View source for Coffee

{{Short description|Brewed beverage}}
{{About|the beverage}}
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{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox drink
| name = Coffee
| image = Latte and dark coffee.jpg
| image_alt = 
| image_size = 250px
| caption = [[Espresso]] [[latte]] and [[#Serving|black filtered coffee]]
| type = Usually hot, can be iced
| introduced = 15th century
| color = Black, dark brown, light brown, beige
| origin = [[Yemen]]<!-- This parameter is reserved for the origin of the drink ONLY, DO NOT add the origins of the tree (e.g., Ethiopia, Horn of Africa); those are stated in the respective articles and elsewhere in this article. --><ref name="ukers">{{Cite book |last=Ukers |first=William Harrison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4O_RAAAAMAAJ |title=All About Coffee (revised 1935) |date=1922 |publisher=Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSw7AAAAIAAJ |title=Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science |date=1967 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore |page=25 |ref=none}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elzebroek |first=A. T. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvU1XnUVxFQC |title=Guide to Cultivated Plants |date=2008 |publisher=[[CAB International|CABI]] |isbn=978-1-84593-356-2 |location=Wallingford, UK |page=7 |ref=none}}</ref>
| flavor = Distinctive, somewhat bitter
| ingredients = Roasted [[coffee bean]]s
}}
'''Coffee''' is a beverage [[Coffee brew|brewed]] from roasted, ground [[coffee bean]]s. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a [[Stimulant|stimulating effect]] on humans, primarily due to its [[caffeine]] content, but [[decaffeinated]] coffee is also commercially available. There are also various [[coffee substitute]]s. 

Coffee production begins when the seeds from coffee cherries (the ''[[Coffea]]'' plant's fruits) are separated to produce unroasted green coffee beans. The "beans" are [[Coffee roasting|roasted]] and then ground into fine particles. Coffee is brewed from the ground roasted beans, which are typically steeped in hot water before being filtered out. It is usually served hot, although chilled or [[iced coffee]] is common. Coffee can be [[Coffee preparation|prepared]] and presented in [[List of coffee drinks|a variety of ways]] (e.g., [[espresso]], [[French press]], caffè [[latte]], or already-brewed [[canned coffee]]). Sugar, sugar substitutes, milk, and cream are often added to mask the bitter taste or enhance the flavor.

Though coffee is now a global commodity, it has [[History of coffee|a long history]] tied closely to food traditions around the [[Red Sea]]. The earliest credible reports of coffee drinking pertain to the plant's use among the [[Sufi]]s of Yemen ([[South Arabia|southern Arabia]]) in the middle of the 15th century.<ref name="Wein34">{{harvnb|Weinberg|Bealer|2001|pages=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of coffee {{!}} Origin, Spread, Ethiopia, Arabia, Facts, & Timeline {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-coffee |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=At some point, perhaps as late as the 15th century, coffee plants were taken across the Red Sea to southern Arabia (Yemen) and placed under cultivation. Tradition holds that Sufi monks were among the first to brew coffee as a beverage and used the stimulation to pray through the night.}}</ref> Up to the end of the 17th century, most of the world’s coffee was imported from Yemen. But as the beverage gained in popularity, coffee started to be cultivated in [[Java]] in the 17th century, as well as in the [[Americas]] from the 18th century onward.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=History of coffee {{!}} Origin, Spread, Ethiopia, Arabia, Facts, & Timeline {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-coffee |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=Until the close of the 17th century the world’s limited supply of coffee was obtained almost entirely from the province of Yemen in southern Arabia. But with the increasing popularity of the beverage, the propagation of the plant spread rapidly to Java and other islands of the Indonesian archipelago in the 17th century and to the Americas in the 18th century. Coffee cultivation was started in the Hawaiian Islands in 1825.}}</ref>

The two most commonly grown coffee bean types are ''[[Coffea arabica|C.&nbsp;arabica]]'' and ''[[Robusta coffee|C.&nbsp;robusta]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2021 |title=A Guide To Different Types Of Coffee Beans, Roasts & Drinks |url=https://fluentincoffee.com/types-of-coffee/ |access-date=16 January 2018}}</ref> Coffee plants are cultivated in [[List of countries by coffee production|over 70 countries]], primarily in the equatorial regions of the Americas, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Africa. Green, unroasted coffee is traded as an agricultural commodity. The [[International Coffee Organization|global coffee industry]] is worth $495.50&nbsp;billion, as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=33+ Buzzing Coffee Industry Statistics [2023]: Cafes, Consumption, And Market Trends |url=https://www.zippia.com/advice/coffee-industry-statistics/ |access-date=25 December 2023 |website=Zippia}}</ref> In 2023, Brazil was the leading grower of coffee beans, producing 31% of the world's total, followed by Vietnam. While coffee sales reach billions of dollars annually worldwide, coffee farmers disproportionately live in poverty. Critics of the [[Economics of coffee|coffee industry]] have pointed to its negative impact on the environment, including [[Deforestation|clearing of land]] for coffee growing and water use.

== Etymology ==
[[File:Coffee beans unroasted.jpg|thumb|''Green coffee'' describes the beans before roasting.]]

The word ''coffee'' entered the English language in 1582 via the Dutch {{lang|nl|koffie}}, borrowed from the Ottoman Turkish {{lang|ota-Latn|kahve}} ({{lang|ota|قهوه}}), borrowed in turn from the Arabic {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} ({{lang|ar|قَهْوَة|rtl=yes}}).<ref name="OED">{{Cite OED1 |term=Coffee |year=1893 |page=589, Col. 3 |volume=2}}{{URL|https://archive.org/stream/oed02arch#page/588/mode/2up|Text at Internet Archive}}</ref> Medieval Arabic lexicons traditionally held that the etymology of {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} meant 'wine', given its distinctly dark color, and was derived from the verb {{lang|ar-Latn|qahiya}} ({{lang|ar|قَهِيَ|rtl=yes}}), '[[Anorectic|to have no appetite]]'.<ref name="Kaye">{{Cite journal |last=Kaye |first=Alan S. |date=1986 |title=The Etymology of "Coffee": The Dark Brew |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/602112 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=557–558 |doi=10.2307/602112 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=602112 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The word {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} most likely meant 'the dark one', referring to the brew or the bean; {{lang|ar-Latn|qahwah}} is not the name of the bean, which are known in Arabic as {{Lang|ar-latn|bunn}} and in [[Cushitic languages]] as {{Lang|cus-latn|būn}}. Semitic languages have the root {{Lang|sem-latn|qhh}}, 'dark color', which became a natural designation for the beverage. Its cognates include the Hebrew {{Lang|he-latn|qehe(h)}} 'dulling' and the [[Aramaic]] ''qahey''<!-- which lang code? --> ('give acrid taste to').<ref name="Kaye" /> Although etymologists have connected it with a word meaning {{Gloss|wine}}, it is also thought to be from the [[Kaffa Province|Kaffa]] region of Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=coffee &#124; Etymology, origin and meaning of coffee by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coffee |website=www.etymonline.com}}</ref>

The terms ''[[coffee pot]]'' and ''[[coffee break]]'' originated in 1705 and 1952, respectively.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=coffee |url=https://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=coffee |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007110923/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=coffee |archive-date=7 October 2015 |access-date=18 November 2015 |work=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of coffee}}
<!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: This section is kept in harmony with [[history of coffee]], as a summary of that more detailed article. Please check the information on that article before any major update here. -->

=== Historical transmission ===
[[File:The_Vertue_of_the_COFFEE_Drink.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1652 handbill advertising coffee for sale in St. Michael's Alley, London]]The earliest recorded reference to the [[coffee bean]] and its qualities appears in a treatise by Al-Razi, which describes the bean, referred to as "bunchum", as "hot and dry and very good for the stomach". According to later accounts, bunchum was made from a root rather than from coffee beans.<ref name=":0">{{cite thesis |last=Sweetser |first=Heather Marie |title=A Chapter in the History of Coffee: A Critical Edition and Translation of Murtaḍā az-Zabı̄dı̄'s Epistle on Coffee |type=Master's thesis |publisher=The Ohio State University |page=8 |year=2012}}</ref> There is no confirmed evidence, either historical or archaeological, of coffee as a drink being consumed before the 15th century. The beverage appears to be a relatively recent development. By the late 15th century, coffee drinking was well established among Sufi communities in Yemen.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Quickel |first=Anthony T. |date=2021 |title=Cairo and Coffee in the Transottoman Trade Network |url=https://www.academia.edu/83782069 |journal=Transottoman Matters |pages=84–85 |doi=10.14220/9783737011686.83 |isbn=978-3-8471-1168-9 |quote=Thus, Hattox argues that it is possible to conclude,on the basis of no earlier references in the historical sources, that coffee was first introduced into the Islamicate lands from Yemen in the mid-fifteenth century.|doi-access=free }}</ref>

One of the most important of the early writers on coffee was [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaziri]], who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled ''Umdat al Safwa fi hill al-qahwa'' in which he claims that the coffee bean originated in the "land of [[Sa'ad ad-Din II|Sa'ad ad-Din]], and the country of [[Abyssinia]], and of the [[Jabarti|Jabart]], and other places of the land of ‘[[Ajam]], but the time of its first use is unknown, nor do we know the reason." Al-Jazīrī asserts that coffee was introduced to [[Cairo]] at the start of the 16th century by Sufi devotees.<ref>{{cite book |last=Quickel |first=Anthony T. |title=Transottoman Matters |publisher=Brill |year=2022 |editor1=Arkadiusz Christoph Blaszczyk |pages=84–85 |chapter=Cairo and Coffee in the Transottoman Trade Network |quote=, the beans made their way to Yemen, a fact realized by al-Jazı¯rı¯(c. 1558), who was an important sixteenth-century writer on the topic of coffee. |editor2=Robert Born}}</ref> 

The 16th century Islamic scholar [[Ibn Hajar al-Haytami]] writes about the plant’s development from a tree in the [[Zeila (historical region)|Zeila region]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Waines |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beR5DwAAQBAJ&dq=husk+of+the+bunn+,+a+tree+introduced+from+the&pg=PA144 |title=Food Culture and Health in Pre-Modern Muslim Societies |date=November 2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-21662-4 |page=144}}</ref> In 1542, a Portuguese crew met with a ship from Zeila transporting clarified butter and coffee to [[Al-Shihr]] in Yemen.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Altinbas |first1=Nihan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6Y2DwAAQBAJ&dq=Zeila+coffee&pg=PA121 |title=American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 30:3 |last2=Hashim |first2=Yousef Rahath and Rsnani |last3=Islam |first3=Tazul |last4=O'Brien |first4=Peter |last5=al-Azami |first5=Usaama |last6=Johnston |first6=David L. |last7=Rufai |first7=Saheed Ahmad |last8=Ebrahimian |first8=Mojtaba |last9=Piela |first9=Anna |date=2013-06-11 |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) |pages=121–122 |language=en}}</ref> The use of coffee is believed to have spread across the Red Sea to the [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulid]] sultanate of Yemen, who maintained cultural and commercial ties with the [[Adal Sultanate]]. Its consumption first appears in Yemen, particularly in regions such as [[Aden]], [[Mokha|Mocha]] and [[Zabid]] during the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clarence-Smith |first1=William Gervase |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xMkTK9Vi62wC&dq=rasulid+yemen+coffee&pg=PA51 |title=The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500–1989 |last2=Topik |first2=Steven |date=2003-06-16 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-43839-1 |pages=51 |language=en |quote=Ethiopian forests, especially to the west of the Great Rift Valley, abound in wild arabica coffee, but we know very little about the origins of consumption there.¹ Coffee was probably long picked from the wild, and it was used to an increasing extent from the fourteenth century by the Islamized peoples of southeastern Ethiopia. The coffee habit diffused to the Rasulid sultanate in Yemen, which had strong commercial and cultural connections with Muslim kingdoms in Ethiopia. The consumption of coffee spread first around Aden, Mocha, and Zabid during the first half of the fifteenth century.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C80MAQAAMAAJ |title=Yemen Update: Bulletin of the American Institute for Yemeni Studies |date=2002 |publisher=The Institute |pages=39 |language=en}}</ref> Because of coffee's association with [[Muslims]], the Christian [[Ethiopian Empire]] avoided it until the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Insoll |first=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frC8SAu9QxQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gb_mobile_entity&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=en&gl=GB&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Coffee%20Avoided&f=false |title=The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa |date=2003-07-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65702-0 |pages=73 |language=en}}</ref>  

Other sources of coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century in the accounts of Ahmed al-Ghaffar in Yemen,<ref name="Wein34" /> where coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a similar way to how it is prepared now. Coffee was used by Sufi circles to stay awake for their religious rituals.<ref name="encyclopedia-of-islam-kawah">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1993 |title=Ḳawah |encyclopedia=First Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[E.J. Brill]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&q=coffee+history+brill&pg=PA635 |access-date=11 January 2016 |editor1-last=Houtsma |editor1-first=M. Th. |volume=IV |page=631 |isbn=978-90-04-09790-2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327100329/https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&q=coffee+history+brill&pg=PA635 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |editor2-last=Wensinck |editor2-first=A. J. |editor3-last=Arnold |editor3-first=T. W. |editor4-last=Heffening |editor4-first=W. |editor5-last=Lévi-Provençal |editor5-first=E.}}</ref> Accounts differ on the origin of the coffee plant before its appearance in Yemen. Coffee may have been introduced to Yemen from Ethiopia via trade across the Red Sea.{{sfn |Souza |2008 |p=3}} One account credits Muhammad Ibn Sa'd al-Dhabḥani for bringing coffee to Aden from the Somali coast,<ref name="Hattox-1985">{{cite book |last1=Hattox |first1=Ralph S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeXkAwAAQBAJ&q=coffee+and+coffeehouses+much+of+his+material&pg=PA14 |title=Coffee and coffeehouses: The origins of a social beverage in the medieval Near East |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-295-96231-3 |page=14 |access-date=6 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327100327/https://books.google.com/books?id=MeXkAwAAQBAJ&q=coffee+and+coffeehouses+much+of+his+material&pg=PA14 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> other early accounts say Ali ben Omar of the [[Shadhili]] Sufi order was the first to introduce coffee to Arabia.<ref name="Hattox-1985" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard F. |url=https://archive.org/details/firstfootstepsi00burtgoog |title=First footsteps in East Africa |publisher=Longman |year=1856 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/firstfootstepsi00burtgoog/page/n136 78] |quote=ali omar coffee yemen.}}</ref><ref name="encyclopedia-of-islam-kawah" /> 

By the 16th century, coffee had reached the rest of the Middle East and North Africa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wild |first1=Antony |url=https://archive.org/details/coffeedarkhistor0000wild_n9a5 |title=Coffee: A Dark History |date=2004 |publisher=Fourth Estate |isbn=978-1-84115-649-1 |pages=52–53}}</ref> The first coffee seeds were smuggled out of the Middle East by Sufi [[Baba Budan]] from Yemen to India during the time. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or otherwise sterilized. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having smuggled seven coffee seeds by strapping them to his chest. The first plants from these smuggled seeds were planted in [[Mysore]].

