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{{Short description|Small, flat and usually round piece of material used as money}}
{{About|monetary coins}}
{{Redirect|Coins|the bibliographic metadata standard|COinS}}
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{{Numismatics}}

A '''coin''' is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or [[legal tender]]. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a [[mint (facility)|mint]] in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a [[government]]. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. The faces of coins or [[medal]]s are sometimes called [[Obverse and reverse|the ''obverse'' and the ''reverse'']], referring to the front and back sides, respectively. The obverse of a coin is commonly called ''heads'', because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as ''tails''.

The first metal coins – invented in the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek world]] and disseminated during the [[Hellenistic period]] – were [[precious metal]]–based, and were invented in order to simplify and regularize the task of measuring and weighing [[bullion]] (bulk metal) carried around for the purpose of transactions. They carried their value within the coins themselves, but the stampings also induced manipulations, such as the [[Coin clipping|clipping]] of coins to remove some of the precious metal.<ref name=Sancinito>Sancinito, Jane E. "[https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/like-a-bad-penny/ Like a Bad Penny: Ancient Numismatics in the Ancient World]." Expedition: The Magazine of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology 60, no. 2. (2018): 12-23: "The first people to use coins were from modern Turkey, right around 600 BCE. Their coins were different from ours today, less regular and made from precious metal, a mix of gold and silver known as electrum, but their experience, as they went to market or paid their taxes, was similar to mine in the coffee shop. They looked at the lumps of metal in their hand and tried to figure out how much money they had left, and whether they had been cheated. Current research suggests that coins were invented to simplify and regularize this task. Amounts of metal were measured to specific levels of purity and then stamped with an official mark, thereby speeding up transactions and, for the first time in history, guaranteeing certain pieces of metal were trustworthy. The idea caught on quickly, spreading through Western Asia Minor before being adopted by the city-states of Archaic Greece."</ref>

Most modern [[coinage metals]] are [[base metal]], and their value comes from their status as [[fiat money]] — the value of the coin is established by law. In the last hundred years, the [[face value]] of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to [[inflation]]. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or [[hoard]] them (see [[Gresham's law]]). Currently coins are used as money in everyday transactions, [[Currency in circulation|circulating]] alongside [[banknote]]s. Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding [[bullion coins]]) is worth less than the lowest-value note. Coins are usually more efficient than banknotes because they last longer: banknotes last only about four years, compared with 30 years for a coin.<ref>[https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-19-300 U.S. Currency: Financial Benefit of Switching to a $1 Coin Is Unlikely, but Changing Coin Metal Content Could Result in Cost Savings]</ref><ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/businessmain/lawmakers-again-propose-replacing-1-bills-coins-6c10713866 Lawmakers (again) propose replacing $1 bills with coins]</ref>

Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value currently occur for [[bullion coins]] made of [[copper]], [[silver]], or [[gold]] (and rarely other metals, such as [[platinum]] or [[palladium]]), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the [[Sovereign (British coin)|British sovereign]] minted by the United Kingdom, the [[American Gold Eagle]] minted by the United States, the [[Canadian Gold Maple Leaf]] minted by Canada, and the [[Krugerrand]], minted by South Africa. While the Eagle and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not. [[Commemorative coins]] usually serve as collector's items only, although some countries also issue commemorative coins for regular circulation, such as the [[2€ commemorative coins]] and U.S. [[America the Beautiful quarters]].

== History ==
{{efn|The term [[Axial Age]] (the [[Historicity|historicity]] of which is disputed <ref>{{cite journal |author=Spinney L. |title=When did societies become modern? 'Big history' dashes popular idea of Axial Age |journal=Nature |date=2019 |volume=576 |issue=7786 |pages=189–190 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-03785-w |pmid=31822841 |bibcode=2019Natur.576..189S |doi-access=free |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith A. |title=Between facts and myth: Karl Jaspers and the actuality of the axial age |journal=International Journal of Philosophy and Theology |date=2015 |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=315–334 |doi=10.1080/21692327.2015.1136794 |doi-access=free|hdl=2066/155741 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mullins |first1=Daniel Austin |last2=Hoyer |first2=Daniel |last3=Collins |first3=Christina |last4=Currie |first4=Thomas |last5=Feeney |first5=Kevin |last6=François |first6=Pieter |last7=Savage |first7=Patrick E. |last8=Whitehouse |first8=Harvey |last9=Turchin |first9=Peter |date=2018 |title=A Systematic Assessment of "Axial Age" Proposals Using Global Comparative Historical Evidence |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0003122418772567 |journal=American Sociological Review |language=en |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=596–626 |doi=10.1177/0003122418772567 |hdl=10871/36086 |s2cid=150014307 |issn=0003-1224|hdl-access=free }}</ref>), coined by the German philosopher [[Karl Jaspers]], describes a time when early metal coinage came into use in ancient West Asia, Greece, northern India, and China.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Focardi
 |first1               = Sergio M.
 |date                 = 19 March 2018
 |chapter              = 3.1: Some brief remarks on money throughout history
 |title                = Money: What It Is, How It's Created, Who Gets It, and Why It Matters
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=ARdSDwAAQBAJ
 |series               = Economics in the Real World
 |publication-place    = [[Milton Park]], [[Abingdon-on-Thames|Abingdon]] & [[Third Avenue]], New York
 |publisher            = [[Taylor & Francis]]: [[Routledge]]
 |page                 = 
 |isbn                 = 978-1-315-39104-5
 |access-date          = 18 April 2023
 |quote                = The idea of coinage follows almost naturally from the use of metal as a commodity for exchange. [...] Graeber [...] connects the Axial Age to the first coinage, noting that the three parts of the world where coins were first used correspond to the very parts of the world where religious and philosophical creativity thrived, that is, the kingdoms and city-states around the shores of the Aegean Sea, in the Ganges valley in northern India, and around the Yellow River in China [...].
}} </ref>}}

===Bullion and unmarked metals===
[[File:Minoan copper ingot from Zakros, Crete.jpg|thumb|An [[oxhide ingot]] from [[Crete]]. [[Late Bronze Age]] metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values.]]
Metal [[ingot]]s, silver bullion or unmarked bars were probably{{original research inline|date=April 2023}} in use for exchange among many{{quantify|date=April 2023}} of the civilizations that mastered metallurgy. The weight and purity of bullion would be the key determinant of value. In the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in the early 6th century BC, coinage was yet unknown. The [[barter]] system, as well as silver [[bullion]] were used instead for trade.<ref name="WM">{{cite book |last1= Metcalf |first1= William E. |title= The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage |date= 2016 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937218-8 |pages=61–65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trkUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |language=en}}</ref> The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in [[Central Asia]] from the 6th century BC.<ref name = bivar>Discovery of a hoard of currency with silver bars near [[Malayer]], dated circa 600 BCE, with photographs in {{cite book |last1=Bivar |first1=Adrian David Hugh |title=Hoard of Ingot-Currency of the Median Period from Nūsh-i Jān, near Malayir (1971) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/AHoardOfIngot-currencyOfTheMedianPeriodFromNush-iJan1971/page/n1 97]–111 |url=https://archive.org/details/AHoardOfIngot-currencyOfTheMedianPeriodFromNush-iJan1971 |language=en}}</ref> Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the [[Late Bronze Age]], when various cultures used standard-sized [[ingot]]s and tokens such as [[knife money]] to store and transfer value. Phoenician metal ingots had to be stamped with the name of a current ruler to guarantee their worth and value, which is probably how stamping busts and designs began,{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} although political advertising – glorification of a state or of a ruler – may also play a role.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Dundua
 |first1               = Tʻedo
 |last2                = Čʻikʻobava
 |first2               = Akaki
 |last3                = Avdaliani
 |first3               = Emil
 |year                 = 2020
 |title                = Coin as a means of propaganda according to Georgian numismatics
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=q0d6zgEACAAJ
 |publisher            = Gamomcʻemloba "Meridiani"
 |isbn                 = 978-9941-25-974-6
 |access-date          = 18 April 2023
}} 
</ref>

