the report included not only that to cereal crops, fruit and nut orchards and some kinds of vegetable crops but also to houses and communications equipment.<ref name=enrc>{{Cite book|author=Environment and Natural Resources Committee (Parliament of Victoria)|year=1995|title=Problems in Victoria caused by Long-billed Corellas, Sulphur-crested Cockatoos and Galahs|publisher=Victorian Government Printer}}</ref> The little corella is a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, where it is an aviculturally introduced species. The birds damage [[sorghum]], maize, [[sunflower]], [[chickpea]]s and other crops. They also [[defoliate]] [[Ornamental plant|amenity trees]] in parks and gardens, dig for edible roots and [[corm]]s on [[playing field|sports grounds]] and [[race track]]s, as well as chew wiring and household fittings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/content/pw/vp/bird/20_little_corella.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080901133738/http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/content/pw/vp/bird/20_little_corella.pdf|archive-date=2008-09-01|title=Fauna Note No.20: Little Corella|date=24 July 2007|publisher=Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation|access-date=10 December 2009}}</ref> In South Australia, where flocks can number several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected, they are accused of defoliating [[Eucalyptus camaldulensis|red gums]] and other native or ornamental trees used for roosting, damaging [[tarpaulin]]s on grain bunkers, wiring and flashing on buildings, taking grain from newly seeded [[Field (agriculture)|paddocks]] and creating a [[noise pollution|noise nuisance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pdfs/lc_resource_doc.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325220711/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/pdfs/lc_resource_doc.pdf|archive-date=25 March 2009|title=Little Corella (''Cacatua sanguinea''): Resource document|date=March 2007|publisher=South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage|access-date=10 December 2009}}</ref>