In 1583, [[Leonhard Rauwolf]], a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East:
{{quote|text=A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu. |sign=Léonard Rauwolf |source={{lang|de|Reise in die Morgenländer}} (in German)}}<!-- see [[Talk:Coffee#Reise in die Morgenländer - Rauwolf]] -->

Within the [[Ottoman Empire]], the first coffeehouse opened in 1555 in Tahtakale, Istanbul.<ref name=":1">{{Cite thesis |last=Aslı |first=Tokman |title=Negotiating tradition, modernity and identity in consumer space : a study of a shopping mall and revived coffeehouse |date=2001 |publisher=Bilkent University |language=en |hdl=11693/14808}}</ref> Since Tahtakale is to the West of the [[Bosporus strait]], this would likely have been the first coffee house in Europe. Thriving trade brought many goods, including coffee, from the Ottoman Empire to Venice. Coffee became more widely accepted in Europe after it was deemed a Christian beverage by [[Pope Clement VIII]] in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink". [[Coffee in Italy|Coffee had spread to Italy]] by 1600 and then to the rest of Europe, Indonesia, and the Americas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Attokaran |first=Mathew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qcvAoMPYW4C |title=Natural Food Flavors and Colorants |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-95911-4 |language=en}}</ref> The first European [[coffeehouse]] outside of the Ottoman Empire opened in Venice in 1647.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Viennese coffee house culture |url=https://www.wien.gv.at/english/culture-history/viennese-coffee-culture.html |website=www.wien.gv.at}}</ref> 

=== As a colonial import ===
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 330
| image1            = Mason's essence of coffee and chicory advert.jpg
| caption1          = A late 19th-century advertisement for coffee essence
| image2            = Washington Coffee New York Tribune.JPG
| caption2          = A 1919 advertisement for ''G&nbsp;Washington's Coffee''. The inventor [[George Washington (inventor)|George Washington]] developed methods for large scale commercial manufacture of instant coffee.
| align             = left
}}

The [[Dutch East India Company]] was the first to import coffee on a large scale.<ref name="ukers" /> The Dutch later grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.<ref name="plant" /> The first exports of [[Coffee production in Indonesia|Indonesian coffee]] from Java to the Netherlands occurred in 1711.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fischer |first=Dieter |title=History of Indonesian coffee |url=https://www.sca-indo.org/history-of-indonesia/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805085443/https://www.sca-indo.org/history-of-indonesia/ |archive-date=5 August 2009 |access-date=12 February 2010 |publisher=[[Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia]]}}</ref>

Through the efforts of the [[Honourable East India Company|British East India Company]], coffee became popular in England. In a diary entry of May 1637, [[John Evelyn]] records tasting the drink at [[Oxford]], where it had been brought by a student of [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]] from [[Crete]] named Nathaniel Conopios of Crete.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caffeine and plants prototype page |url=https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/tilling/oxfordcoffeeclub.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407191718/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/tilling/oxfordcoffeeclub.htm |archive-date=7 April 2022 |access-date=23 February 2022}}</ref><ref>Diary of John Evelyn (various editions)</ref> Oxford's [[Queen's Lane Coffee House]], established in 1654, is still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France in 1657 and in Austria and Poland after the 1683 [[Battle of Vienna]], when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated Turks.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=9}}

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as in Europe, as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the Revolutionary War, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants,{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=39}} and a general resolution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea following the 1773 [[Boston Tea Party]].<ref>(1) {{cite web |last=Adams |first=John |author-link=John Adams |date=6 July 1774 |title=John Adams to Abigail Adams |url=https://www.masshist.org/publications/apde/portia.php?id=AFC01d090 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Nf94i40v?url=https://www.masshist.org/publications/apde/portia.php?id=AFC01d090 |archive-date=26 February 2014 |access-date=25 February 2014 |website=The Adams Papers: Digital Editions: Adams Family Correspondence, Volume 1 |publisher=[[Massachusetts Historical Society]] |quote=I believe I forgot to tell you one Anecdote: When I first came to this House it was late in the Afternoon, and I had ridden 35 miles at least. "Madam" said I to Mrs. Huston, "is it lawful for a weary Traveller to refresh himself with a Dish of Tea provided it has been honestly smuggled or paid no Duties?"<br/>"No sir, said she, we have renounced all Tea in this Place. I can't make Tea, but I'll make you Coffee." Accordingly, I have drunk Coffee every Afternoon since and have borne it very well. Tea must be universally renounced. I must be weaned, and the sooner, the better.}}<br />(2) {{cite book |last=Stone |first=William L. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4UBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA147 |chapter=Continuation of Mrs. General Riedesel's Adventures |title=Mrs. General Riedesel: Letters and Journals relating to the War of Independence and the Capture of the Troops at Saratoga (Translated from the Original German) |page=147 |location=Albany |publisher=Joel Munsell |year=1867 |quote=She then became more gentle, and offered me bread and milk. I made tea for ourselves. The woman eyed us longingly, for the Americans love it very much; but they had resolved to drink it no longer, as the famous duty on the tea had occasioned the war. |title-link=Frederika Charlotte Riedesel |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=28 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928005746/https://books.google.com/books?id=q4UBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA147 |url-status=live}} At [[Google Books]]. Note: Fredricka Charlotte Riedesel was the wife of General [[Friedrich Adolf Riedesel]], commander of all German and Indian troops in [[John Burgoyne|General John Burgoyne's]] [[Saratoga campaign]] and American prisoner of war during the [[American Revolution]].<br />(3) {{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxCBfNmnvFEC&pg=PA21 |last1=Heiss |first1=Mary Lou |last2=Heiss |first2=Robert J. |year=2007 |title=The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide |chapter=A History of Tea: The Boston Tea Party |pages=21–24 |publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed |access-date=18 November 2015 |isbn=978-1-60774-172-5 |archive-date=3 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003101744/https://books.google.com/books?id=gxCBfNmnvFEC&pg=PA21 |url-status=live}} At [[Google Books]].<br />(4) {{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/04/24/178625554/how-coffee-influenced-the-course-of-history |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Nf7LDbUd?url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/04/24/178625554/how-coffee-influenced-the-course-of-history |archive-date=26 February 2014 |title=How Coffee Influenced The Course of History |last=Zuraw |first=Lydia |date=24 April 2013 |publisher=[[NPR]] |access-date=25 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}<br />(5) {{cite web |last=DeRupo |first=Joseph |url=https://www.ncacoffeeblog.org/tag/american-revolution/ |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Nf9tue1L?url=https://www.ncacoffeeblog.org/tag/american-revolution/ |archive-date=26 February 2014 |title=American Revolution: Stars, Stripes—and Beans |website=NCA News |publisher=[[National Coffee Association]] |date=3 July 2013 |access-date=25 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}<br />(6) {{cite book |last1=Luttinger |first1=Nina |last2=Dicum |first2=Gregory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jP99B9uAdv4C |title=The coffee book: anatomy of an industry from crop to the last drop |publisher=[[The New Press]] |year=2006 |page=33 |access-date=18 November 2015 |isbn=978-1-59558-724-4 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831023049/https://books.google.com/books?id=jP99B9uAdv4C |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

During the 18th century, coffee consumption declined in Britain, giving way to [[Tea culture|tea drinking]]. [[Tea]] was simpler to make and had become cheaper with the British conquest of India and the tea industry there.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=13}} During the [[Age of Sail]], seamen aboard ships of the British Royal Navy made substitute coffee by dissolving burnt bread in hot water.<ref name="Fremont-Barnes2005">{{cite book |last=Fremont-Barnes |first=Gregory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onG2bNL2dJEC&pg=PA24 |title=Nelson's Sailors |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84176-906-6 |page=24 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026135233/https://books.google.com/books?id=onG2bNL2dJEC&pg=PA24 |archive-date=26 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to Captain Haines, who was the colonial administrator of [[Aden]] (1839–1854), Mokha historically imported up to two-thirds of its coffee from Berbera-based merchants before the coffee trade of Mokha was captured by British-controlled Aden in the 19th century. After that, much of the Ethiopian coffee was exported to Aden via Berbera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=R. J. |first1=Gavin |title=Aden Under British Rule, 1839–1967 |date=1975 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |pages=53 |language=en}}</ref>

Frenchman [[Gabriel de Clieu]] took a coffee plant to the French territory of [[Martinique]] in the Caribbean in the 1720s,<ref>{{cite book |last=Lacour |first=Auguste |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cch7AAAAMAAJ |title=Histoire de la Guadeloupe 1635–1789 |date=1855 |publisher=E. Kolodziej |volume=1 |location=Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe |page=235''ff'' |language=fr |trans-title=History of Guadeloupe 1635–1789 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726153705/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cch7AAAAMAAJ |archive-date=26 July 2020 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas.{{sfn|Pendergrast|2001|page=14}} Coffee was cultivated in [[Saint-Domingue]] (now Haiti) from 1734, and by 1788 it had supplied half the world's coffee.<ref name="Pendergrast 2010">{{cite book |last=Pendergrast |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njNk0ojWXH8C&pg=PA17 |title=Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-465-02404-9 |page=17 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025104751/https://books.google.com/books?id=njNk0ojWXH8C&pg=PA17 |archive-date=25 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The conditions that the enslaved people worked in on coffee plantations were a factor in the [[Haitian Revolution]], and the coffee industry never fully recovered there.{{sfn|Pendergrast|2001|page=16}}
=== Mass production ===
[[File:Mocha1692.jpg|thumb|The port city Mocha in Yemen 1692. ]]
In the late 16th century, Yemen developed a booming coffee economy. Farmers grew coffee on mountain terraces above the [[Tihamah]] plain, and trade routes linked its ports to [[Jeddah]] and Cairo. By the 17th century, coffee had surpassed the global [[spice trade]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Coffee in the Red Sea Area from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290947259 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20210304103422/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290947259_Coffee_in_the_Red_Sea_Area_from_the_Sixteenth_to_the_Nineteenth_Century |archive-date=2021-03-04 |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> Up to the end of the 17th century, Yemen was the world’s main producer for coffee, and [[Mokha|Mocha]] was the world's largest shipping port for coffee.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Friis |first=I. |date=April 2015 |title=Coffee and qat on the Royal Danish expedition to Arabia – botanical, ethnobotanical and commercial observations made in Yemen 1762–1763 |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/anh.2015.0283 |journal=Archives of Natural History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=101–112 |doi=10.3366/anh.2015.0283 |issn=0260-9541 |quote=Mocha was still the world's major shipping port for coffee (Chaudhuri 1978)|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  [[File:MODOGlendora.jpg|thumb|A coffee can from the first half of the 20th century. From the [[Museo del Objeto del Objeto]] collection.]]Meanwhile, coffee had been [[coffee production in Brazil#History|introduced to Brazil]] in 1727, although its cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=19}} After this time, massive tracts of [[Atlantic Forest|rainforest]] were cleared for coffee plantations, first in the vicinity of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and later [[São Paulo]].{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |pages=20–24}} Brazil went from having essentially no coffee exports in 1800 to being a significant regional producer in 1830, to being the largest producer in the world by 1852. Between 1910 and 1920, Brazil exported around 70% of the world's coffee; Colombia, Guatemala, and Venezuela exported 15%; and Old World production accounted for less than 5% of world exports.<ref name="stats1920">{{cite web |title=The production and consumption of coffee |url=https://www.web-books.com/Classics/ON/B0/B701/27MB701.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912214606/https://www.web-books.com/Classics/ON/B0/B701/27MB701.html |archive-date=12 September 2015 |access-date=26 September 2015}}</ref>

Many countries in Central America took up cultivation in the latter half of the 19th century, and almost all were involved in the large-scale displacement and exploitation of indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups, and bloody suppression of peasants.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |pages=33–34}} The notable exception was Costa Rica, where a lack of ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |pages=35–36}}

Rapid growth in coffee production in South America during the second half of the 19th century was matched by an increase in consumption in developed countries, though nowhere has this growth been as pronounced as in the United States, where a high rate of population growth was compounded by doubling of per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920. Though the United States was not the heaviest coffee-drinking nation at the time (Belgium, the Netherlands and Nordic countries all had comparable or higher levels of per capita consumption), due to its sheer size, it was already the largest consumer of coffee in the world by 1860, and, by 1920, around half of all coffee produced worldwide was consumed in the US.<ref name="stats1920" />

Coffee has become a vital [[cash crop]] for many developing countries. Over 100 million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income. It has become the primary export and economic backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia,<ref name="Ethiopiacoffetrade">{{cite web |last=Cousin |first=Tracey L. |date=June 1997 |title=Ethiopia Coffee and Trade |url=https://www.american.edu/TED/ethcoff.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511232614/https://www1.american.edu/ted/ethcoff.htm |archive-date=11 May 2015 |access-date=18 February 2016 |publisher=[[American University]]}}<!-- verifies only Ethiopia --></ref> as well as many Central American countries.{{owidslider
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=== Legendary accounts and myths ===
There are multiple anecdotal origin stories which lack evidence. In a commonly repeated legend, [[Kaldi]], a 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd, first observed the coffee plant after seeing his flock energized by chewing on the plant.<ref name="Wein34" /> This legend does not appear before 1671, first being related by Antoine Faustus Nairon, a [[Maronite]] professor of Oriental languages and author of one of the first printed treatises devoted to coffee, {{Lang|la|De Saluberrima potione Cahue seu Cafe nuncupata Discurscus}} (Rome, 1671), indicating the story is likely apocryphal.<ref>Noted by H. F. Nicolai, ''Der Kaffee und seine Ersatzmittel: Volkshygienische Studie'', (Brunswick, 1901) ch. 1 "Geschichtliches über den Kaffee" p. 4 note 1.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Banesio |first=Fausto Naironio |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_XqtX_0BdDbwC |title=De saluberrima potione cahue, seu cafe nuncupata discursus Fausti Naironi Banesii Maronitae, linguae Chaldaicae, seu Syriacae in almo vrbis archigymnasio lectoris ad eminentiss. ... D. Io. Nicolaum S.R.E. card. .. |publisher=Typis Michaelis Herculis |year=1671 |language=Latin}}</ref><ref name="Wein34" /> Another legend attributes the discovery of coffee to a Sheikh Omar. Starving after being exiled from Mokha, Omar found berries. After attempting to chew and roast them, Omar boiled them, which yielded a liquid that revitalized and sustained him.<ref name="ukers" /><!-- Where's 20th and 21st century stuff? -->
== Biology ==
{{Further|List of coffee varieties}}
Several species of shrub of the genus ''[[Coffea]]'' produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated are ''[[Coffea canephora|C. canephora]]'' (predominantly a form known as 'robusta') and ''[[Coffea arabica|C.&nbsp;arabica]]''.<ref name="ICO" /> ''C. arabica'', the most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, the [[Boma Plateau]] in southeastern Sudan, and [[Mount Marsabit]] in northern Kenya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=F. |last2=Berthaud |first2=J. |last3=Guillaumet |first3=J.L. |last4=Lourd |first4=M. |title=Collecting wild Coffea species in Kenya and Tanzania |journal=Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter |volume=69 |issue=1987 |pages=23–29}}</ref> ''C. canephora'' is native to western and central Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to Uganda and southern Sudan.<ref>van der Vossen, H. A. M. in {{harvnb|Clifford|Wilson|1985}}, p. 53</ref> Less popular species are ''[[Coffea liberica|C.&nbsp;liberica]]'', ''[[Coffea stenophylla|C.&nbsp;stenophylla]]'', ''C. mauritiana'', and ''C. racemosa''.