===Tongbei in Bronze Age China (c. 1100 BC)===
In the late [[Chinese Bronze Age]], standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near [[Anyang]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.big5.henan.gov.cn/hngk/system/2006/08/02/010000219.shtml|title=中國最早金屬鑄幣 商代晚期鑄造銅貝-河南概況 |publisher= Big5.henan.gov.cn|access-date=2012-05-22|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120317071705/http://www.big5.henan.gov.cn/hngk/system/2006/08/02/010000219.shtml|archive-date= 2012-03-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGu62yiVF8wC&q=shang+coin&pg=PT186 |title=The Everything Coin Collecting Book: All You Need to Start Your Collection … |first= Richard |last= Giedroyc |date= 2006-11-15 |publisher=Adams Media |access-date= 2012-05-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528092906/http://books.google.com/books?id=RGu62yiVF8wC&pg=PT186&dq=shang+coin&lr=#PPT187,M1 |archive-date=2013-05-28 |isbn=978-1-59337-568-3 }}</ref> These were replicas in bronze of earlier [[Renminbi|Chinese currency]], [[cowrie]] shells, so they were named "[[Tong Bei|Bronze Shell]]".<ref>{{cite web |author=YK Kwan |url=http://chinesechinese.net/HistoryofChina.html |title=A snap shot view of The history of China by YK Kwan |publisher=Chinesechinese.net |access-date=2012-05-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120503202130/http://www.chinesechinese.net/HistoryofChina.html |archive-date=2012-05-03 }}</ref>

===China Henan coin factory (c. 640 – 550 BC)===
The world's oldest known coin factory has been excavated in the ancient city ''Guanzhuang'' in [[Henan]] province in [[China]]. The factory produced shovel-shaped bronze coins between 640 B.C. and 550 B.C., making it the oldest securely dated minting site.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/worlds-oldest-coin-factory-discovered-in-china |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210805232820/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/worlds-oldest-coin-factory-discovered-in-china |archive-date= August 5, 2021 |title= 'World's oldest' coin factory discovered in China |last=Kramer |first=Jillian |date=6 August 2021 |website= |publisher=[[National Geographic|National geographic]]  |access-date=24 July 2022 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Radiocarbon-dating an early minting site: the emergence of standardised coinage in China |date=6 August 2021 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]  |doi=10.15184/aqy.2021.94 |quote= |last1= Zhao |first1= Hao |last2= Gao |first2= Xiangping |last3= Jiang |first3= Yuchao |last4= Lin |first4= Yi |last5= Zhu |first5= Jin |last6= Ding |first6= Sicong |last7= Deng |first7= Lijun |last8= Zhang |first8= Ji |journal= Antiquity |volume= 95 |issue= 383 |pages=1161–1178 |s2cid=238220610 |doi-access= free }}</ref>

=== Iron Age ===

==== Lydian and Ionian electrum coins (c. 600 BC)====
[[File:KINGS of LYDIA. Alyattes. Circa 620-10-564-53 BC.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Alyattes]] of [[Lydia]], {{c.|620/10–564/53}} BC]]
[[File:Triti, Phanes, 625-600 BC, Ionia - 301224.jpg|right|thumb|The earliest inscribed coinage: [[electrum]] coin of [[Phanes (coin issuer)|Phanes]] from [[Ephesus#Archaic period|Ephesus]], 625–600 BC. Obverse: [[Stag]] grazing right, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde). Reverse: Two [[incuse]] punches, each with raised intersecting lines.<ref name="cngcoins.com">{{cite book |title=CNG: IONIA, Ephesos. Phanes. Circa 625–600 BC. EL Trite (14mm, 4.67 g). |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=301224}}</ref>]]
The earliest coins are mostly associated with [[Iron Age Anatolia]] of the late 7th century BC, and especially with the kingdom of [[Lydia]].<ref>M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider's ''La naissance de la monnaie'', ''Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau'' '''80''' (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.</ref> Early [[electrum]] coins (an alluvial alloy of gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.<ref>[https://www.forumancientcoins.com/dannyjones/Greek%20Coin%20Books/Types%20of%20Greek%20Coins%20-%20Gardner.pdf "The Types of Greek Coins" An Archaeological Essay] (PDF) by Percy Gardner 1883 p.42 "Considering these and other facts it may be held to be probable, if not absolutely proved, that priests first issued stamped coin, and that the first mints were in Greek temples." <!-- Dead link - see new above [http://dln2.comyr.com/PDF/7682.pdf] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}--></ref> The unpredictability of the composition of naturally occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its development.<ref name="WM49"/>

Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("myth" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore, the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the [[Temple of Artemis at Ephesus]], also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]). This was the site of the earliest known deposit of electrum coins.<ref name="cngcoins.com"/> Anatolian Artemis was the [[Potnia Theron|Πότνια Θηρῶν]] (''Potnia Thêrôn'', "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the [[stag]]. It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.<ref>"Hoards, Small Change, and the Origin of Capitalism", Journal of the Hellenistic Studies 84 (1964), p. 89</ref> Maybe the first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, hemiobol, [[Ancient Greek coinage]] minted by the [[Ionians|Ionian Greeks]] in the late sixth century BC.<ref>M. Mitchiner, Ancient Trade and Early Coinage, Hawkins Publications, London, 2004, p. 214</ref>

In contrast [[Herodotus]] mentioned the innovation made by the Lydians:<ref name="WM49"/>
{{blockquote|So far as we have any knowledge, they [the Lydians] were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins, and the first who sold goods by retail.|Herodotus, I94<ref name="WM49"/>}}
And both [[Aristotle]] (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and [[Julius Pollux|Pollux]] (Onamastikon IX.83), mention that the first issuer of coinage was [[Hermodike II|Hermodike/Demodike of Cyme]].<ref name="Muscarella"/> [[Cyme (Aeolis)|Cyme]] was a city in [[Aeolis|Aeolia]], nearby Lydia.
{{blockquote|Another example of local pride is the dispute about coinage, whether the first one to strike it was Pheidon of Argos, or Demodike of Kyme (who was wife of Midas the Phrygian and daughter of King Agammemnon of Kyme), or Erichthonios and Lycos of Athens, or the Lydians (as Xenophanes says) or the Naxians (as Anglosthenes thought).|Julius Pollux, Onamastikon IX.83<ref name="Muscarella">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5AOw0GB0zHsC&q=%22Another+example+of+local+pride+is+the+dispute%22&pg=PA705|title = Archaeology, Artifacts and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East: Sites, Cultures, and Proveniences|isbn = 978-90-04-23669-1|last1 = Muscarella|first1 = Oscar White|date = 15 June 2013| publisher=BRILL }}</ref>}}
Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,<ref>G. Hanfmann, pp. 73, 77. R. Seaford, p. 128, points out, "The nearly total lack of … coins in the excavated commercial-industrial areas of Sardis suggests that they were concentrated in the hands of the king and possibly wealthy merchants."</ref> though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues. The earliest inscribed coins are those of [[Phanes (coin issuer)|Phanes]], dated to 625–600 BC from [[Ephesus]] in [[Ionia]], with the legend ΦΑΕΝΟΣ ΕΜΙ ΣHΜΑ (or similar) ("I am the badge/sign/mark of Phanes/light") or just bearing the name ΦΑΝΕΟΣ ("of Phanes").

