View source for Codex Leicester

{{Short description|Compiled famous scientific writings by Leonardo Da Vinci}}
{{for|the Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament also known as Codex Leicester|Minuscule 69}}
{{Infobox manuscript
| name                  = Codex Leicester<br>''Codex Hammer''
| location              = [[Bill Gates]] estate (since 11 November 1994)
<!----------Image---------->
| image                 = Vinci - Hammer 2A.jpg
| width                 = 300px
| alt                   = Photo of codex
<!----------General---------->
| Also known as         = <!-- alternative titles which do not belong in the subheader -->
| Type                  = [[Codex]]
| Date                  = {{circa|1506|1508}} and {{circa|1510|1512}}<ref>{{Citation |title=Leonardo da Vinci Rediscovered |last=Bambach |first=Carmen |volume=4 |pages=1 |publisher=New Haven and London |year=2019 |chapter=Appendix 1}}</ref>
| Place of origin       = [[Florence, Italy]]
| Language(s)           = [[Italian language|Italian]]
| Scribe(s)             = <!-- [[scribe]] -->
| Author(s)             = [[Leonardo da Vinci]]
<!----------Form and content---------->
| Material              = [[Rag paper]]
| Size                  = {{plainlist|
* 18 sheets, 72 [[folio]] pages
* ~{{convert|400|mm|abbr=on}} by ~{{convert|300|mm|abbr=on}}
}}
| Format                = <!-- e.g. double columns, large quarto -->
| Condition             = Unbound, separately mounted
| Script                = [[Handwritten]] [[mirror writing|mirror script]]
| Contents              = [[Renaissance science]]
| Additions             = [[Watermarks]] {{--}} {{hlist|[[cardinal hat]]|[[eagle (heraldry)|eagle]]|tulip|[[fleur-de-lis]]}}<ref>{{Citation |title=A powerful tool for paper studies: The ''Computation Coding'' of Watermarked Papers in Leonardo's Codex Leicester and Codex Arundel |last=Ellis |first=Margaret Holben |date= |work=The Quarterly |issue=119 |url=https://teche.museogalileo.it/leocode/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Ellis_Johnson_Codex_Leicester_Computational_Coding_Quarterly_2021.pdf |publisher=British Association of Paper Historians |last2=Sethares |first2=William A. |last3=Johnson, Jr. |first3=C. Richard}}</ref>
| Previously kept       = {{plainlist|
* [[Guglielmo della Porta]] (unknown)
* [[Giuseppe Ghezzi]] (until 1719)
* [[Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (fifth creation)|Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester]] (1719–1759)
* Leicester estate (1759–1980)
* [[Armand Hammer]] (1980-1994)
}}
| Other                 = <!-- further details -->
| below                 = <!-- text in bottom cell, intended for footnotes, see-also, and other such information. -->
}}

The '''Codex Leicester''' (also briefly known as the '''Codex Hammer''') is a collection of scientific writings by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. The [[codex]] is named after [[Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (fifth creation)|Thomas Coke, Earl of Leicester]], who purchased it in 1719. The codex provides an insight into the mind of the [[Renaissance]] artist, scientist and thinker, as well as an exceptional illustration of the link between art and science and the creativity of the [[scientific method|scientific process]].<ref>Leonardo (da Vinci), Kenneth David Keele, [[Jane, Lady Roberts|Jane Roberts]], ''Leonardo Da Vinci: Anatomical Drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle'', New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1983</ref>

When the manuscript was last sold to [[Bill Gates]] at [[Christie's]] auction house on 11 November 1994 in New York for {{currency|30,802,500|USD}} (equivalent to ${{inflation|US|30.8025|1994|r=0}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation-year|US}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1994?amount=30802500|access-date=30 July 2022|title=$30,802,500 in 1994 → 2022 {{!}} Inflation Calculator}}</ref>), it was the most expensive manuscript ever sold.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|title=BBC News: Bay Psalm Book is most expensive printed work at $14.2m|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-25115524|work=BBC News|access-date=30 November 2013|date=27 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Christie's" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/mormon-church-drops-35-million-on-printers-manuscript-of-the-book-of-mormon_us_59c42a12e4b06ddf45f6b427|title=Mormon Church Drops $35 Million On Printer's Manuscript Of The Book Of Mormon|last=Kuruvilla|first=Carol|date=2017-09-22|work=Huffington Post|access-date=2017-09-25|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Manuscript==
The leather-bound notebook comprises 36 sheets, 29&nbsp;×&nbsp;22&nbsp;cm. The manuscript is not a single linear script but a mixture of Leonardo's observations and theories on [[astronomy]] and the properties of water, rocks, fossils, air, and celestial light. The topics addressed include:<ref name="bluk" />