All coffee plants are classified in the family [[Rubiaceae]]. They are evergreen shrubs or trees that may grow 5&nbsp;m (15&nbsp;ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15&nbsp;cm (4–6&nbsp;in) long and 6&nbsp;cm (2.4&nbsp;in) wide, simple, entire, and opposite. [[Petiole (botany)|Petioles]] of opposite leaves fuse at the base to form interpetiolar [[stipules]], characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are [[Leaf#Morphology (large-scale features)|axillary]], and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously. [[Gynoecium]] consists of an inferior ovary, also characteristic of Rubiaceae. The flowers are followed by oval berries of about 1.5&nbsp;cm (0.6&nbsp;in).<ref name="Purdue">{{cite web |last=Duke |first=James A. |year=1983 |title=Coffea arabica L |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coffea_arabica.html#Ecology |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221072603/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coffea_arabica.html#Ecology |archive-date=21 February 2010 |access-date=4 January 2010 |publisher=[[Purdue University]]}}</ref> When immature, they are green, and they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |title=Feature Article: Peaberry Coffee |url=https://aco.ca/shopping/peaberry-coffee |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507190345/https://aco.ca/shopping/peaberry-coffee |archive-date=7 May 2010 |access-date=4 January 2010 |publisher=Acorns}}</ref> have only one; these are called [[peaberry|peaberries]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamon |first1=S. |last2=Noirot |first2=M. |last3=Anthony |first3=F. |year=1995 |title=Developing a coffee core collection using the principal components score strategy with quantitative data |url=https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/b_fdi_35-36/41268.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Core Collections of Plant Genetic Resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930230024/http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/b_fdi_35-36/41268.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2009 |access-date=4 January 2010}}</ref> Arabica berries ripen in six to eight months, while robusta takes nine to eleven months.<ref name="PradeepkumarPradeep2008">{{cite book |last1=Pradeepkumar |first1=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA601 |title=Management of Horticultural Crops: Vol.11 Horticulture Science Series: In 2 Parts |last2=Kumar |first2=Pradeep |publisher=New India Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-89422-49-3 |pages=601– |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203190643/https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA601 |archive-date=3 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

''C. arabica'' is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally uniform and vary little from their parents. In contrast, ''C. canephora'' and ''C. liberica'' are self-incompatible and require [[outcrossing]]. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively]].<ref name="CW158">Wilson, K. C. in {{harvnb|Clifford|Wilson|1985}}, p. 158.</ref> Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual methods of vegetative propagation.<ref name="CW1612">Wilson, K. C. in {{harvnb|Clifford|Wilson|1985}}, pp. 161–62.</ref> On the other hand, there is great scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains.<ref name="CW158" />

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths="200" heights="220">
File:Coffea arabica - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-189 (cropped).jpg|Illustration of ''[[Coffea arabica|C. arabica]]'' plant and seeds|alt=Illustration of a single branch of a plant. Broad, ribbed leaves are accented by small white flowers at the base of the stalk. On the edge of the drawing are cutaway diagrams of parts of the plant.
File:Coffee flowers.jpg|''C. robusta'' flowers
File:Coffee Flowers Show.jpg|A flowering ''C. arabica'' tree 
File:Coffee berries.jpg|''C. arabica'' berries on the bush
</gallery>

== Cultivation and production ==
{{further|Coffee production|List of countries by coffee production}}
[[File:Carte Coffea robusta arabic.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:<br>{{legend|#00710e|text=r|''[[Coffea canephora]]''}}{{legend|#98f77d|text=m|''Coffea canephora'' and ''[[Coffea arabica]]''}}{{legend|#ebff84|text=a|''Coffea arabica''}}]]

The traditional method of planting coffee is to place 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the [[wet season|rainy season]]. This method loses about 50% of the seeds' potential, as about half fail to sprout. A more effective process of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries that are then planted outside after six to twelve months. Coffee is often [[intercropping|intercropped]] with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation as farmers become familiar with its requirements.<ref name="Purdue" /> Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt.<ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Major coffee producers |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/coffee/map.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923225535/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/coffee/map.html |archive-date=23 September 2015 |access-date=25 September 2015 |work=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref>

In 2020, the world production of green coffee beans was 175,647,000 60&nbsp;kg bags, led by Brazil with 39% of the total, followed by Vietnam, Colombia, and Indonesia.<ref name="ico-2020report">{{Cite conference |date=February 2021 |title=Coffee production by exporting countries |url=https://www.ico.org/prices/po-production.pdf |publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513153951/https://www.ico.org/prices/po-production.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2021 |access-date=23 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Brazil is the largest coffee exporting nation, accounting for 15% of all world exports in 2019.<ref name="workman">{{cite web |last1=Workman |first1=Daniel |date=28 April 2020 |title=Coffee exports by country |url=https://www.worldstopexports.com/coffee-exports-country/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627000824/http://www.worldstopexports.com/coffee-exports-country/ |archive-date=27 June 2020 |access-date=24 June 2020 |publisher=World's Top Exports}}</ref> As of 2021, no [[Coffee substitute#Synthetic coffee|synthetic coffee]] products are publicly available but <!-- at least two-->multiple [[bioeconomy]] companies have reportedly produced first batches that are highly similar on the molecular level and are close to commercialization.<ref name="synthcoffee">{{cite news |last1=Lavars |first1=Nick |date=20 September 2021 |title=Lab-grown coffee cuts out the beans and deforestation |url=https://newatlas.com/science/lab-grown-coffee-beans-deforestation/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018120949/https://newatlas.com/science/lab-grown-coffee-beans-deforestation/ |archive-date=18 October 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021 |work=New Atlas}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=15 September 2021 |title=Sustainable coffee grown in Finland – {{!}} VTT News |url=https://www.vttresearch.com/en/news-and-ideas/sustainable-coffee-grown-finland-land-drinks-most-coffee-capita-produces-its-first |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018120954/https://www.vttresearch.com/en/news-and-ideas/sustainable-coffee-grown-finland-land-drinks-most-coffee-capita-produces-its-first |archive-date=18 October 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021 |website=vttresearch.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="labgrown">{{cite news |date=16 October 2021 |title=Eco-friendly, lab-grown coffee is on the way, but it comes with a catch |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025073441/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/16/lab-grown-coffee-eco-friendly |archive-date=25 October 2021 |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Species variations ===
Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from ''C. arabica'') is generally more highly regarded than robusta coffee (from ''C. canephora''). Robusta coffee tends to be bitter and has less flavor but a better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of the coffee cultivated worldwide is ''C. arabica''.<ref name="ICO">{{cite web |title=Botanical Aspects |url=https://www.ico.org/botanical.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324155957/https://www.ico.org/botanical.asp |archive-date=24 March 2009 |access-date=4 January 2010 |publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]] |location=London}}</ref> Robusta strains contain about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica.<ref name="EA763">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=Coffee |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Aethiopica]] |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |last=Belachew |first=Mekete |editor-last=Uhlig |editor-first=Siegbert |volume=1 |page=763}}</ref> Consequently, this species is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian [[espresso]] blends to provide a full-bodied taste and a better foam head (known as ''crema'').

[[File:Hemileia vastatrix - coffee leaf rust.jpg|thumb|[[Coffee leaf rust]] has forced the cultivation of resistant robusta coffee in many countries.<ref name="van der Vossen 1985"/>]]

Additionally, robusta is less susceptible to disease than arabica and can be cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where arabica does not thrive.<ref name="DavironPonte2005">{{cite book |last1=Daviron |first1=Benoit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwpAO0J9ojgC&pg=PA51 |title=The Coffee Paradox: Global Markets, Commodity Trade and the Elusive Promise of Development |last2=Ponte |first2=Stefano |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84277-457-1 |page=51 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107070806/https://books.google.com/books?id=mwpAO0J9ojgC&pg=PA51 |archive-date=7 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The robusta strain was first collected in 1890 from the [[Lomani River]], a tributary of the Congo River, and was conveyed from the Congo Free State (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to Brussels to Java around 1900. From Java, further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many countries.<ref name="van der Vossen 1985">van der Vossen, H. A. M. in {{harvnb|Clifford|Wilson|1985}}, p. 55</ref> In particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust (caused by the fungal pathogen ''[[Hemileia vastatrix]]'') hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. The pathogen results in light, rust-colored spots on the undersides of coffee plant leaves.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Levetin |first1=Estelle |title=Plants & Society |last2=McMchon |first2=Karen |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-07-352422-1 |location=New York |pages=263–67}}</ref> It grows exclusively on the leaves of coffee plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Waller |first=J. M. |year=1972 |title=Coffee Rust in Latin America |journal=PANS Pest Articles & News Summaries |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=402–08 |doi=10.1080/09670877209412699 |issn=0030-7793}}</ref> Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually all countries that produce coffee.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Waller |first1=J.M. |title=Coffee pests, diseases and their management |last2=Bigger |first2=M. |last3=Hillocks |first3=R.J. |publisher=CABI |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84593-129-2 |location=Wallingford, Oxfordshire |page=171}}</ref>

Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma, body, and acidity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davids |first=Kenneth |title=Coffee: A Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-312-24665-5 |edition=5th |location=New York}}</ref> These taste characteristics are dependent on the coffee's growing region, genetic subspecies ([[variety (biology)|varietals]]), and processing.<ref name="castle">{{cite book |last=Castle |first=Timothy James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOvMw4fnVZYC |title=The Perfect Cup: A Coffee Lover's Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Tasting |publisher=Aris Books |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-201-57048-9 |location=Reading, MA |page=158}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as [[Colombian coffee|Colombian]], [[Java coffee|Java]], and [[Kona coffee|Kona]]. Arabica coffee beans are cultivated mainly in Latin America, eastern Africa or Asia, while robusta beans are grown in central Africa, southeast Asia, and Brazil.<ref name="ICO" />

Coffee can also be blended with medicinal or functional mushrooms, of which some of the most frequently used include [[Hericium erinaceus|lion's mane]], [[Inonotus obliquus|chaga]], ''[[Cordyceps]]'', and [[Lingzhi (mushroom)|reishi]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Samantha |date=16 August 2023 |title=Best mushroom coffee brands reviewed and why everyone's drinking it |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/shopping/esbest/food-drink/best-mushroom-coffee-why-everyone-s-drinking-it-b1064402.html |access-date=12 March 2024 |work=Evening Standard}}</ref> Mushroom coffee has about half the caffeine of standard coffee.<ref name="Mushroom coffee, Huffpost">{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Jillian |title=Mushroom Coffee Has Become A Viral Craze. But Is It Just B.S.? |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/mushroom-coffee-health-benefits_l_655cbde8e4b0c91d827890b9 |access-date=12 March 2024 |work=Huffpost}}</ref> However, drinking mushroom coffee can result in digestive issues, and high amounts can result in liver toxicity.<ref name="Mushroom coffee, Huffpost"/> There is little clinical evidence for the benefits of mushroom coffee.<ref>{{cite news |last=Seal |first=Rebecca |date=19 January 2024 |title=Make mine a mushroom macchiato: are the new boosted coffees worth the hype? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2024/jan/19/make-mine-a-mushroom-macchiato-are-the-new-boosted-coffees-worth-the-hype |access-date=12 March 2024 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

=== Pests and treatments ===

==== Fungi ====
[[File:Coffee Wilt Disease.jpg|thumb|Robusta coffee tree infected by [[coffee wilt disease]]]]

[[Coffee wilt disease]] or tracheomycosis is a common vascular [[Wilt disease|wilt]] found in Eastern and Central Africa that can kill coffee trees it infects. It is induced by the fungal pathogen ''[[Gibberella xylarioides]]''. It can affect several ''Coffea'' species and could potentially threaten production worldwide.<ref name="Hindorf Omondi 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Hindorf |first1=Holger |last2=Omondi |first2=Chrispine O. |date=2011-04-01 |title=A review of three major fungal diseases of Coffea arabica L. in the rainforests of Ethiopia and progress in breeding for resistance in Kenya |journal=Journal of Advanced Research |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=109–120 |doi=10.1016/j.jare.2010.08.006 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ''[[Mycena citricolor]]'', American leaf spot, is a fungus that can affect the entire coffee plant. It grows on leaves, resulting in leaves with holes that often fall from the plant. It is a threat primarily in Latin America.<ref name="Krishnan 2017">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sustainable Coffee Production |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318358952 |access-date=15 April 2018 |last=Krishnan |first=Sarada |date=28 June 2017 |volume=1 |pages=1–34 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.224 |isbn=9780199389414 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920234818/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318358952 |archive-date=20 September 2018}}</ref>

==== Animals ====
[[File:Hypothenemus.jpg|thumb|The [[coffee borer beetle]] is a major insect pest of the world's coffee industry.<ref name="Graham 2013"/>]]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these, over a third are [[coleoptera|beetles]], and over a quarter are [[hemiptera|bugs]]. Some [[coffee root-knot nematode|20 species of nematodes]], 9 species of mites, and several snails and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries, but their impact is minor compared to invertebrates.<ref>Bardner, R. in {{harvnb |Clifford |Wilson |1985}}, pp. 208–209.</ref> In general, ''C.'' ''arabica'' is the more sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant is assailed by different animals. Nematodes attack the roots, [[coffee borer beetle]]s burrow into stems and woody material,<ref>Bardner, R. in {{harvnb |Clifford |Wilson |1985}}, p. 210.</ref> and the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae of butterflies and moths.<ref>Bardner, R. in {{harvnb |Clifford |Wilson |1985}}, p. 211.</ref>