The first electrum coins issued by a monarch are those minted by king [[Alyattes of Lydia]] (died {{Circa|560 BC}}), for which reason this king is sometimes mentioned as the originator of coinage.<ref>A. Ramage, "Golden Sardis", King Croesus' Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining, edited by A. Ramage and P. Craddock, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 18.</ref>

====Croesus: Pure gold and silver coins====
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| align             = right
| header            = Croeseids
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = KINGS of LYDIA. Kroisos. Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (16mm, 10.73 g). Heavy series. Sardes mint.jpg
| width1            = 220
| caption1          = <small>Gold Croeseid, minted by King [[Croesus]], c. 561–546 BC. (10.7 grams, [[Sardis]] mint)</small>
| image2            = KINGS of LYDIA. Kroisos. Circa 560-546 BC. AR Stater.jpg
| width2            = 220
| caption2          = <small>Silver Croeseid, minted by King Croesus, c. 560–546 BC (10.7 grams, Sardis mint) </small>
| footer            = The gold and silver Croeseids formed the world's first [[bimetallism|bimetallic monetary system]], c. 550 BC.<ref name="WM49">{{cite book |last1=Metcalf |first1=William E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937218-8 |pages=49–50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trkUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |language=en}}</ref>
| footer_align      = center
}}

The successor of Alyattes, king [[Croesus]] (r. c. 560–546 BC), became associated with great wealth in Greek historiography. He is credited with issuing the ''[[Croeseid]]'', the first true [[gold coin]]s with a standardized purity for general circulation.<ref name="WM49"/> and the world's first [[bimetallism|bimetallic monetary system]] c. 550 BC.<ref name="WM49"/>

Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, leading to the development of [[Ancient Greek coinage]] and [[Achaemenid coinage]], and further to [[Illyrian coinage]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Cent|url=http://worldcoincatalog.com/Contents/Invention/invention.htm|access-date=7 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306054054/http://worldcoincatalog.com/Contents/Invention/invention.htm|archive-date=6 March 2015}}</ref>

====Achaemenid coinage (546–330 BC)====
{{main|Achaemenid coinage}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = PERSIA, Achaemenid Empire. temp. Darios I. Circa 520-505 BC.jpg
| width1            = 233
| caption1          = The first type of Siglos (Type I: "King with bow and arrows", upper body of the king only), from the time of Darius I, c. 520–505 BC
| image2            = Achaemenid coin daric 420BC front.jpg
| width2            = 130
| caption2          = Daric gold coin, c. 490 BC; one of the most successful of Antiquity.
}}

When [[Cyrus the Great]] (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter and to some extent silver [[bullion]] was used instead for trade.<ref name="WM"/> The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in [[Central Asia]] from the 6th century.<ref name = bivar/>

Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BC, following his conquest of [[Lydia]] and the defeat of its king [[Croesus]], who had put in place the first coinage in history. With his conquest of Lydia, Cyrus acquired a region in which coinage was invented, developed through advanced metallurgy, and had already been in circulation for about 50 years, making the Lydian Kingdom one of the leading trade powers of the time.<ref name="WM"/> It seems Cyrus initially adopted the Lydian coinage as such, and continued to strike Lydia's lion-and-bull coinage.<ref name="WM"/>

Original coins of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] were issued from 520 BC – 450 BC to 330 BC. The Persian [[daric]] was the first truly Achaemenid [[gold coin]] which, along with a similar silver coin, the [[Siglos]], represented the bimetallic [[monetary standard]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian Empire]].<ref name=iranica>Michael Alram, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/daric "DARIC"], ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', December 15, 1994, last updated November 17, 2011</ref>

=====Coinage of Southern Asia under the Achaemenid Empire=====
{{see also|Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|Coinage of India}}
[[File:Achaemenid_siglos_Kabul.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[siglos]] found in the [[Kabul hoard|Kabul valley]], 5th century BC. Coins of this type were also found in the [[Bhir Mound]] hoard.<ref name="Errington Bhir mound">{{citation |last1=Bopearachchi |first1=Osmund |author-link=Osmund Bopearachchi|last2=Cribb |first2=Joe |article=Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia |editor1-last=Errington |editor1-first=Elizabeth |editor2-last=Cribb |editor2-first=Joe |editor3-last=Claringbull |editor3-first=Maggie |title=The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfLpAAAAMAAJ |pages=57–59|year=1992 |publisher=Ancient India and Iran Trust |isbn=978-0-9518399-1-1 |ref={{sfnref|Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia|1992}}|quote =Coins of this type found in Chaman Hazouri (deposited c.350 BCE) and Bhir Mound hoards (deposited c.300 BCE).}}</ref><ref name=JC/>]]
The Achaemenid Empire already reached the doors of [[India]] during the original expansion of [[Cyrus the Great]], and the [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley]] is dated to c. 515 BC under [[Darius I]].<ref name="WM"/> An Achaemenid administration was established in the area. The [[Kabul hoard]], also called the Chaman Hazouri hoard,<ref name=OB300>{{harvnb|Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation|2000|pages=300–301}}</ref> is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]], containing numerous [[Achaemenid]] coins as well as many [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BC.<ref name=JC>{{harvnb|Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia|1992|pp=57–59}}: "The most important and informative of these hoards is the Chaman Hazouri hoard from Kabul discovered in 1933, which contained royal Achaemenid sigloi from the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, together with a large number of Greek coins dating from the fifth and early fourth century BCE, including a local imitation of an Athenian tetradrachm, all apparently taken from circulation in the region."</ref> The deposit of the hoard is dated to the Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation|2000|p=309 and Note 65}}</ref> The hoard also contained many locally produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule.<ref name="WM70">{{cite book |last1=Metcalf |first1=William E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937218-8 |pages=70–80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trkUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |language=en}}</ref> Several of these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse.<ref name="WM70"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=André-Salvini |first1=Béatrice |title=Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24731-4 |page=208 Coin no.381 for the Persian column capitals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC&pg=PA208 |language=en}}</ref>

According to numismatist [[Joe Cribb]], these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the use of punch-marked techniques was introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Cribb, Investigating the introduction of coinage in India|1983|p=101}}</ref> More Achaemenid coins were also found in [[Pushkalavati]] and in [[Bhir Mound]].<ref name="CNG 309206"/>

<gallery>
File:Achaemenid Empire coin. Uncertain mint in the Kabul Valley. Circa 500-380 BCE.jpg|alt=Punch-marked coin minted in the Kabul Valley under Achaemenid administration. Circa 500–380 BCE, or c.350 BCE.|Punch-marked coin minted in the Kabul Valley under Achaemenid administration, c. 500–380 BC, or c. 350 BC.<ref name="CNG 309874">[https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=309874 "Extremely Rare Early Silver from the Kabul Valley", CNG 102, Lot:649], CNG Coins</ref><ref name=JC/>
File:Gandhara bent bar.jpg|[[Gandhara]]n "bent-bar" punch-marked coin minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the [[Chaman Hazouri hoard|Chaman Hazouri]] and the [[Bhir Mound]] hoards.
File:Gandhara1.JPG|Early [[punch-marked coins]] of Gandhara, [[Taxila]]-[[Gandhara]] region.
</gallery>

====Greek Archaic coinage (until about 480 BC)====
{{further|Archaic period of ancient Greek coinage}}
[[File:Aegina Stater achaic.jpg|thumb|Silver [[stater]] of Aegina, 550–530&nbsp;BC. Obverse: [[sea turtle]] with large pellets down centre. Reverse: incuse square punch with eight sections.]]
[[File:Athens coin discovered in Pushkalavati.jpg|thumb|Athenian coin (c. 500/490–485 BC) discovered in the [[Shaikhan Dehri hoard]] in [[Pushkalavati]], [[Pakistan]]. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east.<ref name="CNG 199773">[https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=199773 "A Truly International Currency", Triton XV, Lot: 1163, ATTICA, Athens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225205951/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=199773 |date=2019-12-25 }}, CNG Coins</ref>]]
According to [[Aristotle]] (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and [[Julius Pollux|Pollux]] (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of Greek coinage was [[Hermodike II|Hermodike of Kyme]].<ref name="Muscarella"/>