Several rare species and subspecies, too, have been recorded as causing problems. The [[Carnaby's black cockatoo]], a [[Threatened fauna of Australia|threatened]] [[Western Australian]] [[endemism|endemic]], has been considered a pest in pine [[plantations in the American South|plantation]]s where the birds chew off the leading shoots of growing pine trees, resulting in bent trunks and reduced timber value.<ref name=Saunders2005>{{Cite conference|first=D |last=Saunders |title=Conserving Carnaby's Black-Cockatoo: historical background on changing status |book-title=Conserving Carnaby's black-cockatoo&nbsp;– future directions: proceedings from a conservation symposium, Perth, Western Australia, 2 July 2003 |pages=9–18 |publisher=Birds Australia WA Inc |year=2005 |location=Perth, Western Australia |url=http://www.birdswa.com.au/projects/carnaby/assets/Conserving%20CBC%20Symposium%20Proceedings%20-%202003.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029231634/http://www.birdswa.com.au/projects/carnaby/assets/Conserving%20CBC%20Symposium%20Proceedings%20-%202003.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2009 |isbn=0-9751429-0-9 |access-date=11 December 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> They are also known to damage nut and fruit crops,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=59523|title=''Calyptorhynchus latirostris''|year=2009|website=Species Profile and Threats Database|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra|access-date=10 December 2009|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517060240/http://environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=59523|url-status=live}}</ref> and have learnt to exploit [[canola]] crops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=22}}</ref> The Baudin's black cockatoo, also endemic to the south-west of Western Australia, can be a pest in apple and pear [[orchard]]s where it destroys the fruit to extract the seeds.<ref name=Saunders2005/> [[Muir's corella]], the nominate subspecies of the western corella, is also a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia, as well as being nationally [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] and listed under state legislation as being "rare or likely to become extinct".<ref name=dec4>{{cite web|url=https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/images/documents/plants-animals/animals/living-with-wildlife/2008108_muirs_corellas_a5_bookletweb.pdf|date=2008|publisher=Department of Environment and Conservation, Western Australia|title=Muir's corella: conserving a threatened species|access-date=6 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330183843/https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/images/documents/plants-animals/animals/living-with-wildlife/2008108_muirs_corellas_a5_bookletweb.pdf|archive-date=30 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Status and conservation===
[[File:Cacatua haematuropygia -two captive-8a.jpg|thumb|right|The [[red-vented cockatoo]] is a [[critically endangered]] species endemic to the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=1403 |publisher=[[BirdLife International]] |title=Philippine Cockatoo&nbsp;– BirdLife Species Factsheet |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513235423/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=1403 |url-status=live }}</ref>|alt=Two mainly white-plumaged cockatoos facing each other in a cage. Some feathers at the base of the underside of their tails are red]]
[[File:Cacatua ophthalmica -Vogelpark Walsrode -upper body-8a.jpg|right|thumb|The [[blue-eyed cockatoo]] is a [[vulnerable species]] endemic to [[New Britain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=30025 |publisher=BirdLife International |title=Blue-eyed Cockatoo&nbsp;– BirdLife Species Factsheet |access-date=8 November 2009 |archive-date=4 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604000531/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=30025 |url-status=live }}</ref>|alt=The upper body of a mainly white cockatoo that has raised its left leg to its black beak. Pale-yellow crest feathers are just seen under the more prominent white crest feathers. It has a wide circular rim of featherless blue skin around its eyes. Its irises are brown.]]
According to the [[IUCN]] and [[BirdLife International]], seven species of cockatoo are considered to be [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] or worse and one is considered to be [[Near-threatened species|near-threatened]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciessearchresults.php?reg=&cty=&cri=&fam=67&gen=0&spc=&cmn=cockatoo&hab=&thr=&bt=&rec=N&vag=N&hdnAction=ADV_SEARCH&SearchTerms= |title=Data Zone: Search Species: Cockatoo |access-date=8 September 2011 |publisher=BirdLife International |year=2011 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112203834/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciessearchresults.php?reg=&cty=&cri=&fam=67&gen=0&spc=&cmn=cockatoo&hab=&thr=&bt=&rec=N&vag=N&hdnAction=ADV_SEARCH&SearchTerms= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciessearchresults.php?reg=&cty=&cri=&fam=67&gen=0&spc=&cmn=corella&hab=&thr=&bt=&rec=N&vag=N&hdnAction=ADV_SEARCH&SearchTerms= |title=Data Zone: Search Species: Corella |access-date=8 September 2011 |publisher=BirdLife International |year=2011 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112203856/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciessearchresults.php?reg=&cty=&cri=&fam=67&gen=0&spc=&cmn=corella&hab=&thr=&bt=&rec=N&vag=N&hdnAction=ADV_SEARCH&SearchTerms= |url-status=live }}</ref> Of these, two species—the red-vented cockatoo and the [[yellow-crested cockatoo]]—are considered to be [[critically endangered]].<ref name=Cam178>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=178}}</ref>

The principal threats to cockatoos are [[habitat loss]] and the [[wildlife trade]]. All cockatoos are dependent on trees for nesting and are vulnerable to their loss; in addition many species have specialised habitat requirements or live on small islands and have naturally small ranges, making them vulnerable to the loss of these habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal|title= Agricultural change and paddock tree loss: Implications for an endangered subspecies of Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo| journal=Ecological Management & Restoration| year=2005|first=M|last=Maron |volume=6|issue=3|pages= 206–11|doi=10.1111/j.1442-8903.2005.00238.x| bibcode=2005EcoMR...6..206M}}</ref> Cockatoos are popular as pets and the capture and trade has threatened some species; between 1983 and 1990, 66,654 recorded [[salmon-crested cockatoo]]s were exported from [[Indonesia]], a figure that does not include the number of birds caught for the domestic trade or that were exported illegally.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Density and distribution of the endemic Seram cockatoo ''Cacatua moluccensis'' in relation to land use patterns |journal=Biological Conservation|year=2003|last=Kinnaird|first=M|author2=O'Brien TG|author3=Lambert FR|author4=Purmias D|volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=227–35 |doi= 10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00150-7 |bibcode=2003BCons.109..227K }}</ref> The capture of many species has subsequently been banned but the trade continues illegally. Birds are put in crates or bamboo tubing and conveyed on boats out of Indonesia and the Philippines.<ref name=Cam164>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=164}}.</ref> Not only are the rare species smuggled out of Indonesia but also common and rare cockatoos alike are smuggled out of Australia; birds are sedated, covered in nylon stockings and packed into [[Polyvinyl chloride#Pipes|PVC tubing]] which is then placed in unaccompanied luggage on international flights.<ref name=Cam164/> Mortality is significant (30%) and eggs, more easily hidden on the bodies of smugglers on flights, are increasingly smuggled instead. Trafficking is thought to be run by organised gangs, who also trade Australian species for overseas species such as macaws coming the other way.<ref name=Cam166>{{Harvnb|Cameron|2007|p=166}}.</ref><!-- cites both previous sentences -->