Mass spraying of [[insecticide]]s has often proven disastrous, as predators of the pests are more sensitive than the pests themselves.<ref>Bardner, R. in {{harvnb |Clifford |Wilson |1985}}, p. 213.</ref> Instead, integrated pest management has been developed, using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks and managing crop environment away from conditions favoring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on the ground, which causes scale parasites to attack the scale on the fallen branches as well as in the plant.<ref>Bardner, R. in {{harvnb |Clifford |Wilson |1985}}, p. 214.</ref>

The 2-mm-long coffee borer beetle (''Hypothenemus hampei'') is the most damaging insect pest of the world's coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent or more of the coffee berries on plantations in most coffee-producing countries. The adult female beetle nibbles a single tiny hole in a coffee berry and lays 35 to 50 eggs. Inside, the offspring grow, mate, and then emerge from the commercially ruined berry to disperse, repeating the cycle. Pesticides are mostly ineffective because the beetle juveniles are protected inside the berry nurseries, but they are vulnerable to predation by birds when they emerge. When groves of trees are nearby, the [[American yellow warbler]], [[rufous-capped warbler]], and other insectivorous birds have been shown to reduce by 50 percent the number of coffee berry borers in Costa Rica coffee plantations.<ref name="Graham 2013">{{cite web |last=Graham |first=Rex |date=5 September 2013 |title=Insect-eating birds reduce worst coffee plantation pest by 50 percent |url=https://birdsnews.com/2013/insect-eating-birds-reduce-worst-coffee-plantation-pest-50-percent |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031234658/https://birdsnews.com/2013/insect-eating-birds-reduce-worst-coffee-plantation-pest-50-percent/ |archive-date=31 October 2013 |access-date=20 September 2013 |website=birdsnews.com}}</ref>

=== Ecological effects ===
{{See also|Sustainable coffee}}

[[File:Shade grown coffee in Guatemala.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Shade-grown coffee]] in [[Guatemala]] ]]

Originally, coffee was grown in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many animals and insects.<ref name="Janzen">{{cite book |title=Costa Rican natural history |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-226-39334-6 |editor-last=Janzen |editor-first=Daniel H. |location=Chicago}}<!-- is Janzen author or editor? https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/476397849 + needs page --></ref> Remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species have been planted as well. These include leguminous trees of the genera ''[[Acacia]]'', ''[[Albizia]]'', ''[[Cassia (genus)|Cassia]]'', ''[[Erythrina]]'', ''[[Gliricidia]]'', ''[[Inga]]'', and ''[[Leucaena]]'', as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume sheoaks of the genus ''[[Casuarina]]'', and the silky oak ''[[Grevillea robusta]]''.<ref>Wilson, K.C. in {{harvnb|Clifford|Wilson|1985}}, p. 166.</ref> This method is commonly called "[[shade-grown coffee]]". Starting in the 1970s,<!-- e.g. https://rutamaya.net/benefits-organic-coffee.html&nbsp;— there must be better sources available) --> many farmers switched their production methods to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but the method requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems.<ref name="Salvesen">{{cite journal |last=Salvesen |first=David |year=1996 |title=The Grind Over Sun Coffee |url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/4/suncoffee.cfm |url-status=dead |journal=Zoogoer |volume=25 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922223821/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/4/suncoffee.cfm |archive-date=22 September 2009 |access-date=5 January 2010}}</ref> Unshaded coffee plants grown with fertilizer yield the most coffee, although unfertilized shaded crops generally yield more than unfertilized unshaded crops: the response to fertilizer is much greater in full sun.<ref>Wilson, K. C. in {{harvnb|Clifford|Wilson|1985}}, p. 165.</ref> While traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.<ref name="cec1999">{{cite web |date=October 1999 |title=Measuring Consumer Interest in Mexican Shade-grown Coffee |url=https://www.cec.org/files/PDF/ECONOMY/shade-e_EN.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815150419/https://www.cec.org/files/PDF/ECONOMY/shade-e_EN.pdf |archive-date=15 August 2009 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=[[Commission for Environmental Cooperation]] |page=5 |location=Montréal}}</ref> In addition, the traditional shaded method provides living space for many wildlife species. Proponents of shade cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of the practices employed in sun cultivation.<ref name="Janzen" /><ref>{{cite web |title=The Problems with Sun Coffee |url=https://www.coffeehabitat.com/2006/02/the_problems_wi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226114833/http://www.coffeehabitat.com/2006/02/the_problems_wi/ |archive-date=26 February 2014 |access-date=19 February 2014 |publisher=Coffee & Conservation}}</ref> The [[American Birding Association]], [[Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center]],<ref name="migratory">{{cite web |title=Shade-Grown Coffee Plantations |url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Coffee/default.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025130027/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationandScience/MigratoryBirds/Coffee/default.cfm |archive-date=25 October 2009 |access-date=8 January 2010 |website=Smithsonian Zoolongical Park website&nbsp;– Migratory Bird Center |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]}}</ref> [[National Arbor Day Foundation]],<ref name="arbor">{{cite web |title=Rain Forest- Saving Arbor Day Coffee |url=https://www.arborday.org/shopping/coffee/index.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101153253/http://www.arborday.org/shopping/coffee/index.cfm |archive-date=1 January 2010 |access-date=8 January 2010 |publisher=Arbor Day Foundation}}</ref> and the [[Rainforest Alliance]] have led a campaign for 'shade-grown' and [[organic coffee]]s, which can be sustainably harvested.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2016 |title=Rainforest Alliance Certified Coffee |url=https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/articles/rainforest-alliance-certified-coffee |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016115519/https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/articles/rainforest-alliance-certified-coffee |archive-date=16 October 2019 |access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> Shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, and those more distant from continuous forest compare rather poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for some bird species.<ref name="sciam2000">{{cite news |last=Wong |first=Kate |date=27 September 2000 |title=Is Shade-Grown Coffee for the Birds? |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=is-shade-grown-coffee-for |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027071855/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=is-shade-grown-coffee-for |archive-date=27 October 2009 |access-date=18 January 2010 |work=[[Scientific American]]}}</ref><ref name="Rickert2005">{{cite thesis |last=Rickert |first=Eve |title=Environmental effects of the coffee crisis: a case study of land use and avian communities in Agua Buena, Costa Rica |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=11 January 2010 |type=MES |publisher=The [[Evergreen State College]] |url=https://archive.org/details/Rickert_EVE_MES_Thesis_2005}}</ref>

Coffee production uses a large volume of water. On average it takes about {{convert|140|L|USgal|lk=out|sp=us}} of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee. Growing the plants needed to produce {{cvt|1|kg}} of roasted coffee in Africa, South America or Asia requires {{convert|26400|L|USgal|lk=out|sp=us}} of water.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arthus-Bertrand |first=Yann |title=On Water |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water |archive-date=14 October 2020 |access-date=13 October 2020 |website=European Investment Bank}}</ref> As with many other forms of agriculture, often much of this is rainwater, much of which would otherwise run off into rivers or coastlines, while much water actually absorbed by the plants is [[transpiration|transpired]] back into the local environment through the plants' leaves (especially for cooling effects); broad estimates aside, consequential [[margin (economics)|margins]] vary considerably based on details of local geography and [[horticultural]] practice. Coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pearce |first=Fred |author-link=Fred Pearce |date=25 February 2006 |title=Earth: The parched planet |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18925401.500-earth-the-parched-planet.html |url-status=live |journal=[[New Scientist]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905052625/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18925401.500-earth-the-parched-planet.html |archive-date=5 September 2009 |access-date=5 January 2010}}</ref>

[[Used coffee grounds]] may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially appreciated by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/rodalebookofcomp00mart/page/86 |title=The Rodale book of composting |publisher=Rodale Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-87857-991-4 |editor1-last=Martin |editor1-first=Deborah L. |location=Emmaus, PA |page=86 |chapter=Coffee wastes |access-date=5 January 2010 |editor2-last=Gershuny |editor2-first=Grace |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6sx5-OM_psC&pg=PA86}}</ref> Climate change may significantly impact coffee yields during the 21st century, such as in Nicaragua and Ethiopia which could lose more than half of the farming land suitable for growing (Arabica) coffee.<ref name="laderach">{{cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Ramirez-Villegas |first2=Julian |last3=Navarro-Racines |first3=Carlos |last4=Zelaya |first4=Carlos |last5=Martinez-Valle |first5=Armando |last6=Jarvis |first6=Andy |date=26 October 2016 |title=Climate change adaptation of coffee production in space and time |journal=Climatic Change |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=47–62 |doi=10.1007/s10584-016-1788-9 |hdl=10568/77563 |issn=0165-0009 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Moat">{{cite journal |last1=Moat |first1=Justin |last2=Williams |first2=Jenny |last3=Baena |first3=Susana |last4=Wilkinson |first4=Timothy |last5=Gole |first5=Tadesse W. |last6=Challa |first6=Zeleke K. |last7=Demissew |first7=Sebsebe |last8=Davis |first8=Aaron P. |date=19 June 2017 |title=Resilience potential of the Ethiopian coffee sector under climate change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317894875 |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=17081 |bibcode=2017NatPl...317081M |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.81 |issn=2055-0278 |pmid=28628132 |s2cid=6873955}}</ref><ref name="worland">{{cite magazine |last=Worland |first=Justin |date=21 June 2018 |title=Your Morning Cup of Coffee Is in Danger. Can the Industry Adapt in Time? |url=https://time.com/5318245/coffee-industry-climate-change/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804074707/https://time.com/5318245/coffee-industry-climate-change/ |archive-date=4 August 2019 |access-date=13 October 2019 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> As of 2016, at least 34% of global coffee production was compliant with [[Sustainability standards and certification|voluntary sustainability standards]] such as [[Fairtrade certification|Fairtrade]], [[UTZ Certified|UTZ]], and 4C (The Common Code for the Coffee Community).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Voora |first1=Vivek |last2=Bermúdez |first2=Steffany |last3=Larrea |first3=Cristina |last4=Baliño |first4=Sofia |year=2019 |title=Global Market Report: Coffee |url=https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/ssi-global-market-report-coffee.pdf |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The International Institute for Sustainable Development}}</ref>

=== Preprocessing ===
Coffee berries are traditionally selectively picked by hand, which is labor-intensive as it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two types of method—a dry process method which is often simpler and less labor-intensive, and a wet process method, which incorporates batch fermentation, uses larger amounts of water in the process, and often yields a milder coffee.<ref>Vincent, J.-C. in {{harvnb|Clarke|Macrae|1987}}, p. 1.</ref>

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color, and most often the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds are fermented to remove the slimy layer of [[mucilage]] still present on the seed. When the fermentation is finished, the seeds are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of [[coffee wastewater]]. Finally, the seeds are dried.<ref name="kummer2003p38">{{harvnb |Kummer|2003|page=38}}</ref>

The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. Drying is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner, and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method.<ref name="kummer2003p38"/> Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Some companies use cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee seeds, though this is generally in places where the humidity is very high.<ref name="kummer2003p38" />

[[File:Kopi luwak 090910-0075 lamb.JPG|thumb|[[Kopi luwak]], coffee berries that have been preprocessed by passing through the [[Asian palm civet]]'s digestive tract<ref name="marcone"/> ]]

An Asian coffee known as [[kopi luwak]] undergoes a peculiar process made from coffee berries eaten by the [[Asian palm civet]], passing through its digestive tract, with the beans harvested from [[feces]]. Coffee brewed from this process<ref name="marcone">{{cite journal |last=Marcone |first=Massimo F. |year=2004 |title=Composition and properties of Indonesian palm civet coffee (Kopi Luwak) and Ethiopian civet coffee |journal=Food Research International |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=901–12 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2004.05.008}}</ref> is among the most expensive in the world, with bean prices reaching $160 per pound or $30 per brewed cup.<ref name="econ">{{cite news |last=Thuot |first=Buon Me |date=15 January 2012 |title=Coffee in Vietnam: it's the shit |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2012/01/coffee-vietnam |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116043359/http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2012/01/coffee-vietnam |archive-date=16 November 2015 |access-date=25 November 2015 |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> Kopi luwak coffee is said to have a uniquely rich, slightly smoky aroma and flavor with hints of chocolate, resulting from the action of [[digestive enzymes]] breaking down bean proteins to facilitate partial fermentation.<ref name="marcone" /><ref name="econ" /> In Thailand, black ivory coffee beans are fed to elephants whose digestive enzymes reduce the bitter taste of beans collected from dung.<ref name="hp" /> These beans sell for up to $1,100 a kilogram ($500 per lb), achieving the world's most expensive coffee,<ref name="hp">{{cite news |last=Topper |first=Rachel |date=15 October 2012 |title=Elephant Dung Coffee: World's Most Expensive Brew Is Made With Pooped-Out Beans |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/15/elephant-dung-coffee-black-ivory_n_1968096.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021122326/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/15/elephant-dung-coffee-black-ivory_n_1968096.html |archive-date=21 October 2012 |access-date=10 December 2012 |newspaper=HuffPost}}</ref> three times costlier than palm civet coffee beans.<ref name="econ" />

== Processing ==

=== Roasting ===
{{main|Coffee roasting}}

[[File:Roasted coffee beans.jpg|thumb|Roasted coffee beans]]
The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and with rare exceptions, such as infusions from green coffee beans,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macheiner |first1=Lukas |last2=Schmidt |first2=Anatol |last3=Schreiner |first3=Matthias |last4=Mayer |first4=Helmut K. |year=2019 |title=Green coffee infusion as a source of caffeine and chlorogenic acid |journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]] |volume=84 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2019.103307 |s2cid=202882087 |article-number=103307}}</ref> coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be [[home roasting coffee|home roasted]].<ref name="kummer2003p37">{{harvnb |Kummer|2003|page=37}}</ref> The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and the requirements for packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately {{convert|200|°C|°F}}, though different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates.<ref name="trent" /> During roasting, [[caramelization]] occurs as intense heat breaks down [[starch]]es, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, which darkens the color of the bean.<ref name="kummer2003p261">{{harvnb |Kummer|2003|page=261}}</ref>

Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing the flavor; at {{convert|205|°C|°F}}, other oils start to develop.<ref name="trent" /> One of these oils, caffeol, is created at about {{convert|200|°C|°F}}, and is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.<ref name="plant">{{cite book |title=Magic and medicine of plants |publisher=[[Reader's Digest]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-89577-221-3 |editor-last=Dobelis |editor-first=Inge N. |location=Pleasantville, NY |pages=370–71}}</ref> The difference in caffeine content between a light roast and a dark roast is only about 0.1%.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steiman |first1=Shawn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5aWSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=The Little Coffee Know-It-All: A Miscellany for Growing, Roasting, and Brewing, Uncompromising and Unapologetic |date=15 December 2015 |publisher=Quarry Books |isbn=978-1-63159-053-5 |page=57 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Grading roasted beans ===
{{See also|Food grading}}
[[File:Fancy a cupper.jpg|alt=Two men hold spoons over a row of cups filled with coffee.|thumb|Coffee "cuppers", or professional tasters, grade coffee.]]