A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/inscriptions.html |title=Inscriptions and Titles on ancient Greek coins |publisher=Snible.org |access-date=2012-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608153318/http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/inscriptions.html |archive-date=2012-06-08 }}</ref> The most ancient inscribed coin known is from nearby [[Caria]]. This coin has a Greek legend reading ''phaenos emi sema''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/e/electrum_stater_inscribed_with.aspx |title=Electrum stater inscribed with the name of Phanes |publisher=British Museum |date=2011-09-29 |access-date=2012-05-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515212641/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/e/electrum_stater_inscribed_with.aspx |archive-date=2012-05-15 }}</ref> interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Newton|first=Charles Thomas|journal=[[The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Numismatic Society]]|publisher=[[Royal Numismatic Society]]|year=1870|volume=10|page=238 |title=On an electrum stater, possibly of Ephesus |url=https://archive.org/details/numismaticchron49britgoog/page/n342/mode/2up|via=[[Archive.org]]|jstor=42680883|jstor-access=free }}</ref> The [[Phanes coins]] are among the earliest of Greek coins; a [[hemihekte]] of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of [[electrum]] coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a mercenary mentioned by Herodotus, another that this coin is associated with the primeval god [[Phanes (mythology)|Phanes]] or "Phanes" might have been an epithet of the local goddess identified with Artemis. [[Barclay V. Head]] found these suggestions unlikely and thought it more probably "the name of some prominent citizen of Ephesus".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Head |first1=Barclay V. |title=Historia Numorum, A Manual of Greek Numismatics, New and Enlarged Edition |date= 1911 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=London |url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/ionia.html#571 |access-date=25 October 2021}}</ref>

Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is [[Aegina]], where [[Chelone (Greek mythology)|Chelone]] ("turtle") coins were first minted c. 700 BC.<ref>British Museum Catalogue 11 – [https://web.archive.org/web/20131221023256/https://docs.google.com/file/d/0ByKcmdYWS2bZWVpFLWRtVXd0Ulk/edit?pli=1 Attica Megaris Aegina], 700 – 550 BCE, plate [http://www.snible.org/coins/bmc/attica/XXIII.jpg XXIII] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032457/http://www.snible.org/coins/bmc/attica/XXIII.jpg |date=2016-03-04 }}.</ref> Coins from [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]] appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.<ref>C. Kraay, Archaic and Classical Greek Coins, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1976.</ref>

<gallery>
File:LYCIA, Phaselis. Circa 550-530-20 BC.jpg|Coin of [[Phaselis]], Lycia, c. 550–530/20 BC.
File:LYCIA, Uncertain king. Circa 520-470-60 BC.jpg|Coin of Lycia, c. 520–470/60 BC.
File:LYCIA, Uncertain. Circa 520-470-60 BC.jpg|alt=Lycia coin. Circa 520-470 BCE. Struck with worn obverse die.|Lycia coin, c. 520-470 BC. Struck with worn obverse die.<ref>{{cite book|title=CNG: LYCIA. Circa 520–470/60 BCE. AR Stater (18mm, 9.18 g).|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=347325}}</ref>
File:LESBOS, Unattributed Koinon mint. Circa 510-480 BC.jpg|Coin of [[Lesbos]], [[Ionia]], c. 510–80 BC.
</gallery>

=== Antiquity  ===

==== Classical Greek antiquity (480 BC~) ====
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| caption_align     = center
| image2            = SNGANS 259.jpg
| width2            = 185
| caption2          = A '''[[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracusan]] [[tetradrachm]]'''<br />(c. 415–405 BC)<br />''Obverse'': head of the [[nymph]] [[Arethusa (nymph)|Arethusa]], surrounded by four swimming [[dolphin]]s and a [[rudder]]<br />''Reverse'': a racing [[quadriga]], its [[chariot]]eer crowned by the goddess [[Nike (mythology)|Victory]] in flight.
| image1            = SNGCop 039.jpg
| width1            = 189
| caption1          = '''Tetradrachm of Athens'''<br />(c. 454–404 BC)<br />''Obverse'': a portrait of [[Athena]], patron goddess of the city, in [[Attic helmet|helmet]]<br />''Reverse'': the owl of Athens, with an [[olive]] sprig and the inscription "ΑΘΕ", short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, "of the [[Athenians]]"
}}
{{further|Ancient Greek coinage|Illyrian coinage}}
The [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from [[Rhodes]] featured a [[rose]], since the Greek word for rose is ''rhodon''. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver ''decadrachmes'' (10-drachmes) coin from [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph [[Arethusa (nymph)|Arethusa]] and the other usually a victorious [[quadriga]]. The [[List of Tyrants of Syracuse|tyrants of Syracuse]] were fabulously rich, and part of their [[public relations]] policy was to fund [[quadriga]]s for the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic chariot race]], a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity.

Amongst the first centers to [[Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily|produce coins during the Greek colonization of Southern Italy]] (the so-called "[[Magna Graecia]]") were [[Paestum]], [[Crotone]], [[Sybaris]], [[Caulonia (ancient city)|Caulonia]], [[Metapontum]], and [[Taranto]]. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550&nbsp;BC to 510&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bruttium/i.html|title=Bruttium – Ancient Greek Coins – WildWinds.|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/lucania/i.html|title=Lucania – Ancient Greek Coins – WildWinds.com|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref>

Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to {{circa|560&nbsp;BC|lk=no}} in [[Populonia]], a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.<ref name="Giuseppe Amisano 1992 pp. 15-20">Giuseppe Amisano, "Cronologia e politica monetaria alla luce dei segni di valore delle monete etrusche e romane", in: ''Panorama numismatico'', 49 (genn. 1992), pp. 15–20</ref>

<gallery>
File:ISLANDS off ATTICA. Aegina. Circa 456-45-431 BC.jpg|[[Aegina]] coin type, incuse skew pattern, c. 456/45–431 BC
File:MACEDON, Akanthos. Circa 470-430 BC.jpg|Coin of [[Akanthos (Greece)|Akanthos]], [[Macedon]], c. 470-430 BC.
File:PAMPHYLIA, Aspendos. Circa 465-430 BC.jpg|Coin of [[Aspendos]], [[Pamphylia]], c. 465–430 BC.
File:KORKYRA, Korkyra. Circa 350-30-290-70 BC.jpg|Coin from [[Korkyra (polis)|Korkyra]], c. 350/30–290/70 BC.
File:CYPRUS, Paphos. Onasi(...). Mid 5th century BC.jpg|Coin of [[Cyprus]], c. 450 BC.
</gallery>