All species of cockatoo except the cockatiel are protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ([[CITES]]), which restricts import and export of wild-caught parrots to special licensed purposes. Five cockatoo species (including all subspecies)—the Tanimbar corella (''Cacatua goffiniana''), red-vented cockatoo (''Cacatua haematuropygia''), Moluccan cockatoo (''Cacatua moluccensis''), yellow-crested cockatoo (''Cacatua sulphurea'') and palm cockatoo (''Probosciger aterrimus'')—are protected on the CITES Appendix I list. With the exception of the cockatiel, all remaining cockatoo species are protected on the CITES Appendix II list.<ref>CITES (27 April 2011). ''[http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php Appendices I, II and III.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205014647/http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php |date=5 December 2017 }}'' Accessed 8 September 2011</ref>

===Aviculture===
[[File:Cacatua moluccensis excited.jpg|thumb|left|A wing-clipped pet. [[Salmon-crested cockatoo]]s, also known as Moluccan cockatoos,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parrots.org/index.php/encyclopedia/profile/moluccan_cockatoo/|title=Moluccan Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) – Parrot Encyclopedia|first=World Parrot|last=Trust|website=www.parrots.org|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=2 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702124212/http://www.parrots.org/index.php/encyclopedia/profile/moluccan_cockatoo|url-status=live}}</ref> are the largest white-coloured cockatoo species at about {{convert|52|cm|abbr=on}} long and weighing 775–935&nbsp;grams.<ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 4.">{{harvnb|Forshaw|2006|p=plate 4}}</ref> Cockatoos can be noisy and demanding pets.|alt=Closeup of a wing-clipped white and salmon-coloured cockatoo ruffling its wings and crest and apparently squawking. It has a ring on its left leg.]]
Kept for their appearance, intelligence, and engaging personalities,<ref name = "HBW"/> cockatoos can nonetheless be problematic pets or [[companion parrot]]s.<ref name=RLow1999-p16/> Generally, they are not good at [[Talking bird|mimicking human speech]],<ref name = "DA 2003">{{Cite book|first= David |last= Alderton |title= The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Caged and Aviary Birds |isbn= 978-1-84309-164-6 |page= 205|publisher =Hermes House |location= London, England |year= 2003}}</ref> although the [[little corella]] is a renowned talker.<ref>{{harvnb|Cayley|Lendon|1973|p=97}}</ref> As social animals, wild cockatoos have been known to learn human speech from ex-captive birds that have integrated into a flock.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110923150518/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/Parrots-and-other-wild-birds-able-to-talk.htm "Birds of a feather talk together"] Retrieved 15 September 2011</ref> Their care is best provided by those experienced in keeping parrots.<ref name=RLow1999-p16/> Cockatoos are social animals and their social needs are difficult to cater for,<ref name=RLow1999-p16>{{harvnb|Low|1999|p=16}}</ref> and they can suffer if kept in a cage on their own for long periods of time.<ref name=RLow1999-p23>{{harvnb|Low|1999|p=23}}</ref>

The cockatiel is by far the cockatoo species most frequently kept in captivity. Among U.S. bird keepers that participated in a survey by APPMA in 2003/04, 39% had cockatiels, as opposed to only 3% that had (other) cockatoo species.<ref>Wool-N-Wings (2006). [http://www.parrots.com/parrot-ownership-page3.htm Bird Ownership Statistics in USA.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019114636/http://www.parrots.com/parrot-ownership-page3.htm |date=19 October 2011 }} Retrieved 10 September 2011.</ref> The white cockatoos are more often encountered in aviculture than the black cockatoos.<ref>{{Harvnb|Athan|1999|p=84}}</ref> Black cockatoos are rarely seen in European zoos due to export restrictions on Australian wildlife but birds seized by governments have been loaned.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=King|first1=C. E.|date=January 2000|last2=Heinhuis|first2=H.|last3=Brouwer|first3=K.|title=Management and husbandry of black cockatoos ''Calyptorhynchus'' spp in captivity|journal=International Zoo Yearbook|volume=37|issue=1|pages=87–116|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.2000.tb00710.x }}</ref>