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted seeds illuminated with a light source in the near-infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as [[spectroscopy]] to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development. Coffee has, in many countries, been graded by size longer than it has been graded by quality. Grading is generally done with sieves, numbered to indicate the size of the perforations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=James |title=The World Atlas of Coffee 2nd Edition |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78472-429-0 |location=Great Britain |pages=40 |language=English}}</ref>

=== Roast characteristics ===
The degree of roast affects coffee flavor and body. The color of the coffee after brewing is also affected by the degree of roasting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yeager |first1=Sara E. |last2=Batali |first2=Mackenzie E. |last3=Lim |first3=Lik Xian |last4=Liang |first4=Jiexin |last5=Han |first5=Juliet |last6=Thompson |first6=Ashley N. |last7=Guinard |first7=Jean-Xavier |last8=Ristenpart |first8=William D. |date=2022 |title=Roast level and brew temperature significantly affect the color of brewed coffee |journal=Journal of Food Science |language=en |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=1837–1850 |doi=10.1111/1750-3841.16089 |issn=0022-1147 |pmc=9311422 |pmid=35347719}}</ref> Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.<ref name="Mauro">{{cite web |last=Cipolla |first=Mauro |title=Educational Primer: Degrees of Roast |url=https://www.virtualcoffee.com/may/educate.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507103040/https://www.virtualcoffee.com/may/educate.html |archive-date=7 May 2010 |access-date=11 January 2010 |publisher=Bellissimo Info Group}}</ref> Roasting does not alter the amount of caffeine in the bean but does give less caffeine when the beans are measured by volume because the beans expand during roasting.<ref>{{cite web |title=Which Has More Caffeine: Light or Dark Roast Coffee? |url=https://www.scribblerscoffee.com/coffees_caffeine.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617001512/http://www.scribblerscoffee.com/coffees_caffeine.htm |archive-date=17 June 2013 |access-date=2 April 2013 |publisher=Scribblers Coffee}}</ref> A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the seed after processing.<ref name="Bay">{{cite web |date=15 May 1998 |title=Coffee Roasting Operations |url=https://www.baaqmd.gov/pmt/handbook/s11c03pd.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303142108/https://baaqmd.gov/pmt/handbook/s11c03pd.htm |archive-date=3 March 2009 |access-date=11 January 2010 |website=Permit Handbook |publisher=Bay Area Air Quality Management District}}</ref> Chaff is usually removed from the seeds by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the seeds.<ref name="trent">{{cite web |last1=Ball |first1=Trent |last2=Guenther |first2=Sara |last3=Labrousse |first3=Ken |last4=Wilson |first4=Nikki |title=Coffee Roasting |url=https://www.wsu.edu:8080/~gmhyde/433_web_pages/coffee/student-pages/6roasting/roasting.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701123312/https://www.wsu.edu/~gmhyde/433_web_pages/coffee/student-pages/6roasting/roasting.htm |archive-date=1 July 2007 |access-date=18 July 2007 |publisher=[[Washington State University]]}}</ref>

=== Decaffeination ===
[[Decaffeination]] of coffee seeds is done while the seeds are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking the green seeds in hot water (often called the "Swiss water process")<ref>{{cite web |title=Swiss Water Process |url=https://www.swisswater.com/consumer/swiss-water-process |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019222508/https://www.swisswater.com/consumer/swiss-water-process |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=26 October 2011 |publisher=Swisswater.com}}</ref> or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve the caffeine-containing oils.<ref name="plant" /> Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.<ref name="plant" />

=== Storage ===
{{main|Coffee bean storage}}
Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, glass or non-reactive metal.<ref name="Consumer Reports May 2013">{{cite web |date=May 2013 |title=Top Coffee Ratings – Coffee Buying Guide |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/coffee/buying-guide.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227090620/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/coffee/buying-guide.htm |archive-date=27 February 2014 |access-date=27 February 2014 |website=Consumer Reports |at=Storing coffee}}</ref> Higher quality prepackaged coffee usually has a one-way valve that prevents air from entering while allowing the coffee to release gases.<ref name="foodnetwork-truebrew">{{cite web |last=Brown |first=Alton |author-link=Alton Brown |title=True Brew |url=https://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/alton-brown/true-brew-recipe-2103279 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326123922/https://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/alton-brown/true-brew-recipe-2103279 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2024 |publisher=[[Food Network]]}}</ref> Coffee freshness and flavor is preserved when it is stored away from moisture, heat, and light. The tendency of coffee to absorb strong smells from food means that it should be kept away from such smells. Storage of coffee in refrigerators is not recommended due to the presence of moisture which can cause deterioration. Exterior walls of buildings that face the sun may heat the interior of a home, and this heat may damage coffee stored near such a wall. Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.<ref name="Consumer Reports May 2013"/>

In 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted coffee was packed and then 99% of the air was removed, allowing the coffee to be stored indefinitely until the can was opened. Today this method is in mass use for coffee in a large part of the world.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CigDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59 |title=New Process Keep Coffee Fresh in High Vacuum Cans |date=October 1931 |publisher=Popular Science |access-date=26 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619055141/http://books.google.com/books?id=CigDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59 |archive-date=19 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Brewing ===
{{main|Coffee preparation|Coffee brewing method}}

[[File:Consumer Reports - Zojirushi coffeemaker alt.tif|thumb|upright|A contemporary electric automatic drip-coffee maker]]
[[File:Linea doubleespresso.jpg|thumb|[[Espresso]] is one of the most popular coffee-brewing methods. The term ''espresso'', substituting ''s'' for most ''x'' letters in [[Latin]]-root words, with the term deriving from the past participle of the Italian verb ''esprimere'', itself derived from the Latin ''exprimere'', means 'to express', and refers to the process by which hot water is forced under pressure through ground coffee.<ref name="philips">{{cite web |title=Qual è il caffè espresso perfetto e come va bevuto? |url=https://www.philips.it/c-e/ho/articolo/caffe/suggerimenti-caffe/come-preparare-un-caffe-espresso-perfetto.html |access-date=13 June 2022 |work=Philips |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Is it espresso or expresso? Yes |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/espresso-vs-expresso-usage-history |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en}}</ref>]]

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy. Almost all methods of preparing coffee require that the beans be ground and then mixed with hot water long enough to allow the flavor to emerge but not so long as to draw out bitter compounds. The liquid can be consumed after the spent grounds are removed. Brewing considerations include the fineness of the grind, how the water is used to extract the flavor, the ratio of coffee grounds to water (the brew ratio), additional flavorings such as sugar, milk, and spices, and the technique to be used to separate spent grounds. Optimal [[coffee extraction]] occurs between {{cvt|91 and 96|°C}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Brew Coffee: The NCA Guide to Brewing Essentials |url=https://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/How-to-Brew-Coffee |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819092114/https://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/How-to-Brew-Coffee |archive-date=19 August 2020 |access-date=16 August 2020 |website=NCA: National Coffee Association of USA}}</ref> Ideal holding temperatures range from {{convert|85|to|88|C|F}} to as high as {{convert|93|C|F}}, and the ideal serving temperature is {{convert|68|to|79|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borchgrevink |first1=Carl P. |last2=Susskind |first2=Alex M. |last3=Tarras |first3=John M. |year=1999 |title=Consumer preferred hot beverage temperatures |url=https://scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/articles/1062 |url-status=live |journal=[[Food Quality and Preference]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=117–21 |doi=10.1016/S0950-3293(98)00053-6 |hdl=1813/72021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115054141/https://scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/articles/1062/ |archive-date=15 January 2020 |access-date=24 July 2019 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Coffee beans may be ground with a [[Burr mill|burr grinder]], which uses revolving elements to shear the seed; a [[blade grinder]] cuts the seeds with blades moving at high speed; or a mortar and pestle crushes the seeds. For most brewing methods a burr grinder is deemed superior because the grind is more even, and the grind size can be adjusted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cadwalader |first=Zac |date=9 July 2021 |title=How To Get The Most Out Of Your Blade Grinder |url=https://sprudge.com/how-to-get-the-most-out-of-your-blade-grinder-179806.html |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=Sprudge}}</ref> The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used, [[Turkish coffee|Turkish grind]] being the finest, while [[coffee percolator]] or [[French press]] are the coarsest. The most common grinds are between these extremes: a medium grind is used in most home coffee-brewing machines.<ref name="Rothstein"/>

Coffee may be brewed by several methods. It may be boiled, steeped, or pressurized. Brewing coffee by boiling is the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method. It is prepared by grinding or pounding the seeds to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to a boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a ''[[cezve]]'' or, in Greek, a {{Lang|el|μπρίκι}}: {{Lang|el-latn|bríki}} (from Turkish {{Lang|tr|ibrik}}). This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling at the bottom of the cup.<ref name=ukers/>

[[Drip coffee|Drip brewers]] and automatic [[Coffeemaker|coffeemakers]] brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds that are held in a paper, plastic, or perforated metal [[coffee filter]], allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent coffee grounds are retained in the filter.<ref name="Levy">{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Joel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fyBb_Xh5hqIC&pg=PA1948 |title=Really Useful: The Origins of Everyday Things |publisher=Firefly Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55297-622-7 |page=1948 |access-date=11 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308074538/https://books.google.com/books?id=fyBb_Xh5hqIC&pg=PA1948 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In a [[coffee percolator]], water is pulled under a pipe by gravity, which is then forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by removing it from the heat, by an internal timer,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 February 2016 |title=Coffee Percolators |url=https://blog.fantes.com/percolators/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220919141727/https://blog.fantes.com/percolators/ |archive-date=19 September 2022 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=Fante's Kitchen |language=en}}</ref> or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature.

The [[espresso]] method forces hot pressurized water through finely-ground coffee.<ref name="Rothstein" /> As a result of brewing under high pressure (typically 9 [[bar (unit)|bar]]),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vittori |first1=Sauro |title=Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention |last2=Caprioli |first2=Giovanni |last3=Cortese |first3=Manuela |last4=Sagratini |first4=Gianni |date=1 January 2015 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-409517-5 |editor-last=Preedy |editor-first=Victor R. |pages=255–263 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 28 – Espresso Machine and Coffee Composition |access-date=1 February 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095175000280 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201134452/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095175000280 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salvaggio |first1=A. |last2=Periti |first2=M. |last3=Miano |first3=L. |last4=Quaglia |first4=G. |last5=Marzorati |first5=D. |year=1991 |title=Coffee and cholesterol, an Italian study |journal=[[American Journal of Epidemiology]] |volume=134 |issue=2 |pages=149–56 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116067 |pmid=1862798}}</ref> A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called ''crema'' that floats on the surface.<ref name="Rothstein">{{cite web |last=Rothstein |first=Scott |title=Brewing Techniques |url=https://www.thecoffeefaq.com/3brewingtechniques.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110061221/http://www.thecoffeefaq.com/3brewingtechniques.html |archive-date=10 January 2010 |access-date=11 January 2010 |website=The Coffee FAQ}}</ref> Other pressurized water methods include the [[moka pot]] and [[vacuum coffee maker]]. The [[AeroPress]] also works similarly, moving a column of water through a bed of coffee.

[[Cold brew coffee]] is made by steeping coarsely-ground beans in cold water for several hours, then filtering them.<ref name="Bonne">{{cite news |last=Bonné |first=Jon |date=20 August 2004 |title=My coffee is cold: A brewing system without heat proves it's a contender when it comes to taste |url=https://www.today.com/news/my-coffee-cold-wbna5728227 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203192446/http://www.today.com/news/my-coffee-cold-wbna5728227 |archive-date=3 February 2017 |access-date=11 January 2010 |publisher=[[Today.com]]}}</ref> This results in a brew lower in acidity than most hot-brewing methods.

== Serving ==
{{redirect|Black coffee|other uses|Black Coffee (disambiguation)}}
{{See also|List of coffee drinks}}
[[File:French School - Enjoying Coffee - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Enjoying coffee'' in Ottoman Empire. Painting by unknown artist in the [[Pera Museum]].]]

Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served as ''white coffee'' with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or dairy substitute, or as ''black coffee'' with no such addition. It may be sweetened with sugar or artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called ''[[iced coffee]]''. Popular iced coffee options include [[Frappé coffee|frappés]], iced lattes, or stronger brewed coffee served with ice.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2013 |title=The Ultimate Iced Coffee Taste Test |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-ultimate-iced-coffee_b_3696452 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=[[HuffPost]] |language=en}}</ref>

Espresso-based coffee has a variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, an espresso is served alone as a ''shot'' or ''short black'', or with hot water added, when it is known as [[Caffè Americano]]. A [[long black]] is made by pouring a double espresso into an equal portion of water, retaining the crema, unlike Caffè Americano.<ref name="Castle">{{cite book |last1=Castle |first1=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8z9jXVtRCYC&pg=PA94 |title=The Great Coffee Book |last2=Nielsen |first2=Joan |publisher=Ten Speed Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-58008-122-1 |page=94 |access-date=11 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831023049/https://books.google.com/books?id=x8z9jXVtRCYC&pg=PA94 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Milk is added in various forms to an espresso: steamed milk makes a [[latte|caffè latte]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Fried |first=Eunice |date=November 1993 |title=The lowdown on caffè latte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H10EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA139 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216214541/https://books.google.com/books?id=H10EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA139 |archive-date=16 February 2017 |access-date=11 January 2010 |publisher=Black Enterprise}}</ref> equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a [[cappuccino]],<ref name="Castle" /> and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a [[caffè macchiato]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Emily Wise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6GdiP0mY_UC&pg=PA12 |title=The Food Lover's Guide to Florence: With Culinary Excursions in Tuscany |date=May 2003 |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=978-1-58008-435-2 |page=12 |access-date=11 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831023049/https://books.google.com/books?id=k6GdiP0mY_UC&pg=PA12 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> A [[flat white]] is prepared by adding steamed hot milk ([[microfoam]]) to two espresso shots;<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Hipster Drink of Choice Gets Co-Opted By Starbucks |url=https://time.com/3652676/starbucks-flat-white/ |access-date=3 September 2022 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref> it has less milk than a latte, but both are varieties of coffee to which the milk can be added in such a way as to create a decorative surface pattern. Such effects are known as [[latte art]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bonné |first=Jon |date=29 October 2003 |title=Meet espresso's exacting master |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3072720 |access-date=3 September 2022 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |language=en |quote=[H]e may be best known for introducing U.S. customers to "latte art," intricate ribbon patterns in the foam atop his cappuccinos, macchiatos and lattes that result from carefully manipulating the cup and milk pitcher.}}</ref>