* An explanation of why [[fossil]]s of sea creatures can be found on mountains. Hundreds of years before [[plate tectonics]] became accepted scientific theory, Leonardo believed that mountains had previously formed sea beds, which were gradually lifted until they formed mountains.<ref name="bluk" />
* The [[Hydrodynamics|movement of water]]. This is the main topic of the Codex Leicester. Among other things, Leonardo wrote about the flow of water in rivers and how it is affected by different obstacles put in its way. He made recommendations about bridge construction and [[erosion]] from his observations.<ref name="bluk">{{cite web|title=An introduction to Leonardo da Vinci's Codices Arundel and Leicester|url=https://www.bl.uk/ttp2/pdf/leonardodean.pdf|access-date=11 February 2017|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011102306/http://www.bl.uk/ttp2/pdf/leonardodean.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The luminosity of the [[Moon]]. Leonardo speculated that the Moon's surface is covered by water, reflecting the Sun's light. In this model, waves on the water's surface cause the light to be reflected in many directions, explaining why the Moon is not as bright as the Sun. Leonardo explained that the pale glow on the dark portion of the crescent Moon is caused by sunlight reflected from the Earth. Thus, he described the phenomenon of [[planetshine]] one hundred years before the German astronomer [[Johannes Kepler]] proved it.<ref name="bluk" />

The codex consists of 18 sheets of paper, each folded in half and written on both sides, forming the complete 72-page document.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oldbid.com/news/decoart/the-most-expensive-antique-items-ever-sold-part-ii/|title=The Most Expensive Antique Items Ever Sold: Part II|date=2 August 2018|access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref> At one time the sheets were bound together, but they are now displayed separately. It was handwritten in [[Italian language|Italian]] by Leonardo, using his characteristic [[mirror writing]], and supported by copious drawings and diagrams.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Sunday Tribune – Spectrum|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090830/spectrum/art.htm|website=www.tribuneindia.com}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Historical owners ===
* [[Guglielmo della Porta]], [[Michelangelo]]'s student (?)
* [[Giuseppe Ghezzi]] (until 1719)
* [[Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (fifth creation)|Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester]] (1719–1759)
* Leicester estate (1759–1980)

=== Codex Hammer ===
The codex was purchased at auction from the Leicester estate in 1980 by the wealthy industrialist and art collector [[Armand Hammer]], for $5.1&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|5.1|1980}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation-year|US}}); he later renamed the notebook the Codex Hammer.<ref>{{cite news|last=Christopher Reynolds and Hugh Hart|title=The Da Vinci codex versus the museum code|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-jan-15-et-hammer15-story.html|access-date=27 March 2013|newspaper=LA Times|date=15 January 2007}}</ref> Hammer commissioned Leonardo da Vinci scholar [[Carlo Pedretti]] to compile the loose pages of the codex back into its original form. Over the next seven years, Pedretti translated each page to English, completing the project in 1987.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pedretti|first1=Carlo (introduction)|last2=Roberts|first2=Jane (catalogue)|title=Leonardo da Vinci: the Codex Hammer: formerly the Codex Leicester|date=1981|publisher=Armand Hammer Foundation|location=Los Angeles|isbn=0384205909}}</ref>

=== Bill Gates ===
The codex was sold to [[Bill Gates]] by [[Christie's]] auction house on 11 November 1994 in New York for {{currency|30802500|USD}}.<ref name="Christie's">{{cite web|url=http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/the-leonardo-da-vinci-codex-hammer-2465002-details.aspx?from=searchresults&intObjectID=2465002&sid=5e1d02d9-a507-4a1e-9754-562094d8cea2 |title=Christie, Manson and Woods, sale 8030, 11 November 1994 |publisher=Christies.com |date=1994-11-11 |access-date=2013-07-23}}</ref> Until 2021, the codex remained the most expensive book ever sold.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-19 |title=Rare first printing of US Constitution sells for record $43M |url=https://apnews.com/article/cryptocurrency-technology-lifestyle-business-arts-and-entertainment-b0ab721a52cf20f2dc1a923f2dae3347 |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>

After Gates acquired the codex, he had its pages scanned into digital image files, some of which were later distributed as [[screensaver]] and [[Wallpaper (computing)|wallpaper]] files on a [[CD-ROM]] as part of a [[Microsoft Plus|Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95]] desktop theme, which would later be included with [[Windows 98]] and [[Windows ME]]. A comprehensive CD-ROM version (titled ''[[Leonardo da Vinci (video game)|Leonardo da Vinci]]'') was released by [[Branded Entertainment Network|Corbis]] in 1997.