Cockatoos are often very affectionate with their owner and at times other people but can demand a great deal of attention. It has been suggested that cockatoos' need for physical attention from humans may stem from suboptimal rearing techniques – young birds being removed from parental care for hand-rearing too early in the belief that this will produce a more suitable pet, leading the bird to seek out physical contact from humans as a parent substitute.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://birdtricksstore.com/blogs/birdtricks-blog/why-do-cockatoos-need-to-be-cuddled-a-theory|title=Why Do Cockatoos NEED To Be Cuddled? – A Theory|website=BirdTricks|date=15 October 2012 |access-date=18 December 2020|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201050725/https://birdtricksstore.com/blogs/birdtricks-blog/why-do-cockatoos-need-to-be-cuddled-a-theory|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, their intense curiosity means they must be given a steady supply of objects to tinker with, chew, dismantle and destroy. Parrots in captivity may suffer from boredom, which can lead to [[stereotypy|stereotypic behaviour patterns]], such as [[feather-plucking]]. Feather plucking is likely to stem from psychological rather than physical causes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Garner|first=MM|author2=Clubb SL|author3=Mitchell MA|author4=Brown L|title=Feather-picking psittacines: histopathology and species trends|journal=Veterinary Pathology|year=2008|volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=401–08|pmid=18487502|doi=10.1354/vp.45-3-401|s2cid=1023194}}</ref> Other major drawbacks include their painful bites,<ref name=Ath86>{{Harvnb|Athan|1999|p=86}}.</ref> and their piercing screeches.<ref>{{Harvnb|Athan|1999|p=87}}.</ref> The salmon-crested<ref>{{Harvnb|Athan|1999|p=91}}</ref> and white cockatoo species are particular offenders.<ref>{{Harvnb|Athan|1999|p=92}}.</ref> All cockatoos have a fine [[Down feather|powder]] on their feathers, which may induce [[allergy|allergies]] in certain people.<ref name=Ath86/> In general, the smaller cockatoo species such as Goffin's and quieter Galah's cockatoos are much easier to keep as pets.<ref>{{harvnb|Cayley|Lendon|1973|p=107}}</ref> The cockatiel is one of the most popular and easiest parrots to keep as a pet,<ref>{{harvnb|Cayley|Lendon|1973|p=112}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Athan|1999|p=93}}</ref> and many [[Cockatiel colour genetics|colour mutations]] are available in aviculture.<ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 6."/>