Coffee can be incorporated with alcohol to produce a variety of beverages: it is combined with whiskey in [[Irish coffee]], and it forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as [[Kahlúa]] and [[Tia Maria]]. Some craft beers have coffee or coffee extracts added to the beer,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Art of Brewing Coffee Beers |url=https://allaboutbeer.com/article/coffee-beers/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125040656/https://allaboutbeer.com/article/coffee-beers/ |archive-date=25 November 2015 |access-date=24 November 2015 |website=All About Beer}}</ref> although porter and stout beers may have a coffee-like taste solely due to roasted grains.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWQdjnVo2B0C&q=coffee |title=The Oxford Companion to Beer |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-991210-0 |page=182 |access-date=24 November 2015}}</ref>

=== Instant coffee ===
{{Main|Instant coffee}}

[[File:Instant coffee.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Instant coffee]]

Many products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their coffee or who do not have access to coffeemaking equipment. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or [[freeze drying|freeze-dried]] into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hobhouse |first=Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s67iECV25gcC&pg=PA294 |title=Seeds of Wealth: Five Plants That Made Men Rich |publisher=Shoemaker & Hoard |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59376-089-2 |page=294 |access-date=11 January 2010}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A New Zealand invention and staple, instant coffee was originally invented in Invercargill in 1890 by food chemist David Strang.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AtoJsOnline |url=https://atojs.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/atojs?a=d&d=AJHR1890-I.2.3.2.1&e=-------10--1------0-- |access-date=2023-08-02 |website=atojs.natlib.govt.nz}}</ref> It rapidly gained in popularity in many countries in the post-war period, with [[Nescafé]] being the most popular product.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=195}} Many consumers determined that the convenience of preparing a cup of instant coffee more than made up for a perceived inferior taste,{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=196}} although, since the late 1970s, instant coffee has been produced differently in such a way that is similar to the taste of freshly brewed coffee.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Beckerman |first=Jim |title=What on earth ever happened to instant coffee? |url=https://www.northjersey.com/story/entertainment/2022/04/28/instant-coffee-what-happened-it/7051444001/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802132620/https://www.northjersey.com/story/entertainment/2022/04/28/instant-coffee-what-happened-it/7051444001/ |archive-date=2 August 2022 |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=North Jersey Media Group |language=en-US}}</ref> Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of instant coffee was the [[coffee vending machine]] invented in 1947 and widely distributed since the 1950s.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=197}}

== Economics ==
{{Main|Economics of coffee}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Green coffee production <br>{{small|2023, millions of tonnes}}
|-
| {{BRA}} || 3.41
|-
| {{VIE}} || 1.96
|-
| {{IDN}} || 0.76
|-
| {{COL}} || 0.68
|-
| {{ETH}} || 0.56
|-
|'''World''' || '''11.06'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |date=2025 |title=Green coffee production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |access-date=19 March 2025 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)}}</ref>
|}

=== World production ===
In 2023, world production of green coffee beans was 11 million [[tonne]]s, led by Brazil with 31% of the total and Vietnam as a secondary producer (table).

=== Commodity market ===
[[File:Coffee-prices-historical-chart-data.webp|thumb|440px|Coffee prices 1973–2022]]

{{multiple image
| total_width       = 450
| image1            = Dülmen, Privatrösterei Schröer, Kaffeebehälter -- 2018 -- 0529.jpg
| caption1          = Coffee retailing
| image2            = CXLT Coffee.jpg
| caption2          = Bag of coffee beans
| image3            = Kaffepåse - 2023.jpg
| caption3          = Bag with [[ziploc]]k and one-way valve to prevent [[mold]]
}}

Coffee is bought and sold as green coffee beans by roasters, investors, and price speculators as a tradable commodity in commodity markets and exchange-traded funds. Coffee [[futures contracts]] for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the [[New York Mercantile Exchange]] under ticker symbol KC, with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coffee |url=http://www.wikinvest.com/wiki/Coffee_Prices |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911234634/http://www.wikinvest.com/wiki/Coffee_Prices |archive-date=11 September 2018 |website=WikiInvest}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coffee Futures |url=http://www.wikinvest.com/futures/Coffee_Futures |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918090333/http://www.wikinvest.com/futures/Coffee_Futures |archive-date=18 September 2018 |website=WikiInvest}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ellis |first=Blake |date=10 September 2010 |title=Coffee prices on the rise |url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/09/10/markets/coffee_prices/index.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116203635/http://money.cnn.com/2010/09/10/markets/coffee_prices/index.htm |archive-date=16 January 2012 |access-date=3 April 2012 |work=CNN Money |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Galatola |first=Thomas |date=14 February 2012 |title=Coffee Futures Fall to Lowest in 14 Months: Commodities at Close |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-14/coffee-futures-fall-to-lowest-in-14-months-commodities-at-close.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427112638/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-14/coffee-futures-fall-to-lowest-in-14-months-commodities-at-close.html |archive-date=27 April 2012 |access-date=3 April 2012 |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for robusta coffee are traded on the [[London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange]] and, since 2007, on the New York [[Intercontinental Exchange]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Historical Coffee Intraday Data KCA |url=https://portaracqg.com/futures/int/kca |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=PortaraCQG |language=en-US}}</ref>

Dating to the 1970s, coffee has been incorrectly described by many, including historian [[Mark Pendergrast]], as the world's "second most legally traded commodity".<ref name="pendergrast2009">{{cite journal |last=Pendergrast |first=Mark |date=April 2009 |title=Coffee: Second to Oil? |url=http://www.teaandcoffee.net/0409/ |url-status=dead |journal=Tea & Coffee Trade Journal |pages=38–41 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710093301/http://www.teaandcoffee.net/0409/ |archive-date=10 July 2014 |access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref>{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001}} Instead, "coffee was the second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries," from 1970 to circa 2000.<ref name="talbot2004">{{cite book |last=Talbot |first=John M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUu4DjBo4WQC&pg=PA50 |title=Grounds for Agreement: The Political Economy of the Coffee Commodity Chain |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2004 |isbn=9780742526297 |page=50 |quote=So many people who have written about coffee have gotten it wrong. Coffee is not the second most valuable primary commodity in world trade, as is often stated. [...] It is not the second most traded commodity, a nebulous formulation that repeatedly occurs in the media. Coffee is the second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries.}}</ref> This fact was derived from the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] Commodity Yearbooks which show "Third World" commodity exports by value in the period 1970–1998 with crude oil in first place, coffee in second, followed by sugar, cotton, and others. Coffee continues to be an important commodity export for developing countries, but more recent figures are not readily available due to the shifting and politicized nature of the category "developing country".<ref name="pendergrast2009"/> Coffee is one of seven commodities included in the [[EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products]], which aims to guarantee that the products European Union citizens consume do not contribute to deforestation or forest degradation worldwide.<ref name="eudef">{{cite web |title=Regulation on Deforestation-free products |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/forests/deforestation/regulation-deforestation-free-products_en |access-date=24 July 2024 |work=[[European Union]]}}</ref>

[[International Coffee Day]], which is claimed to have originated in Japan in 1983 with an event organized by the All Japan Coffee Association, takes place on 29 September in several countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ismail |first=Izwan |date=29 September 2014 |title=Let's drink to coffee! |url=https://www.nst.com.my/node/38133 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118143150/http://www.nst.com.my/node/38133 |archive-date=18 January 2015 |access-date=23 February 2022 |work=[[New Straits Times]]}}</ref> There are numerous trade associations and lobbying and other organizations representing the coffee industry.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Golob |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jOp38JvytAC&pg=PA471 |title=Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology, Volume 1: Principles and Practice |last2=Farrell |first2=Graham |last3=Orchard |first3=John E. |date=15 April 2008 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4051-7210-3 |page=471 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Luttinger |first1=Nina |title=The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry from Crop to the Last Drop |last2=Dicum |first2=Gregory |date=1 May 2012 |publisher=New Press, The |isbn=978-1-59558-724-4 |page=120 |language=en |chapter=The Rise of the International Coffee Trade |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jP99B9uAdv4C&pg=PT120}}</ref>

=== Consumption ===
[[File:Coffee consumption map-en.svg|thumb|425px|Coffee consumption (kg. per capita and year)]]

Nordic countries are the highest coffee-consuming nations when measured [[per capita]] per year, with consumption in Finland as the world's highest.<ref>{{cite web |date=2023 |title=The Top Coffee-Consuming Countries |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-10-coffee-consuming-nations.html |access-date=25 January 2023 |publisher=World Atlas |language=EN}}</ref>

#Finland – {{cvt|26.45|lb}}
#Norway – {{cvt|21.82|lb}}
#Iceland – {{cvt|19.84|lb}}
#Denmark – {{cvt|19.18|lb}}
#Netherlands – {{cvt|18.52|lb}} 
#Sweden – {{cvt|18.00|lb}}
#Switzerland – {{cvt|17.42|lb}}
#Belgium – {{cvt|15.00|lb}}
#Luxembourg – {{cvt|14.33|lb}}
#Canada – {{cvt|14.33|lb}}
An April 2024, [[National Coffee Association]] survey indicated that coffee consumption in the U.S. reached a 20-year high, with 67% of U.S. adults reporting drinking coffee in the past day. This is a significant increase compared to 2004 when fewer than half of U.S. adults reported coffee consumption in the past day. Drip coffee remains the most popular brewing method, but espresso-based beverages, particularly lattes, espresso shots, and cappuccinos, gained popularity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Daily coffee consumption at 20-year high, up nearly 40% |url=https://www.ncausa.org/Newsroom/Daily-coffee-consumption-at-20-year-high-up-nearly-40 |accessdate=2024-04-22 |publisher=National Coffee Association of U.S.A., Inc}}</ref>

=== Economic impacts ===
{{further|List of countries by coffee production}}
[[File:Brazil Coffee production 2020.jpg|thumb|Map of coffee areas in Brazil]]

Market volatility, and thus increased returns, during 1830 encouraged Brazilian entrepreneurs to shift their attention from gold to coffee, a crop hitherto reserved for local consumption. Concurrent with this shift was the commissioning of vital infrastructures, including approximately {{Convert|7000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of railroads between 1860 and 1885. The creation of these railways enabled the importation of workers, to meet the enormous need for labor. This development primarily affected the [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|State of Rio de Janeiro]], as well as the southern states of Brazil, most notably [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], due to its favorable climate, soils, and terrain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mattoon |first=Robert H. Jr. |date=2 May 1977 |title=Railroads, Coffee, and the Growth of Big Business in São Paulo, Brazil |journal=[[The Hispanic American Historical Review]] |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=273–95 |doi=10.2307/2513775 |jstor=2513775}}</ref>

[[Coffee production in Brazil|Coffee production]] attracted [[immigration to Brazil|immigrants]] in search of better economic opportunities in the early 20th century. Mainly, these were Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, and Japanese nationals. For instance, São Paulo received approximately 733,000 immigrants in the decade preceding 1900, whilst only receiving approximately 201,000 immigrants in the six years to 1890. The production yield of coffee increases. In 1880, São Paulo produced 1.2&nbsp;million bags (25% of total production), in 1888 2.6&nbsp;million (40%), and in 1902 8 million bags (60%).<ref name="Bresileco1">{{cite book |title=Brazil: A Country Study |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1997 |editor-last=Hudson |editor-first=Rex A. |location=Washington |chapter=The Coffee Economy, 1840–1930 |access-date=23 February 2022 |chapter-url=https://countrystudies.us/brazil/60.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227212750/http://countrystudies.us/brazil/60.htm |archive-date=27 December 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Coffee is then 63% of the country's exports. The gains made by this trade allow sustained economic growth in the country. The four years between planting a coffee and the first harvest extend seasonal variations in the price of coffee. The Brazilian government is thus forced, to some extent, to keep strong price subsidies during production periods.

=== Fair trade ===
{{Main|Fair trade coffee}}

{{See also|Fair trade debate}}

The concept of [[fair trade]] labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price, began in the late 1980s with the [[Stichting Max Havelaar|Max Havelaar Foundation's]] labeling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Total Production of Exporting Countries, 2003 to 2008 |url=https://www.ico.org/prices/po.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706193955/https://www.ico.org/prices/po.htm |archive-date=6 July 2010 |access-date=13 January 2010 |publisher=[[International Coffee Organization]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Coffee |url=https://www.fairtrade.net/coffee.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420021901/http://www.fairtrade.net/coffee.html |archive-date=20 April 2009 |access-date=13 January 2010 |publisher=[[Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International]]}}</ref> A number of [[fair trade impact studies]] have shown that fair trade coffee produces a mixed impact on the communities that grow it. Many studies are skeptical about fair trade, reporting that it often worsens the bargaining power of those who are not part of it. The first fair-trade coffee was an effort to import Guatemalan coffee into Europe as "Indio Solidarity Coffee".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rice |first=Robert A. |date=March 2001 |title=Noble Goals and Challenging Terrain: Organic and Fair Trade Coffee Movements |url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ScientificPublications/pdfs/2a643f85-1b00-4dc0-a479-4678c45886e6.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=39–66 |doi=10.1023/A:1011367008474 |s2cid=56052913 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216221136/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ScientificPublications/pdfs/2a643f85-1b00-4dc0-a479-4678c45886e6.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2010 |access-date=13 January 2010}}</ref>

Since the founding of organizations such as the [[European Fair Trade Association]] (1987), the production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some local and national coffee chains started to offer fair trade alternatives.<ref name="efta2009">{{cite web |year=2009 |title=European Fair Trade Association |url=https://www.eftafairtrade.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510092521/http://www.eftafairtrade.org/ |archive-date=10 May 2010 |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=[[EFTA]]}}</ref> For example, in April 2000, after a year-long campaign by the human rights organization [[Global Exchange]], [[Starbucks]] decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores.<ref name="pelsmacker2005">{{cite journal |last1=De Pelsmacker |first1=Patrick |last2=Driesen |first2=Liesbeth |last3=Rayp |first3=Glenn |year=2005 |title=Do Consumers Care about Ethics? Willingness to Pay for Fair-Trade Coffee |journal=[[Journal of Consumer Affairs]] |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=363–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6606.2005.00019.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Since September 2009 all Starbucks espresso beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.<ref name="sbft">{{cite web |date=2 September 2009 |title=Starbucks Serves up its First Fairtrade Lattes and Cappuccinos Across the UK and Ireland |url=https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/september_2009/starbucks_serves_up_its_first_fairtrade_lattes_and_cappuccinos.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215173204/https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/september_2009/starbucks_serves_up_its_first_fairtrade_lattes_and_cappuccinos.aspx |archive-date=15 February 2010 |access-date=22 January 2010 |publisher=[[Fairtrade Foundation]] |location=London}}</ref>