====Appearance of dynastic portraiture (5th century BC) ====
[[File:Tissaphernes head.jpg|thumb|The [[Achaemenid Empire]] [[satrap]]s and dynasts in [[Asia Minor]] developed the usage of portraiture from c. 420 BC. Portrait of the satrap of [[Lydia]], [[Tissaphernes]] (c. 445–395 BC).]]
Although many of the first coins illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of [[Lycia]] in the 5th century BC.<ref>"The earliest attempts at portraiture appear to have taken place in Lycia. The heads of various dynasts appear on coins of the fifth century" {{cite book |last1=Carradice |first1=Ian |title=Ancient Greek Portrait Coins |date=1978 |publisher=British Museum Publications |isbn=978-0-7141-0849-0 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4FdmAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name="SW">{{cite book |last1=West |first1=Shearer |last2=Birmingham) |first2=Shearer |title=Portraiture |date=2004 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-284258-9 |page=68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q3sRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |language=en}}</ref> No ruler had dared illustrating his own portrait on coinage until that time.<ref name="SW"/> The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical manner, showing a bust or the full body but never an actual portrait, on their [[Sigloi]] and [[Daric]] coinage from c. 500 BC.<ref name="SW"/><ref name="Root">{{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=Margaret Cool |title=The Persian archer at Persepolis: aspects of chronology, style and symbolism |journal=Revue des Études Anciennes |volume=91 |date=1989 |pages=43–50 |language=en|doi=10.3406/rea.1989.4361 }}</ref><ref name="TC20">{{cite journal |page=20|title=Half-figure of the King: unravelling the mysteries of the earliest Sigloi of Darius I|journal=The Celator |volume=26 |issue=2 |date=February 2012|url=https://community.vcoins.com/thecelator/The-Celator-Vol.26-No.02-Feb-2012.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121161656/https://community.vcoins.com/thecelator/The-Celator-Vol.26-No.02-Feb-2012.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-21 |url-status=live}}</ref> A slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait-coin is [[Themistocles]] the Athenian general, who became a Governor of [[Magnesia on the Meander]], c. 465–459 BC, for the Achaemenid Empire,<ref>"A rare silver fraction recently identified as a coin of Themistocles from Magnesia even has a bearded portrait of the great man, making it by far the earliest datable portrait coin. Other early portraits can be seen on the coins of Lycian dynasts." {{cite book |last1=Carradice |first1=Ian |last2=Price |first2=Martin |title=Coinage in the Greek World |date=1988 |publisher=Seaby |isbn=978-0-900652-82-0 |page=84 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVZmAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> although there is some question as to whether his coins may have represented [[Zeus]] rather than himself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhodes |first1=P. J. |title=A History of the Classical Greek World: 478–323 BC |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5858-2 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fkjzwJxCA4C&pg=PP58 |language=en}}</ref> Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual [[portrait]]ure, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynasty who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Howgego |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient History from Coins |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-87784-3 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DCC3l5kS5O8C&pg=PA64 |language=en}}</ref> From the time of [[Alexander the Great]], portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.<ref name="SW"/>
<gallery>
File:IONIA, Magnesia ad Maeandrum. Themistokles reverse. Circa 465-459 BC.jpg|alt=Coin of Themistocles as Governor of Magnesia. Obv: Barley grain. Rev: Possible portrait of Themistocles. Circa 465–459 BC.|Coin of [[Themistocles]] as Governor of Magnesia. ''Obv'': Barley grain. ''Rev'': Possible portrait of Themistocles, c. 465–459 BC.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=308695| title = CNG: IONIA, Magnesia ad Maeandrum. Themistokles. Circa 465-459 BC. AR Hemiobol (7mm, 0.37 g, 1h)}}</ref>
File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Kherei. Circa 440-30-410 BC.jpg|Portrait of Lycian ruler [[Kherei]] wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 410–390 BC).
File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Erbbina. Circa 430-20-400 BC.jpg|Portrait of Lycian ruler [[Erbbina]] wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 390–380 BC).
File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Perikles. Circa 380-360 BC.jpg|Portrait of Lycian ruler [[Pericles, Dynast of Lycia|Perikles]] facing (ruled 380–360 BC).
</gallery>

====Indian coins (c. 400 BC – AD 100)====
{{main|Punch-marked_coins#Indian_punch-marked_coins}}
{{see also|Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|Coinage of India}}
[[File:Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.jpg|thumb|Hoard of mostly [[Mauryan Empire]] coins, 3rd century BC]]
The [[Karshapana]] is the earliest [[punch-marked coin]] found in India, produced from at least the mid-4th century BC, and possibly as early as 575 BC,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=HARDAKER|first=TERRY R.|date=1975|title=The origins of coinage in northern India|journal=The Numismatic Chronicle|volume=15|pages=200–203|jstor=42666515}}</ref> influenced by similar coins produced in [[Gandhara]] under the Achaemenid empire, such as those of the [[Kabul hoard]],<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://www.academia.edu/33456187 |title=Investigating the introduction of coinage in India – a review of recent research |journal =Journal of the Numismatic Society of India |volume =xlv |publisher =Varanasi |date =1983|last1=Cribb|first1=Joe |pages=85–86, 101|language=en}}</ref> or other examples found at [[Pushkalavati]] and in [[Bhir Mound]].<ref name="CNG 309206">[https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=309206 372. Lot: 658, Lot of two AR bent bars], CNG Coins.
{{harvnb |Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia|1992|pp=57–59}}: "Silver bent-bar punch-marked coin of Kabul region under the Achaemenid Empire, c.350 BC: Coins of this type found in quantity in Chaman Hazouri and Bhir Mound hoards." (Commentary by [[Joe Cribb]] and [[Osmund Bopearachchi]])</ref>

====Chinese round coins (350 BC~) ====
{{main|Ancient Chinese coinage}}
[[File:CHINA, Eastern Zhou dynasty - Warring States Period. State of Qí. City of Yi. Circa 300-220 BC.jpg|thumb|Chinese round coins, [[Eastern Zhou dynasty]] – [[Warring States Period]], c. 300–220 BC. Four Hua (四化, 30mm, 6.94 g). Legend ''Yi Si Hua'' ([City of] Yi Four Hua).]]
[[Ancient Chinese coinage|In China]], early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC and were adopted for all China by Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang Di]] at the end of 3rd century BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schaps |first1=David |title=The Invention of Coinage and the Monetization of Ancient Greece |date=2004 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-11333-0 |page=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqINoVlD0RcC&pg=PA235 |language=en}}</ref> The round coin, the precursor of the familiar [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coin]], circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350 BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the ''jin'' and ''liang'' units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in ''hua'' (化).

Although for discussion purposes the Zhou coins are divided up into categories of knives, spades, and round coins, it is apparent from archaeological finds that most of the various kinds circulated together. A hoard found in 1981, near Hebi in north Henan province, consisted of: 3,537 Gong spades, 3 Anyi arched foot spades, 8 Liang ''Dang Lie'' spades, 18 Liang square foot spades and 1,180 Yuan round coins, all contained in three clay jars.

==== Hellenistic period (320 BC – AD 30) ====
{{Further|Ptolemaic coinage|Seleucid coinage|Indo-Greek coinage}}
[[File:Alexander the great temnos tetradrachm.jpg|alt=Poshumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from|thumb|Posthumous Alexander the Great tetradrachm from Temnos, Aeolis. Dated 188–170 BC. Obverse: Alexander the Great as Herakles facing right wearing the nemean lionskin. Reverse: Zeus seated on throne to the left holding eagle in right hand and scepter in left; in left field PA monogram and angular sigma above grape vine arching over oinochoe; ALEXANDROU vertical in right field. Reference: Price 1678.]]
The [[Hellenistic period]] was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and for a time also in [[Iran]] and as far east as what is now [[Afghanistan]] and northwestern [[India]]. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period.