[[File:Cockatielmale.jpg|upright|right|thumb|A pet [[cockatiel]]. This parrot is about {{convert|32|cm|abbr=on}} long and is by far the smallest and lightest cockatoo. |alt=A slender mainly grey male crested parrot with a yellow and orange head perched on a horizontal wooden branch placed high in a room.]]
Larger cockatoos can live 30 to 70 years depending on the species, or occasionally longer, and cockatiels can live for about 20 years. As pets they require a long-term commitment from their owners. Their longevity is considered a positive trait as it reduces instances of the loss of a pet.<ref name = "HBW"/> The oldest cockatoo in captivity was a pink cockatoo named [[Cookie (cockatoo)|Cookie]], residing at [[Brookfield Zoo]] in Chicago, which lived to be 83 years old (1933–2016).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/BrookfieldZoo/photos/pb.52678154169.-2207520000.1452558483./10153497306309170|title=Brookfield Zoo|website=www.facebook.com|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=27 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527205233/https://www.facebook.com/BrookfieldZoo/photos/pb.52678154169.-2207520000.1452558483./10153497306309170|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.foxnews.com/us/cookie-cockatoo-believed-to-be-the-worlds-oldest-dead-at-83/ |title='Cookie,' cockatoo believed to be the world's oldest, dead at 83 |date=30 August 2016 |work=[[Fox News]] |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-date=26 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926001421/http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/08/30/cookie-cockatoo-believed-to-be-worlds-oldest-is-killed-at-83.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/27924/20160901/farewell-cookie-oldest-pink-cockatoo-dies-at-83.htm |title=Farewell Cookie: Oldest Pink Cockatoo Dies at 83 |author=A. Vila |publisher=[[Nature World News]] |date=1 September 2016 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-date=1 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001210922/http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/27924/20160901/farewell-cookie-oldest-pink-cockatoo-dies-at-83.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A salmon-crested cockatoo named King Tut who resided at the [[San Diego Zoo]] was nearly 69 when he died in 1990 and a palm cockatoo reached 56 in [[London Zoo]] in 2000.<ref name=Brouwer2000>{{Cite journal|last=Brouwer|first=K|author2=Jones M|author3=King C|author4=Schifter H|title=Longevity records for Psittaciformes in captivity|journal=International Zoo Yearbook|year=2000|volume=37|pages=299–316|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.2000.tb00735.x}}</ref> However, anecdotal reports describe birds of much greater ages.<ref name=Brouwer2000/> Cocky Bennett of [[Blakehurst, New South Wales|Tom Ugly's Point]] in Sydney was a celebrated sulphur-crested cockatoo who was reported to have reached an age of 100 years or more. He had lost his feathers and was naked for much of his life.<ref>{{harvnb|Cayley|Lendon|1973|p=xxvi}}</ref> A palm cockatoo was reported to have reached 80 or 90 years of age in an Australian zoo,<ref name="Palm"/> and a little corella that was removed from a nest in central Australia in 1904 was reported still alive in the late 1970s.<ref name=Forshaw29>{{harvnb|Forshaw|Cooper|1978|p=29}}</ref> In February 2010, a white cockatoo named Arthur was claimed to be 90 years old; he had lived with a family for generations in [[Dalaguete]], [[Cebu]], before being taken to [[Cebu City]] Zoo.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/cebudailynews/news/view/20100221-254470/90-year-old-cockatoo-eyes-Guinness-record|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224015834/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/cebudailynews/news/view/20100221-254470/90-year-old-cockatoo-eyes-Guinness-record|archive-date=2010-02-24|title=90-year-old cockatoo eyes Guinness record |last= Codilla|first=Marian Z.|date=21 February 2010|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=27 February 2010}}</ref>

Trained cockatoos are sometimes seen in bird shows in zoos. They are generally less motivated by food than other birds; some may respond more to petting or praise than food. Cockatoos can often be taught to wear a [[parrot harness]], enabling their owners to take them outdoors. Cockatoos have been used in [[animal-assisted therapy]], generally in nursing homes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swift |first=W. Bradford|title=The healing touch&nbsp;– animal-assisted therapy|journal=Animals |year=1997 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=130–32}}</ref>

Cockatoos often have pronounced responses to musical sounds and numerous videos exist showing the birds dancing to popular music. Research conducted in 2008 with an [[Eleonora cockatoo]] named [[Snowball (cockatoo)|Snowball]] had indicated that this particular individual is indeed capable of [[Entrainment (biomusicology)|beat induction]]—perceiving human-created music and synchronizing his body movements to the beat.<ref name="Patel">{{Cite conference | vauthors =Patel AD, Iversen JR, Bregman MR, Schulz I, Schulz C | date =August 2008 | title =Investigating the human-specificity of synchronization to music | periodical =Proceedings of the 10th Intl. Conf. On Music Perception and Cognition | location =Adelaide | publisher =Causal Productions | url =http://vesicle.nsi.edu/users/patel/Patel_Iversen_Bregman_Schulz_Schulz_2008_ICMPC10.pdf | access-date =14 November 2008 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090106063112/http://vesicle.nsi.edu/users/patel/Patel_Iversen_Bregman_Schulz_Schulz_2008_ICMPC10.pdf | archive-date =6 January 2009 | df =dmy-all }}</ref>