A 2005 study in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as coffee. The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.<ref name="pelsmacker2005" />

=== Specialty coffee and new trading relationships ===
[[Specialty coffee]] has driven a desire for more traceable coffee, and as such businesses are offering coffees that may come from a single origin, or a single lot from a single farm. This can give rise to the roaster developing a relationship with the producer, to discuss and collaborate on coffee. The roaster may also choose to cut out the importers and exporters to directly trade with the producer, or they may "fairly trade", where any third-parties involved in the transaction are thought to have added value, and there is a high level of transparency around the price, although often there is no certification to back it up.<ref name="Hoffmann-2018">{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=James |title=The World Atlas of Coffee |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |year=2018 |isbn=9781784724290 |edition=2nd |pages=44–45}}</ref> This process tends to only be done for high-quality products since keeping the coffee separate from other coffees adds costs, and so only coffee that roasters believe can command a higher price will be kept separate.<ref>{{Citation |title=A Beginner's Guide To Buying Great Coffee |date=20 May 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9YnLFrM7Fs |access-date=11 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Some coffee is sold through internet auction – much of it is sold through a competition, with coffees passing through local and international jurors, and then the best coffees being selected to be bid on. Some estates known for high-quality coffee also sell their coffee through an online auction. This can lead to increased price transparency since the final price paid is usually published.<ref name="Hoffmann-2018" />

==Composition==
Brewed coffee made from typical grounds and tap water is 99.4% water and contains 40&nbsp;mg of caffeine per 100 ml with no [[nutrient|essential nutrients]] in significant content.<ref name="fdc-coffee">{{cite web |date=1 April 2019 |title=Coffee, brewed from grounds, prepared with tap water |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/171890/nutrients |access-date=19 March 2025 |publisher=FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture}}</ref> Restaurant-brewed espresso is 97.8% water and contains some [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]], [[B vitamins]], and 212&nbsp;mg of caffeine per 100 ml.<ref name="fdc-espresso">{{cite web |date=1 April 2019 |title=Coffee, brewed, espresso, restaurant-prepared |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/171891/nutrients |access-date=19 March 2025 |publisher=FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture}}</ref>

Although [[polyphenol]]s, particularly [[chlorogenic acid]], are present in coffee,<ref>{{cite news |last=Bakalar |first=Nicholas |date=15 August 2006 |title=Coffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some Benefits |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/15/health/nutrition/15coff.html?ex=1313294400&en=d420f19ee1c77365&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423080105/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/15/health/nutrition/15coff.html?ex=1313294400&en=d420f19ee1c77365&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |archive-date=23 April 2009 |access-date=26 January 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>  there is no evidence that the polyphenols impart a health benefit or have [[antioxidant]] value following ingestion.<ref name="lpi">{{cite web |date=April 2017 |title=Coffee |url=https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/food-beverages/coffee |access-date=19 March 2025 |publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Robert J. |last2=Spencer |first2=Jeremy P. E |author2-link=Jeremy P. E. Spencer |last3=Rice-Evans |first3=Catherine |year=2004 |title=Flavonoids: Antioxidants or signalling molecules? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0891584904000334 |journal=Free Radical Biology and Medicine |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=838–49 |doi=10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.01.001 |pmid=15019969 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Overall, coffee components do not pose risks to health and do not provide health effects for adults consuming about 3–4 cups per day, which would supply 300–400 mg of caffeine per day.<ref name=lpi/>

== Pharmacology ==
{{main|List of chemical compounds in coffee|Health effects of coffee}}

[[File:Caffeine-2D-skeletal.svg|thumb|[[Skeletal formula]] of a [[caffeine]] molecule]]
{{anchor|Caffeine}}A psychoactive chemical in coffee is [[caffeine]], an [[adenosine receptor]] [[receptor antagonist|antagonist]] that is known for its [[stimulant]] effects.<ref name=lpi/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cappelletti |first1=S. |last2=Daria |first2=P. |last3=Sani |first3=G. |last4=Aromatario |first4=M. |year=2015 |title=Caffeine: Cognitive and Physical Performance Enhancer or Psychoactive Drug? |journal=[[Current Neuropharmacology]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=71–88 |doi=10.2174/1570159X13666141210215655 |pmc=4462044 |pmid=26074744}}</ref> Coffee also contains the [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]] [[β-carboline]] and [[harmane]], which may contribute to its psychoactivity.<ref name="MAOI">{{cite journal |last1=Herraiz |first1=Tomas |last2=Chaparro |first2=Carolina |year=2006 |title=Human monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibition by coffee and β-carbolines norharman and harman isolated from coffee |journal=[[Life Sciences (journal)|Life Sciences]] |volume=78 |issue=8 |pages=795–802 |doi=10.1016/j.lfs.2005.05.074 |pmid=16139309}}</ref> In a healthy [[liver]], caffeine is mostly metabolized by liver enzymes. The excreted metabolites are mostly [[paraxanthine]]s—[[theobromine]] and [[theophylline]]—and a small amount of unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the [[metabolism]] of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver.<ref name=lpi/><ref name="Zivković 2000 33–6">{{cite journal |last=Zivković |first=R. |year=2000 |title=Coffee and health in the elderly |journal=Acta Medica Croatica |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=33–36 |pmid=10914439}}</ref> Coffee has [[laxative]] effects, [[gastrocolic reflex|inducing defecation]] in some people within minutes of consumption.<ref name="Brown 1990">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Steven R. |last2=Cann |first2=P. A. |last3=Read |first3=Nicholas W. |date=1990 |title=Effect of coffee on distal colon function |journal=[[Gut (journal)|Gut]] |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=450–453 |doi=10.1136/gut.31.4.450 |pmc=1378422 |pmid=2338272 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Eamudomkarn 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Eamudomkarn |first1=Nuntasiri |last2=Kietpeerakool |first2=Chumnan |last3=Kaewrudee |first3=Srinaree |last4=Jampathong |first4=Nampet |last5=Ngamjarus |first5=Chetta |last6=Lumbiganon |first6=Pisake |date=2018 |title=Effect of postoperative coffee consumption on gastrointestinal function after abdominal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |at=17349 |bibcode=2018NatSR...817349E |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-35752-2 |pmc=6255780 |pmid=30478433 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Sloots 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Sloots |first1=Cornelius E.J. |last2=Felt-Bersma |first2=Richelle J.F. |last3=West |first3=Rachel L. |last4=Kuipers |first4=Ernst J. |date=2005 |title=Stimulation of defecation: Effects of coffee use and nicotine on rectal tone and visceral sensitivity |journal=[[Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology]] |language=en |volume=40 |issue=7 |pages=808–813 |doi=10.1080/00365520510015872 |pmid=16109656 |s2cid=23622961 }}</ref><ref name="Nehlig 2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Nehlig |first1=Astrid |date=2022 |title=Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update |journal=[[Nutrients (journal)|Nutrients]] |volume=14 |issue=2 |page=399 |doi=10.3390/nu14020399 |pmc=8778943 |pmid=35057580 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The specific mechanism of action and chemical constituents responsible are still unknown, but caffeine is likely not responsible.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Callahan |first=Alice |date=November 30, 2021 |title=Why Does Coffee Make Me Poop? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/30/well/eat/why-does-coffee-make-you-poop.html |access-date=June 29, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

A 2017 review of clinical trials found that drinking coffee is generally safe within usual levels of intake and is more likely to improve health outcomes than to cause harm at doses of 3–4 cups of coffee daily. Exceptions include a possible increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possible increased risk in pregnant women of fetal loss or decreased birth weight. Results were complicated by poor study quality, and differences in age, gender, health status, and serving size.<ref name="poole">{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=Robin |last2=Kennedy |first2=Oliver J. |last3=Roderick |first3=Paul |last4=Fallowfield |first4=Jonathan A. |last5=Hayes |first5=Peter C |last6=Parkes |first6=Julie |date=November 2017 |title=Coffee consumption and health: umbrella review of meta-analyses of multiple health outcomes |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/359/bmj.j5024.full.pdf |journal=[[BMJ]] |volume=359 |doi=10.1136/bmj.j5024 |pmc=5696634 |pmid=29167102 |doi-access=free |article-number=j5024}}{{open access}}</ref>

Coffee is known to have a significant amount of water-soluble [[dietary fiber]] (mostly [[polysaccharides]] like [[galactomannans]], [[arabinogalactans]], and [[melanoidins]]) compared to other commonly consumed beverages such as factory orange juice. The amount of dietary fiber ranges from 0.47-0.75 g per 100 mL of prepared coffee in a 2007 experiment testing on espresso, drip coffee, and freeze-dried coffee with the beverage made from freeze-dried containing the highest amount fiber. Given the popularity of coffee and the low amount of fiber consumed by the average person in many developed nations, coffee may majorly contribute to the daily dietary fiber consumption for many people. (For instance, in Spain the mean fiber consumption of 7 grams per day with a moderate coffee drinker having {{not a typo|3 cups}} per day points to coffee accounting for 10% of Spanish dietary fiber.) <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/need-fiber-have-some-coff/ | title=Need Fiber? Have Some Coffee | website=[[Scientific American]] }}</ref><ref>Díaz-Rubio, M Elena & Saura-Calixto, Fulgencio. (2007) Dietary fiber in brewed coffee. ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', 55 (5), 1999–2003.</ref><ref>Gniechwitz, Diana; Reichardt, Nicole; Blaut, Michael; Steinhart, Hans; Bunzel, Mirko. 2007. Dietary fiber from coffee beverage: Degradation by human fecal microbiota. ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', ''55'' (17).</ref><ref>Gniechwitz, Diana; Brueckel, Birgit; Reichardt, Nicole; Blaut, Michael; Steinhart, Hans; Bunzel, Mirko. 2007. Coffee dietary fiber contents and structural characteristics as influenced by coffee type and technological and brewing procedures. ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', ''55'' (26).</ref><ref>Silván, José Manuel; Morales, Francisco J; Saura-Calixto, Fulgencio. 2010. Conceptual study on maillardized dietary fiber in coffee. ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', ''58'' (23).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 22584883|year = 2012|title = Coffee melanoidins: structures, mechanisms of formation and potential health impacts|journal = Food & Function|issue = 9|doi = 10.1039/c2fo30048f | last1=Moreira | first1=Ana S. P. | last2=Nunes | first2=Fernando M. | last3=Domingues | first3=M. Rosário | last4=Coimbra | first4=Manuel A. | volume=3 | pages=903–915 }}</ref><ref>Machado, Fernanda; Coimbra, Manuel A; Coreta-Gomes, Filipe. 2024. Coffee dietary fiber: Features and hypocholesterolemic effects. In ''Coffee in health and disease prevention,'' (2nd ed, Chap 25, pp 277–285). Academic Press.</ref>

=== Caffeine content ===
{{See also|Low caffeine coffee}}

Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving can vary greatly.<ref name="Bunker" /><ref>{{cite web |date=5 February 2025 |title=Caffeine content for coffee, tea, soda and more |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20049372 |access-date=19 March 2025 |publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]}}</ref> The caffeine content of a cup of coffee varies depending mainly on the brewing method, and also on the coffee variety, such as 40 mg per 100 ml in regular coffee and 212 mg per 100 ml in espresso.<ref name=fdc-coffee/><ref name=fdc-espresso/>  According to a 1979 analysis, coffee has the following caffeine content, depending on how it is prepared:<ref name="Bunker">{{cite journal |last1=Bunker |first1=M. L. |last2=McWilliams |first2=M. |year=1979 |title=Caffeine content of common beverages |journal=[[Journal of the American Dietetic Association]] |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=28–32 |doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(21)39775-9 |pmid=762339 |s2cid=10192823}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Serving size !! Caffeine content
|-
| Brewed || {{cvt|200|mL|usfloz|0}} || 80–135&nbsp;mg
|-
| Drip || {{cvt|200|mL|usfloz|0}} || 115–175&nbsp;mg
|-
| Espresso || {{cvt|45|-|60|mL|usfloz|frac=2}} || 100&nbsp;mg
|}

Caffeine remains stable up to {{convert|200|°C|°F}} and completely decomposes around {{convert|285|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Rui |last2=Xue |first2=Jingjing |last3=Meng |first3=Lei |last4=Lee |first4=Jin-Wook |last5=Zhao |first5=Zipeng |last6=Sun |first6=Pengyu |last7=Cai |first7=Le |last8=Huang |first8=Tianyi |last9=Wang |first9=Zhengxu |last10=Wang |first10=Zhao-Kui |last11=Duan |first11=Yu |date=June 2019 |title=Caffeine Improves the Performance and Thermal Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells |journal=[[Joule (journal)|Joule]] |language=en |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=1464–1477 |bibcode=2019Joule...3.1464W |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2019.04.005 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Given that roasting temperatures do not exceed {{convert|200|°C|°F}} for long and rarely if ever reach {{convert|285|°C|°F}}, the caffeine content of a coffee is not likely changed much by the roasting process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wahyuni |first1=N L E |last2=Rispiandi |first2=R |last3=Hariyadi |first3=T |date=19 May 2020 |title=Effect of bean maturity and roasting temperature on chemical content of robusta coffee |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |volume=830 |issue=2 |bibcode=2020MS&E..830b2019W |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/830/2/022019 |issn=1757-899X |doi-access=free |article-number=022019}}</ref><!-- refs everything of past two sentences but the encyclopedia bit -->

== Society and culture ==
{{Main|Coffee culture}}

{{See also|Coffee culture in Australia|Coffee culture in former Yugoslavia}}

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home or when eating out at [[diner]]s or cafeterias. It is often served at the end of a formal meal, normally with a dessert, and at times with an after-dinner mint, especially when consumed at a restaurant or dinner party.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Food Timeline: popular American decade foods, menus, products & party planning tips |url=https://www.foodtimeline.org/fooddecades.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418130100/https://www.foodtimeline.org/fooddecades.html |archive-date=18 April 2022 |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=foodtimeline.org}}</ref>

=== Coffeehouses ===
{{Main|Coffeehouse}}

[[File:Shops in Baščaršija, September, 2017.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee is an important part of Bosnian culture, and was a major part of its economy in the past.<ref name="Bosnian coffee-Cohen-BBC-2014">{{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=Brad |date=16 July 2014 |title=The complicated culture of Bosnian coffee |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20140707-the-complicated-culture-of-bosnian-coffee |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210085650/http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20140707-the-complicated-culture-of-bosnian-coffee |archive-date=10 February 2020 |access-date=4 February 2020 |publisher=[[BBC]] |language=en}}</ref>]]