Still, some of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] coins, and those of their successors in India, the [[Indo-Greeks]], are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by [[Eucratides]] (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king [[Amyntas Nikator]] (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World").
<gallery>
File:Seleucus Nicator Ai Khanoum mint.jpg|alt=Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BCE), Ai Khanoum.|[[Seleucus Nicator]] (312–281 BC), [[Ai Khanoum]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=338684| title = CNG Coin 338684}}</ref>
File:Antiochos I Soter Ai Khanoum mint.jpg|[[Antiochus I]] (281–261 BC), [[Ai Khanoum]]
File:Coin of Antialkidas.jpg|Bilingual coin of [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Antialcidas]] (105–95 BC)
File:Coin of the Bactrian King Agathokles.jpg|Bilingual coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria]] with [[Hindu]] deities, c. 180 BC
</gallery>

==== Roman period (290 BC~) ====
{{further|Roman currency|Roman Republican currency|Aureus|Solidus (coin)|Denarius|Antoninianus|Sestertius}}
{{Coin image box 2 singles
| header =
| image_left = File:Crawford 13-1 Obverse.jpg
| image_right= File:Crawford 13-1 Reverse.jpg
| caption_left = '''[[Obverse and reverse|O:]]''' Bearded head of Mars with Corinthian helmet left.
| caption_right = '''[[Obverse and reverse|R:]]''' Horse head right, grain ear behind.
| width_left = 150
| width_right = 150
| position = right
| margin =4
| footer = The first Roman silver coin, 281 BC. Crawford 13/1
}}
Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.<ref name="Howgego1995">{{cite book|last=Howgego|first=C. J.|author-link=Christopher Howgego|title=Ancient history from coins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvEEynd4ZiQC&pg=PA1|access-date=4 December 2011|year=1995|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-08993-7|pages=1–4|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528083333/http://books.google.com/books?id=RvEEynd4ZiQC&pg=PA1|archive-date=28 May 2013}}</ref> Coins came late to the [[Roman Republic]] compared with the rest of the [[Mediterranean]], especially [[Ancient Greek coinage|Greece and Asia Minor]] where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The [[currency]] of central [[Italy]] was influenced by its natural resources, with [[bronze]] being abundant (the [[Etruscans]] were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and [[silver]] ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with Celtic in northern Italy and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy [[Casting (metalworking)|cast]] bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. The first [[Roman currency|Roman coins]], which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC.<ref>W. Sayles, Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World–Politics and Propaganda, Krause Publications, Iola, Wisconsin, 1997</ref>
Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 550 BC in [[Populonia]], a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia.<ref name="Giuseppe Amisano 1992 pp. 15-20"/>

<gallery>
File:PupienusSest.jpg|[[Sestertius]] of [[Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus]], AD 238
File:Flavian dynasty Aurei.png|Set of three Roman [[Aureus|aurei]] depicting the rulers of the [[Flavian dynasty]]. Top to bottom: [[Vespasian]], [[Titus]] and [[Domitian]], AD 69–96
File:MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|Silver [[Ancient drachma|Drachma]] of Mehrdad ([[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]]) of Persian Empire of [[Parthia]], 165 BC
</gallery>

=== Middle Ages ===
{{further|Byzantine mints|Visigothic coinage|Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England|Medieval Bulgarian coinage|Gold dinar|Coinage of the Republic of Venice|Portuguese dinheiro|Sceat|Pfennig}}
{{further|History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)|Japanese mon (currency)|Reichsmünzordnung}}
[[File:Fiorino 1347.jpg|left|thumb|[[Florin (Italian coin)|Florentine florin]], 1347]]

[[Charlemagne]], in 800 AD, implemented a series of reforms upon becoming "[[Holy Roman Emperor]]", including the issuance of a standard coin, the silver penny. Between 794 and 1200 the penny was the only denomination of coin in Western Europe. Minted without oversight by bishops, cities, feudal lords and [[fiefdom]]s, by 1160, coins in Venice contained only 0.05g of silver, while England's coins were minted at 1.3g. Large coins were introduced in the mid-13th century. In England, a dozen pennies was called a "shilling" and twenty shillings a "pound":<ref name=pup2001>{{cite book |last1=Sargent |first1=Thomas |last2=Velde |first2=Francois |title=The Princeton Economic History of the Western World: The Big Problem of Small Change |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2001 |page=45}}</ref> consistent with e.g. France.

[[Debasement]] of coin was widespread. There were periods of significant debasement in 1340–60 and 1417–29, when no small coins were minted, and by the 15th century the issuance of small coin was further restricted by government restrictions and even prohibitions. With the exception of the [[Great Debasement]], England's coins were consistently minted from sterling silver (silver content of 92.5%). A lower quality of silver with more copper mixed in, used in Barcelona, was called [[billon (alloy)|billon]].<ref name=pup2001/> The first European coin to use [[Arabic numerals]] to date the year in which the coin was minted was the [[Imperial Abbey of St Gall|St. Gall]] silver ''Plappart'' of 1424.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.medievalcoinage.com/earlydated| title = Early Dated Coins, Accessed December 2009.}}</ref>

[[History of coins in Italy|Italy has been influential at a coinage point of view]]: the [[Florin (Italian coin)|Florentine florin]], one of the most used coinage types in European history and one of the most important coins in Western history,<ref name="ilgiornale">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilgiornaledellanumismatica.it/dossier-speciale-il-fiorino-di-firenze-breve-storia-del-dollaro-del-medioevo/|title=IL FIORINO DI FIRENZE, STORIA DEL "DOLLARO DEL MEDIOEVO"|date=19 January 2017 |access-date=4 October 2023|language=it}}</ref> was struck in [[Florence]] in the [[13th century]], while the [[Sequin (coin)|Venetian sequin]], minted from 1284 to 1797, was the most prestigious gold coin in circulation in the commercial centers of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name="Papadopoli">{{Cite book|author=Nicolò Papadopoli Aldobrandini|title=Le monete di Venezia descritte ed illustrate da Nicolò Papadopoli Aldobrandini|year=2009|publisher="Progetto Gutenberg Piero Vianelli|page=136|language=it}}</ref> The Florentine florin was the first [[Europe]]an gold coin struck in sufficient quantities since the 7th century to play a significant commercial role. The Florentine florin was used for larger transactions such as those used in dowries, international trade or for tax-related matters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hollingsworth |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJmUDQAAQBAJ |title=The Medici |publisher=Head of Zeus |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78669-151-4 |language=en |chapter=A Note to the Reader}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Cunincpert tremissis 612190 reverse.jpg|[[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombardic]] [[Tremissis]] depicting Saint Michael, AD 688–700
File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|Silver coin of [[Queen Borandukht|Borandukht]] of Persian [[Sassanian Empire]], AD 629
File:Silver Dirham.png|[[Gold Dinar#The First Silver Dirham|Silver Dirham]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], AD 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework
File:Al-Mu'tamid-coin.jpg|[[Abbasid]] coin, c. 1080s
File:Almoravid dinar 1138 631905.jpg|[[Almoravid]] coin, 1138–1139
File:Zecchino Antonio Venier 1382.jpg|[[Sequin (coin)|Venetian sequin]], 1382
</gallery>

=== Modern history ===
Genoese coins became important in the 16th century during the [[Republic of Genoa#Golden age of Genoese bankers|Golden age of Genoese banking]], with the [[Spanish Empire]] funnelling its massive wealth from [[Spanish America]] through the [[Bank of Saint George]]. With the decline in the fortunes of the Genoese banks and the [[Spanish Empire]] in the 17th century, however, the [[Genoese lira]] also depreciated substantially. The silver scudo's value increased to 6.5 lire in 1646, 7.4 lire in 1671, and 8.74 lire just before the [[Siege of Genoa (1746)|Austrian occupation of Genoa]] in 1746.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Serra |first=Girolamo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Y3Bbe_ua0sC |title=Discorso sulle monete di Genova recitato dal Signor Girolamo Serra rettore dell'Università all'Accademia delle scienze, lettere ed arti, nell'adunanza del dì 15 luglio 1810 |date= |language=it}}</ref>

Variations in the weight of precious metals used in international trade, particularly in imports of spices and textiles into Europe, explain the numerous monetary reforms that occurred in this period. The effect of these transactions on the available reserves of gold and silver was at the origin of the various monetary reforms, which changed the price of silver compared to gold. Faced with the distinct monetary systems developed by [[Genoa]], [[Venice]] or [[Florence]], the widespread use in the 15th century of the silver [[thaler]], of constant size and weight, allowed conversion operations to be limited and therefore exchanges facilitated. The thaler was the monetary unit of the Germanic countries until the 19th century and is considered the ancestor of the [[United States dollar]].<ref>Jean Gimpel, ''La révolution industrielle du Moyen Âge'', Seuil, coll. « Point Histoire », 2002, pp. 46-48, {{ISBN|978-2020541510}}</ref> At the same time, the Mexican Mint was established on May 11, 1535, by order of the Spanish king following the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]. Opened in April 1536, this mint had the right to mint silver [[Spanish real]] which became the basis of the monetary system of the [[Spanish Empire]]. [[Louis XIII]] had the [[Louis d'or]] minted in 1640 to compete with these coins.