===Culture===
[[File:Måleri, stilleben. Papegoja och frukt - Skoklosters slott - 88961.tif|thumb|left|300px| Dutch still life with cockatoo, circa 1640]]
The earliest European depiction of a cockatoo is in the falconry book ''[[De arte venandi cum avibus]]'', written by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-44610271|title=Cockatoo identified in 13th Century European book|work=BBC News|date=26 June 2018|access-date=26 June 2018|archive-date=26 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626131645/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-44610271|url-status=live}}</ref> The next European depiction of a cockatoo, previously thought to be the earliest, is present in the 1496 painting by [[Andrea Mantegna]] titled [[Madonna della Vittoria]]. Later examples were painted by Hungarian artist [[Jakob Bogdani]] (1660–1724), who resided in Amsterdam from 1683 and then England,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Elphick|first=Jonathan|title=Birds: The Art of Ornithology|publisher=Natural History Museum|location=London|year=2004|page=24|isbn=978-1-902686-66-0 }}</ref> and appeared with numerous other birds in the bird pieces of the Dutch painter [[Melchior d'Hondecoeter]] (1636–1695).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/tentoonstellingen/hondecoeter?lang=en|title=Melchior d'Hondecoeter: Fowl|year=2008|publisher=Rijksmuseum|access-date=12 December 2009|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091224045023/http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/tentoonstellingen/hondecoeter?lang=en|archive-date=24 December 2009|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A cockatoo is the unlucky subject in ''[[An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump]]'' by English artist [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], its fate unclear in the painting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/joseph-wright-of-derby-an-experiment-on-a-bird-in-the-air-pump/*/x/-218/y/-230/z/3|title=An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump|publisher=The National Gallery|access-date=12 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524005529/http://nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/joseph-wright-of-derby-an-experiment-on-a-bird-in-the-air-pump/*/x/-218/y/-230/z/3|archive-date=24 May 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Cockatoos were among the many Australian plants and animals which featured in decorative motifs in [[Federation architecture]] of the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fraser |first=Hugh|author2=Joyce, Ray |title=The Federation House&nbsp;– Australia's Own Style|publisher=Weldon Publishing|location=Willoughby, NSW|year=1989|isbn=978-1-86302-033-6|page=103}}</ref> A visit to a Camden Town pet shop in 1958 inspired English painter William Roberts to paint ''The Cockatoos'', in the collection of the Tate Gallery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/ViewWork?cgroupid=999999977&workid=12658&searchid=20543|title=The Cockatoos 1958|website=Tate Collection: William Roberts 1895–1980|publisher=Tate Gallery|access-date=12 December 2009|archive-date=11 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111220923/http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/ViewWork?cgroupid=999999977&workid=12658&searchid=20543|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Painting+on+a+perch%3A+parrots+are+an+enduring+theme+in+European+art,...-a0162301748|title=Painting on a perch: parrots are an enduring theme in European art, as Averil King learned at an unusual exhibition at the Barber Institute|last=King|first=Averil|year=2007|journal=Apollo Magazine|access-date=12 December 2009|archive-date=1 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201185421/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Painting+on+a+perch%3A+parrots+are+an+enduring+theme+in+European+art,...-a0162301748|url-status=live}}</ref> American artist and sculptor [[Joseph Cornell]] was known for placing cutout paper cockatoos in his works.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=d'Harnoncourt|first=A|date=June 1978|title=The Cubist Cockatoo: A Preliminary Exploration of Joseph Cornell's Homages to Juan Gris|journal=Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=74|issue=321|pages=3–17|doi=10.2307/3795312|jstor=3795312}}</ref>