Widely known as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee or other hot beverages have existed for over 500 years. The first coffeehouse in Constantinople was opened in 1475 by traders arriving from Damascus and Aleppo.<ref>''La Dolce Vita''. 1999. Coffee. London, UK: New Holland Books</ref>

A contemporary term for a person who makes coffee beverages, often a coffeehouse employee, is a ''[[barista]]''. The Specialty Coffee Association of Europe and the Specialty Coffee Association of America have been influential in setting standards and providing training.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 November 2012 |title=Barista Training Standards – A Global Perspective |url=https://www.cafeculture.com/general-interest/barista-training-standards-a-global-perspective |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610071442/http://www.cafeculture.com/general-interest/barista-training-standards-a-global-perspective |archive-date=10 June 2015 |access-date=10 June 2015 |website=Cafe Culture}}</ref>

=== Break ===
The [[coffee break]] in the United States and elsewhere is a short mid-morning rest period granted to employees. It originated in the late 19th century in [[Stoughton, Wisconsin]], with the wives of Norwegian immigrants. The city celebrates this every year with the Stoughton Coffee Break Festival.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stoughton, WI – Where the Coffee Break Originated |url=https://www.stoughtonwi.com/coffee.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520144944/https://www.stoughtonwi.com/coffee.shtml |archive-date=20 May 2009 |access-date=11 June 2009 |website=stoughtonwi.com |publisher=Stoughton, Wisconsin Chamber of Commerce |quote=Mr. Osmund Gunderson decided to ask the Norwegian wives, who lived just up the hill from his warehouse, if they would come and help him sort the tobacco. The women agreed, as long as they could have a break in the morning and another in the afternoon, to go home and tend to their chores. Of course, this also meant they were free to have a cup of coffee from the pot that was always hot on the stove. Mr. Gunderson agreed and with this simple habit, the coffee break was born.}}</ref> In 1951, ''Time'' noted that "since the war, the coffee break has been written into union contracts".<ref>{{cite news |date=5 March 1951 |title=Time – March 1951 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> The term subsequently became common through a ''Pan-American Coffee Bureau'' ad campaign of 1952 which urged consumers, "Give yourself a Coffee-Break – and Get What Coffee Gives to You."<ref>{{cite web |date=2 December 2002 |title=The Coffee break |url=https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/coffeebreak/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528075409/https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/coffeebreak/index.html |archive-date=28 May 2009 |access-date=10 June 2009 |publisher=[[NPR]] |quote=Wherever the coffee break originated, Stamberg says, it may not actually have been called a coffee break until 1952. That year, a Pan-American Coffee Bureau ad campaign urged consumers, 'Give yourself a Coffee-Break – and Get What Coffee Gives to You.'}}</ref> [[John B. Watson]], a behavioral psychologist who worked with [[Maxwell House]] later in his career, helped to popularize coffee breaks within American culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Morton M. |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofpsycholog00hunt/page/260 |title=The story of psychology |publisher=Doubleday |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-385-24762-7 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=260 |quote=[work] for Maxwell House that helped make the 'coffee break' an American custom in offices, factories, and homes.}}</ref>

=== Prohibition and condemnation ===
[[File:John Frederick Lewis 004.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Coffee Bearer'', [[Cairo]], an [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] painting by [[John Frederick Lewis]] (1857)]]

Historically, several religious groups have prohibited or condemned the consumption of coffee. The permissibility of coffee was debated in the Islamic world during the early 16th century, variously being permitted or prohibited until it was ultimately accepted by the 1550s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://archive.org/details/newintroductiont0000brow/page/149 |title=A new introduction to Islam |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4051-5807-7 |location=Chichester, West Sussex |pages=149–151}}</ref> Contention existed among Ashkenazi Jews as to whether coffee was acceptable for Passover until it was certified kosher in 1923.<ref>{{cite web |title=A few new Passover haggadahs, and a facelift for an old favorite |url=https://www.jta.org/news/article/2011/03/22/3086473/three-new-passover-haggadahs-and-a-facelift-for-an-old-favorite |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324184940/https://www.jta.org/news/article/2011/03/22/3086473/three-new-passover-haggadahs-and-a-facelift-for-an-old-favorite |archive-date=24 March 2011 |publisher=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]]}}</ref> Some Christian groups, such as Mormons and Seventh-day Adventists, discourage the consumption of coffee.<ref name="beliefnet-mormons">{{cite web |title=Who Are the Mormons? |url=https://www.beliefnet.com/story/98/story_9838_1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005023548/http://www.beliefnet.com/story/98/story_9838_1.html |archive-date=5 October 2008 |access-date=13 February 2010 |publisher=[[Beliefnet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=September 1992 |title=Coffee consumption and mortality in Seventh-Day Adventists |url=https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0887/is_n9_v11/ai_12673616 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709161543/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0887/is_n9_v11/ai_12673616 |archive-date=9 July 2012 |access-date=13 February 2010 |work=Nutrition Research Newsletter |publisher=[[Frost & Sullivan]]}}<!-- digest of original article: Kristian D Lindsted, Jan W Kuzma, and James L Anderson, "Coffee Consumption and Cause-Specific Mortality: Association with Age at Death and Compression of Mortality", ''J Clinical Epidemiology'' 45(7):733-742 (1992) --></ref> Some [[Rastafarians]] also generally avoid coffee.<ref>{{cite news |date=10 October 2009 |title=Worship and customs |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/rastafari/customs/customs_1.shtml |access-date=3 February 2025 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

Furthermore, coffee has been prohibited for political and economic reasons. King [[Charles II of England]] briefly outlawed coffeehouses to quell perceived rebellion.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=13}} King [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] banned it in Prussia, concerned about the price of importing of coffee without production colonies.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=11}}{{sfn |Bersten |1999 |page=53}} Sweden [[Coffee in Sweden#Restrictions|prohibited coffee in the 18th century]] for the same reasons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knutsson |first1=Anna |last2=Hodacs |first2=Hanna |year=2021 |title=When coffee was banned: strategies of labour and leisure among Stockholm's poor women, 1794–1796 and 1799–1802 |journal=Scandinavian Economic History Review |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1080/03585522.2021.2000489 |issn=0358-5522 |s2cid=244415520 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Coffee has seldom been prohibited based on its intoxicating effect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Topik |first=Steven |year=2009 |title=Coffee as a Social Drug |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25475502 |journal=[[Cultural Critique]] |volume=71 |issue=71 |pages=81–106 |doi=10.1353/cul.0.0027 |issn=0882-4371 |jstor=25475502 |s2cid=143091138 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Folklore and culture ===
{{redirect|Cup of joe|other uses|Cup of Joe (disambiguation)}}
There are many stories about coffee and its impact on people and society. The [[Oromo people]] would customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of powerful sorcerers. They believed that the first coffee bush sprang up from the tears that the god of heaven shed over the corpse of a dead sorcerer.{{sfn |Allen |1999 |page=27}} [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] was inspired to compose the humorous ''[[Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht|Coffee Cantata]]'', about [[Caffeine dependence|dependence on the beverage]], which was controversial in the early 18th century.{{sfn |Pendergrast |2001 |page=10}}

In the United States, coffee is sometimes called a "cup of Joe". The origin of this phrase is in dispute; a common story is that in World War I the US Secretary of the Navy [[Josephus Daniels|Josephus "Joe" Daniels]] banned alcohol on navy ships which meant that the strongest drink available aboard the ship was black coffee. Sailors began referring to coffee as a "cup of Joe" in reference to Daniels. However, this story may be apocryphal since the first written account of it was in 1930, some 15 years later. Another explanation is that a formerly popular nickname for coffee, ''jamoke'', from ''mocha java'', was shortened to ''Joe''. A third origin story is that since coffee is such a commonly consumed beverage, it is the drink of the [[average Joe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 July 2019 |title=Why Is Coffee Called a Cup of Joe? |url=https://www.rd.com/article/reason-coffee-called-cup-of-joe/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Why We Call Coffee a "Cup of Joe" |url=https://www.allrecipes.com/article/cup-of-joe-meaning/ |website=Allrecipes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World Wide Words: Joe |url=https://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-joe1.htm}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Coffee cup sleeve]]
* [[Coffee cup]]
* [[Coffee cupping]]
* [[Coffee in Japan]]
* [[Coffee in South Korea]]
* [[Colombian coffee growing axis]]
* [[Eight O'Clock Coffee]]
* [[Khat]]
* [[List of coffee dishes]]
* [[List of coffee drinks]]
* [[List of coffeehouse chains]]
* [[Sanka]]
* [[Third-wave coffee]]
* [[Viennese coffee house]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book |last=Allen |first=Stewart Lee |title=The Devil's Cup: Coffee, the Driving Force in History |publisher=[[Random House]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-56947-174-6 |location=Soho |oclc=41961356}}
* {{cite book |last=Bersten |first=Ian |title=Coffee, Sex & Health: A History of Anti-coffee Crusaders and Sexual Hysteria |publisher=Helian Books |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-9577581-0-0 |location=Sydney |oclc=222519244}}
* {{cite book |title=Coffee |publisher=Elsevier Applied Science |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-85166-034-6 |editor1-last=Clarke |editor1-first=Ronald James |volume=2: Technology |location=Barking, Essex |editor2-last=Macrae |editor2-first=R.}}
* {{cite book |title=Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage |publisher=AVI Publishing |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7099-0787-9 |editor1-last=Clifford |editor1-first=M. N. |location=Westport, Connecticut |oclc=11444112 |editor2-last=Wilson |editor2-first=K.C.}}
* {{cite book |last=Kummer |first=Corby |title=The Joy of Coffee: The Essential guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying |date=2003 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |isbn=978-0-618-30240-6 |location=Boston |oclc=51969208}}
* {{cite book |last=Pendergrast |first=Mark |title=Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World |date=2001 |publisher=Texere |isbn=978-1-58799-088-5 |location=London |oclc=48931999}}
* {{cite book |last=Souza |first=Ricardo M. |title=Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee |publisher=シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社 |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4020-8719-6 |location=Dordrecht |oclc=288603555}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weinberg |first1=Bennett Alan |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines00benn |title=The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug |last2=Bealer |first2=Bonnie K. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-92722-2 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines00benn/page/n28 3] |access-date=18 November 2015 |url-access=registration}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite news |last=Bhanoo |first=Sindya N. |date=25 March 2013 |title=The Secret May Be in the Coffee |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/26/science/on-one-greek-island-a-caffeinated-secret-to-long-life.html |access-date=4 December 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Ganchy |first1=Sally |url=https://archive.org/details/islamsciencemedi0000ganc |title=Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology |publisher=The [[Rosen Publishing Group]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4358-5066-8 |ref=none}} <!-- also {{isbn|978-1-4358-5066-8 |ref=none}} -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Von Hünersdorff |first1=Richard |title=Coffee : a bibliography : a guide to the literature on coffee |last2=Hasenkamp |first2=Holger G. |date=2002 |publisher=Hünersdorff |isbn=978-0-9527121-0-7 |location=London |oclc=52041916 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Jacob |first=Heinrich Eduard |url=https://archive.org/details/coffeeepicofcomm00jaco |title=Coffee: The Epic of a Commodity |publisher=Burford Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-58080-070-9 |location=Short Hills, NJ |ref=none |access-date=18 November 2015 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite news |last1=Joffe-Walt |first1=Benjamin |last2=Burkeman |first2=Oliver |date=16 September 2005 |title=Coffee trail—from the Ethiopian village of Choche to a London coffee shop |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/Story/0,2763,1571608,00.html |work=[[The Guardian]] |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kingston |first=Lani |title=How to Make Coffee: The Science Behind the Bean |publisher=Ivy Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1782405184 |edition=1st |location=Lewes |oclc=898155710 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mahamid |first1=Hatim |last2=Nissim |first2=Chaim |date=5 December 2018 |title=Sufis and Coffee Consumption: Religio-Legal and Historical Aspects of a Controversy in the Late Mamluk and Early Ottoman Periods |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332950898 |journal=Journal of Sufi Studies |volume=7 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–164 |doi=10.1163/22105956-12341311 |s2cid=182410390 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Allan A. |url=https://archive.org/details/worldinsomanywor00metc/page/123 |title=The World in So Many Words: A Country-by-country Tour of Words that have Shaped our Language |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-395-95920-6 |page=123 |ref=none |access-date=18 November 2015 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rao |first=Scott |title=The professional barista's handbook : an expert's guide to preparing espresso, coffee, and tea |date=2008 |publisher=The author |isbn=978-1-60530-098-6 |location=USA |oclc=311542398 |ref=none}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Coffee |volume=6 |pages=646–649 |first1=Alfred Barton |last1=Rendle |first2=William George |last2=Freeman |short=1 |ref=none}} (inc. trade figures for 1904–5, diagrams etc.)
* {{cite journal |last1=Siasos |first1=G. |last2=Oikonomou |first2=E. |last3=Chrysohoou |first3=C. |last4=Tousoulis |first4=D. |last5=Panagiotakos |first5=D. |last6=Zaromitidou |first6=M. |last7=Zisimos |first7=K. |last8=Kokkou |first8=E. |last9=Marinos |first9=G. |last10=Papavassiliou |first10=A. G. |last11=Pitsavos |first11=C. |last12=Stefanadis |first12=C. |year=2013 |title=Consumption of a boiled Greek type of coffee is associated with improved endothelial function: The Ikaria Study |journal=[[Vascular Medicine (journal)|Vascular Medicine]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=55–62 |doi=10.1177/1358863X13480258 |pmid=23509088 |ref=none |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Siasos |first1=G. |last2=Tousoulis |first2=D. |last3=Stefanadis |first3=C. |date=February 2014 |title=Effects of habitual coffee consumption on vascular function |journal=[[Journal of the American College of Cardiology]] |volume=63 |issue=6 |pages=606–07 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2013.08.1642 |pmid=24184234 |ref=none |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weissman |first=Michaele |title=God in a Cup: The Obsessive Quest for the Perfect Coffee |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2008 |isbn=9780470173589 |location=Hoboken, NJ |oclc=938341854 |ref=none}}

== External links ==
{{Cookbook|Coffee}}{{Wikispecies|Coffea}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{wikiquote-inline}}

{{Coffee}}
{{Plant-based diets}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Coffee}}
[[Category:Coffee| ]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Drinks]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal stimulants]]
[[Category:Hot drinks]]
[[Category:Non-alcoholic drinks]]
[[Category:Yemeni drinks]]