The first attested [[Siege money|siege coins]] appeared at the [[Battle of Pavia|siege of Pavia]] in 1524. Auxiliary coins consisted, among the Greeks and Romans as in our modern societies, of coins strongly linked to copper. In particular, the red copper alloy was used for its physical properties, suitable for objects constantly subjected to manipulation: malleability, resistance to impacts, wear and corrosion (only gold has better resistance to corrosion).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fabienne Lemarchand|title=L'or gratuit|journal=Le Recherche|date=July 2003|volume=|number=366|page=91|url=http://www.larecherche.fr/idees/back-to-basic/01-07-2003-88786|access-date=2023-10-09|archive-date=2016-04-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408190339/http://www.larecherche.fr/idees/back-to-basic/01-07-2003-88786}}</ref> This alloy was often mixed with a little tin, zinc and especially nickel for their anti-corrosive, ductile and anti-fouling properties.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nnamdi Anyadike|title=Nickel|publisher=Elsevier|year=2002|page=88|isbn=}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Silver Coin of Jalaluddin.jpg|Silver coin of the 15th-century Bengal Sultanate ruler [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah]]
File:Genova doppia 1639.jpg|right|Genoese doppia, 1639
File:France 1640 4 Louis d’or (Louis XIII).jpg|[[Louis d'or]], 1640
File:Wildermann thaler.jpg|[[Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]] [[Thaler]] minted in 1629
File:Genbun Inari Koban Kin.jpg|Japanese local currency [[Genbun]] Inari Koban Kin, {{Circa|1736}}–1741
File:Potosì 8 reales 1768 131206.jpg|1768 silver [[Spanish Dollar]], or eight [[Spanish real|reales]] coin (the "piece of eight" of pirate fame), minted throughout the [[Spanish Empire]]
File:TURKEY, SULTAN MAHMUD II 1818 -2 RUMI GOLD b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] coin, 1818
File:One Rupee East India Company.JPG|One Rupee coin issued by the [[East India Company]], 1835
File:Coins minted at the Royal Mint of Great Britain.jpg|British coins 15-20 centuries
</gallery>

== Value ==
[[File:5milmkbk.jpg|thumbnail|Five million mark coin ([[Weimar Republic]], 1923). Despite its high denomination, this coin's [[monetary]] value dropped to a tiny fraction of a US cent by the end of 1923, substantially less than the value of its metallic content.]]
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; clear:right;"
|-
| [[File:ლაშა-გიორგის მონეტა 1210 წ..png|center|210px]]
|-
| An unusual [[copper]] coin of King<br />[[George IV of Georgia]] with<br />[[Georgian alphabet|Georgian inscriptions]], 1210
|}
[[File:Silver Rupee Madras Presidency.JPG|thumb|A [[silver]] coin made during the reign of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Alamgir II]] (1754–1759)]]

=== Currency ===
{{Main|Currency}}

Most coins presently are made of a [[base metal]], and their value comes from their status as [[fiat money]]. The value of the coin is established by law, and thus is determined by the [[free market]] as national currencies are used in domestic trade and traded in the international market. These coins are monetary [[Token coin|tokens]], just as paper currency is: their value is usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. 

Coins may be in circulation with face values lower than the value of their component metals due to [[inflation]], as market values for the metal overtake the face value of the coin. Examples are the [[Coinage Act of 1965|pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar]] (containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), [[Nickel (United States coin)|US nickel]], and [[Cent (United States coin)|pre-1982 US penny]]. As a result of the increase in the value of [[copper]], the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between face values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realize the value of their metal content. This is an example of [[Gresham's law]]. The [[United States Mint]], in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usmint.gov/pressroom/index.cfm?action=press_release&ID=724 |title=United States Mint Moves to Limit Exportation & Melting of Coins |publisher=The United States Mint |access-date=2012-05-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527072103/http://www.usmint.gov/pressroom//index.cfm?action=press_release&ID=724 |archive-date=2016-05-27 }}</ref> Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maes |first=Jonathan |title=Is It Illegal to Melt/Destroy US Pennies and Other Coins? |url=https://makeitfrommetal.com/is-it-illegal-to-melt-destroy-us-pennies-and-other-coins/ |access-date=2022-12-17 |website=Make it From Metal |language=en-US}}</ref>  In the [[Code of Federal Regulations]] (CFR) in the United States, 31 CFR §&nbsp;82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins.<ref name=cfr31>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/31/82.1 31 CFR §82.1], Legal Information Institute, accessed 22 July 2019.</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web |title=18 U.S. Code § 331 - Mutilation, diminution, and falsification of coins |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/331 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en}}</ref> 


=== Collector's items ===
{{Main|Numismatics}}
A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the [[Canadian Maple Leaf coins|Canadian Maple Leaf]] and the [[American Gold Eagle]] are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance.

Collector catalogs often include information about coins to assists collectors with identifying and grading. Additional resources can be found online for collectors These are collector clubs, collection management tools, marketplaces,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pr.com/press-release/739836|title=Colnect Marketplace Has Been Launched|website=PR.com|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref> trading platforms, and forums,

=== Debasement and clipping ===
{{Main|Debasement}}
[[File:10cts1879.jpg|thumb|A [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Coins of the Swiss franc|ten-cent coin]] from 1879, similar to the oldest coins still in official use today]]
[[File:Alexander the great temnos tetradrachm.jpg|alt=Alexander the Great Tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint|thumb|Alexander the Great Tetradrachm from the Temnos Mint, c. 188–170 BC]]
Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a [[base metal]] (often [[copper]] or [[nickel]]), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price [[inflation]]. Sometimes [[price control]]s are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable.

The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at [[Quarter (United States coin)|25 cents]], a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper.

Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce. One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100.

Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Origin of Financial Crises |last=Cooper |first=George |year= 2008|publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-47345-5 |page=46 }}</ref> Unmilled British [[sterling silver]] coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] England was commented on by Sir [[Thomas Gresham]], whose name was later attached to [[Gresham's law]]. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally.<ref>Denis R. Cooper ''The Art and Craft of Coinmaking. A History of Minting Technology''. London: Spink, 1988. {{ISBN|0-907605-27-3}} p.47</ref> Many coins have milled or [[Reeding#Numismatics|reeded edges]], originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping.