The Codex Leicester has been unbound and each page individually mounted between glass panes. It is on public display once a year in a different city worldwide. In 2000, it was displayed at Sydney's Powerhouse Museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/stories/s172765.htm |title=The World Today Archive – Leonardo da Vinci manuscript on display |publisher=Abc.net.au |access-date=2013-07-23}}</ref> In 2004, it was exhibited in the [[Château de Chambord]], and 2005 in [[Tokyo]]. One page was exhibited at the [[Seattle Museum of Flight]]'s 2006 exhibit ''Leonardo da Vinci: Man, Inventor, Genius''. From June to August 2007, the codex was the centerpiece of a two-month exhibition hosted by the [[Chester Beatty Library]] in [[Dublin]]. The codex was on view at the [[Phoenix Art Museum]] in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], from 24 January 2015 to 12 April 2015 for the exhibition ''Leonardo Da Vinci's Codex Leicester and the Power of Observation''. Its presentation at the Phoenix Art Museum was the first time a work by Leonardo was displayed in Arizona.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phxart.org/exhibition/codexleicester|title=Phoenix Art Museum – Exhibition Exhibitions|access-date=26 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930154048/http://www.phxart.org/exhibition/codexleicester|archive-date=30 September 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> The codex was then on view at the [[Minneapolis Institute of Arts]] in an exhibition ''Leonardo Da Vinci, the Codex Leicester, and the Creative Mind'' that opened 21 June 2015, where it remained on display until 30 August 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://new.artsmia.org/davinci-codex/|title=Leonardo da Vinci, the Codex Leicester, and the Creative Mind — Minneapolis Institute of Art – Minneapolis Institute of Art|work=Minneapolis Institute of Art}}</ref> As part of the same tour, the Codex Leicester was also on display at the [[North Carolina Museum of Art]] in Raleigh, North Carolina from 31 October 2015 to 17 January 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ncartmuseum.org/exhibitions/view/11361|title=Leonardo da Vinci's Codex Leicester and the Creative Mind – Exhibitions – NCMA – North Carolina Museum of Art|date=11 March 2021 }}</ref>

For the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death, the Codex Leicester was on display from 29 October 2018 to 20 January 2019 in [[Florence]] at the Aula Magliabechiana of the [[Uffizi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Presented to the press the Codex Leicester by Leonardo da Vinci on view at the Uffizi |url=https://www.uffizi.it/en/notices/presented-to-the-press-the-codex-leicester-by-leonardo-da-vinci-on-view-at-the-uffizi |website=Le Gallerie Degli Uffizi |access-date=18 September 2020}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of most expensive books and manuscripts]]
* [[List of works by Leonardo da Vinci]]
* [[Codex Atlanticus]]
* [[Codex Arundel]]
* [[Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp]]
*

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|title=Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, selected by Irma A. Richter|editor=Thereza Wells|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2008|edition=new|series=Oxford World's Classics|isbn=978-0-19-929902-7}}
* {{cite book | author = Christie's Auction House | title = The Codex Leicester by Leonardo Da Vinci | publisher = Christie's | year = 1980}}. Sale catalogue, held on Friday 12 December 1980.
* {{cite book | author = Jean Paul Richter | author-link = Jean Paul Richter | title = The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/notebooksofleona01leon | url-access = registration | publisher = Dover | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-486-22572-0}} volume 2: {{ISBN|0-486-22573-9}}. A reprint of [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5000 the original 1883 edition].

==External links==
{{commons category|Codex Leicester (Leonardo da Vinci)}}
* [https://therefor.life/leonardo-da-vinci-the-codex-leicester-event-in-tokyo/ News report of Japan opening, September 2005]
* [http://www.odranoel.de?lang=eng Leonardo da Vinci: The Codex Leicester]
* [http://www.cbl.ie Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, Ireland]
* [http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/the-leonardo-da-vinci-codex-hammer-2465002-details.aspx?from=searchresults&intObjectID=2465002&sid=5e1d02d9-a507-4a1e-9754-562094d8cea2 The sale of the Codex Hammer, 11 November 1994]
* [https://mostre.museogalileo.it/codiceleicester/en/ Water as Microscope of Nature: Leonardo da Vinci's Codex Leicester, exhibition in Florence, Uffizi Galleries]

== See also ==

* [[Codex Windsor]]
{{Leonardo da Vinci}}{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}

[[Category:16th-century books]]
[[Category:Bill Gates]]
[[Category:Codices by Leonardo da Vinci]]
[[Category:Scientific illuminated manuscripts]]

[[ja:レオナルド・ダ・ヴィンチ手稿]]