The [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|government of the Australian Capital Territory]] adopted the gang-gang cockatoo as its official faunal emblem on 27 February 1997.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/communication/flags|title=ACT Flags and Emblems|access-date=10 December 2009|publisher=Chief Minister's Department, ACT Government|archive-date=28 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028030719/http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/communication/flags|url-status=live}}</ref> The short-lived budget airline [[Impulse Airlines]] featured a sulphur-crested cockatoo on its corporate [[livery]] (and aeroplanes).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2001/photorelease/q1/photo_release_010109b.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010124080000/http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2001/photorelease/q1/photo_release_010109b.html|archive-date=2001-01-24|title=Impulse Airlines Boeing 717–200 Cockatoo Takes Off For Home|date=9 January 2001|access-date=10 December 2009|publisher=Boeing}}</ref> The palm cockatoo, which has a unique beak and face colouration, is used as a symbol by the [[World Parrot Trust]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parrots.org/|title=World Parrot Trust&nbsp;– Saving Parrots Worldwide|publisher=World Parrot Trust website|access-date=20 October 2009|archive-date=19 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019190123/http://www.parrots.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Two 1970s police dramas featured protagonists with pet cockatoos. In the 1973 film ''[[Serpico]]'', [[Al Pacino]]'s character had a pet white cockatoo and the television show ''[[Baretta]]'' saw [[Robert Blake (actor)|Robert Blake]]'s character with Fred the Triton cockatoo.<ref name="Rosenfeld">{{Cite book| last = Rosenfeld | first = Arthur | title = Exotic Pets | url = https://archive.org/details/exoticpets0000rose | url-access = limited | publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]] | location = New York | page = [https://archive.org/details/exoticpets0000rose/page/105 105] |year = 1989 | isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0}}</ref> The popularity of the latter show saw a corresponding rise in popularity of cockatoos as pets in the late 1970s.<ref name="Boehrer">{{Cite book | last =Boehrer | first =Bruce Thomas | title =Parrot Culture: Our 2500-Year-Long Fascination with the World's Most Talkative Bird | publisher =University of Pennsylvania Press | year =2004 | page =224 | isbn =978-0-8122-3793-1 | url =https://archive.org/details/parrotculture00bruc | url-access =limited }}</ref> Cockatoos have been used frequently in advertising; a cockatoo appeared in a 'cheeky' (and later toned-down) 2008 advertising campaign for Cockatoo Ridge Wineries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/story/0,668,23514325-5012985,00.html|title=Erin not amused by a cockatoo|date=10 April 2008|website=AdelaideNow|publisher=News Limited |access-date=20 October 2009}}</ref>

===Intelligence===
A team of scientists from [[Oxford University]], the [[University of Vienna]] and the [[Max Planck Society|Max Planck Institute]] conducted tests on ten untrained [[Tanimbar corella]]s (''Cacatua goffiniana''), and found that they were able to solve complex mechanical puzzles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130704095123.htm|title=Cockatoos 'pick' puzzle box locks: Cockatoos show technical intelligence on a five-lock problem|website=sciencedaily.com|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=27 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327213017/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130704095123.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Cited texts===
*{{Cite book |last=Athan |first=Mattie Sue |title=Guide to companion parrot behavior: with full-color photos and instructive line drawings |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |location=Woodbury, N.Y. |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7641-0688-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetocompanion00atha }}
*{{Cite book|last=Cameron |first=Matt |title=Cockatoos |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Collingwood, VIC, Australia |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-643-09232-7 }}
*{{Cite book|first1=Les |last1=Christidis |first2=Walter |last2=Boles |author-link1=Leslie Christidis |title=Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds |publisher=CSIRO Pub |location=Collingwood, VIC, Australia |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-643-06511-6 }}
*{{Cite book|first=Joseph M.|last=Forshaw|author-link=Joseph Forshaw|title=Parrots of the World; an Identification Guide|others=Illustrated by [[Frank Knight (artist)|Frank Knight]]|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-09251-5|year=2006|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/parrotsofworldid0000fors}}
*{{Cite book|first1=Joseph Michael |last1=Forshaw |first2=William T. |last2=Cooper |author-link2=William T. Cooper|title=Parrots of the world |edition=2nd |publisher=Lansdowne Editions |location=Melbourne |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-7018-0690-3 }}
*{{Cite book|first1=Neville William |last1=Cayley |first2=Alan H. |last2=Lendon |title=Australian parrots: in field and aviary |publisher=Angus & Robertson |location=Sydney |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-207-12424-2 }}
*{{Cite book|last=Low |first=Rosemary |author-link=Rosemary Low |title=The loving care of pet parrots |publisher=Hancock House |location=Saanichton, B.C. |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-88839-439-2 }}

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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090701034706/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/Cacatua_(Cacatua) Australian Faunal Directory]

{{Cockatoos}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q31448}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cacatuidae| ]]
[[Category:Parrots]]
[[Category:Birds of Oceania]]
[[Category:Taxa named by George Robert Gray]]