=== Cutting ===

Some coins made of precious metals were manufactured with a cross on one side to make it easier to split the coin into halves or quarters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Long Cross Pennies |url=https://www.ukdfd.co.uk/pages/Long-Cross-Pennies/Long%20Cross%20Pennies%20P1.htm#Small%20change |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.ukdfd.co.uk}}</ref>

== Modern features ==
[[File:Contando Dinheiro (8228640).jpg|thumb|left|Coins can be stacked.]]
[[File:1884 trade dollar rev.jpg|thumb|upright|1884 [[Trade dollar (United States coin)|United States trade dollar]]]]
[[File:20franctrimetalrev.jpg|thumb|French 1992 twenty Franc Tri-Metallic coin]]
[[File:Kingtutcoinobv without background.png|thumb|upright|Bimetallic Egyptian one pound coin featuring King Tutankhamen]]

The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority (''see [[List of people on coins]]''), or a [[national emblem]] is called the ''[[obverse]]'' (colloquially, ''heads''); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the ''[[Obverse and reverse|reverse]]'' (colloquially, ''tails''). The year of [[mint (coin)|minting]] is usually shown on the obverse, although some [[China|Chinese]] coins, most [[Canadian coinage|Canadian]] coins, the pre-2008 British [[Twenty pence (British decimal coin)|20p]] coin, the post-1999 American [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter]], and all Japanese coins are exceptions.

The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation. If the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up and turning the coin left or right on its vertical axis reveals that the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have [[medallic orientation]]—typical of the [[Euro]] and [[pound sterling]]; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have [[coin orientation]], characteristic of the [[coins of the United States dollar]].

[[Bimetallic coins]] are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the [[1 euro coins|€1]], [[2 euro coins|€2]], [[One pound (British coin)|British £1]], [[Two pounds (British coin)|£2]] and [[Canadian 2 dollar coin|Canadian $2]] and several peso coins in Mexico.

The ''exergue'' is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or contains a [[mint mark]], [[privy mark]], or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny.

[[File:RR5111-0173 3 рубля серебро 2008 аверс.gif|upright|thumb|3 [[Russian ruble|Rubles]] proof coin of Russia, minted in 2008]]
Not all coins are round; they come in a [[Coinage shapes|variety of shapes]]. The [[Fifty cent coin (Australian)|Australian 50-cent coin]], for example, has [[dodecagon|twelve flat sides]]. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of [[Coins of the Hong Kong dollar|Hong Kong]] and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, [[Swaziland|Swazi]] coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves.

Historically, a considerable variety of [[coinage metals]] (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. [[porcelain]]) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.<ref>{{cite web |author=Clayton |first=Tony |title=Metals Used in Coins and Medals |url=http://www.coinsoftheuk.co.uk/pics/metal.html |access-date=2018-08-15 |publisher=coins-of-the-uk.co.uk}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Israelwave.jpg|Scalloped coin of Israel
File:Belizeonecentwave.jpg|1996 one cent coin from Belize
File:Phil2pisodecrev.jpg|Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990
</gallery>

Some other coins, like the British [[Twenty pence (British coin)|20]] and [[Fifty pence (British coin)|50 pence coins]] and the Canadian [[Loonie]], have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a [[Curve of constant width|constant diameter]], recognizable by [[vending machine]]s whichever direction it is inserted.

A triangular coin with a face value of [[Five pounds (British coin)|£5]] (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 [[Tutankhamun]] exhibition at [[The O2 Arena]]) was commissioned by the [[Isle of Man]]: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007.<ref>It is unlikely to be spent as it costs 15[[Pound sterling|GBP]] to buy – article ''Pyramid coin a nightmare for pockets'', article by Gary</ref> Other triangular coins issued earlier include: [[Republic of Cabinda|Cabinda]] coin, [[Bermuda]] coin, 2 Dollar [[Cook Islands]] 1992 triangular coin, [[Uganda]] Millennium Coin and [[Poland|Polish]] Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin.

Some medieval coins, called [[bracteate#High medieval bracteates|bracteate]]s, were so thin they were struck on only one side.

Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried. Nowadays, holes help to differentiate coins of similar size and metal, such as the Japanese [[50 yen coin|50 yen]] and [[100 yen coin]].

<gallery>
File:Frenchholeobv.jpg|1917 French coin with integrated hole
File:Chong Ning Tongbao 1.JPG|Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106
File:عملة فلسطينية معدنية.jpg|1941 British Palestine coin
File:50 Yen Rückseite.jpg|Modern-day Japanese 50-yen coin
File:1924 East African 1 cent coin reverse.jpg|1924 East African coin
</gallery>

[[File:Y2klibholoobv.jpg|thumb|Holographic coin from Liberia features the [[Statue of Liberty]] (''Liberty Enlightening the World'')]]
The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The [[500 yen coin]] from Japan was subject to a massive amount of [[counterfeit]]ing. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image.

The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are colored, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a colored poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Marie-Danielle|title=Royal Canadian Mint sues Royal Australian Mint in row over poppy coin printing|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/royal-canadian-mint-sues-royal-australian-mint-in-row-over-printing-of-red-poppies|access-date=18 January 2018|work=[[The National Post]]|date=18 January 2018}}</ref>

An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in [[Transnistria]] on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values.<ref>{{cite web |title=Composite coins |url=http://www.cbpmr.net/content.php?id=26&lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704125452/http://www.cbpmr.net/content.php?id=26&lang=en |archive-date=4 July 2017 |access-date=29 January 2020 |website=Pridnestrovian Republican Bank}}</ref>

For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see [[coinage metals]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Tony Clayton |url=http://www.tclayton.demon.co.uk/metal.html |title=Metals Used in Coins and Medals |publisher=Tclayton.demon.co.uk |access-date=2012-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401072934/http://www.tclayton.demon.co.uk/Metal.html |archive-date=2010-04-01 }}</ref>

== Other uses ==

=== Media of expression ===
{{See also|Hobo nickel|Elongated penny}}
Coins can be used as creative media of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in amusement parks.   [[Hobo nickel]]s and [[love token]]s are art objects carved from coins. 

In the United States, such alterations are legal. 31 CFR §&nbsp;82.2(b) states that: "The prohibition contained in §&nbsp;82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins."<ref>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/31/82.2 31 CFR 82.2(b)], Legal Information Institute, accessed 22 July 2019.</ref>

Love tokens created by convicts from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/convict_tokens |title=Convict tokens, National Museum of Australia |publisher=Nma.gov.au |date=2012-01-25 |access-date=2016-10-05 |archive-date=2011-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920235935/http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/convict_tokens/ }}</ref> Some of these tokens are in the collection of the [[National Museum of Australia]].

=== Cultural references ===
Coins have been depicted in art and literature.  A roman [[sestertius]] is shown in the painting [[Portrait of a Man with a Roman Medal|Portrait of a Man with a Roman Coin]] by [[Hans Memling|Memling]].  An [[Moby Dick Coin|Ecuadorian gold doubloon]] plays a key role in the novel [[Moby-Dick]]. Coins appear in the [[New Testament]]; for example, the [[thirty pieces of silver]] (possibly [[Tyrian shekel]]s) exemplify Judas's betrayal and two [[Greek lepton|lepton]]s ([[Lesson of the widow's mite|the widow's mite]]) demonstrate true generosity. In [[Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices]], an [[Charon%27s_obol#In_literature|obol]] was often placed on or in the mouth.

== Physics and chemistry ==
[[File:2019 American Silver Eagle and 1943 Walking Liberty Half dollar side by side.jpg|thumb|right|An [[American Silver Eagle]] minted in 2019 (left), an example of a [[Bullion coin]]. Its obverse design is based on the older, formerly circulating silver [[Walking Liberty half dollar]] (right).]]

=== Flipping ===
{{Main|Coin flipping}}
To flip a coin to see whether it lands ''heads'' or ''tails'' is to use it as a two-sided [[dice|die]] in what is known in mathematics as a [[Bernoulli trial]]: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair.

=== Spinning ===
{{further|Euler's Disk}}
Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the [[precession]] rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a [[finite-time singularity]] – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using [[high speed photography]] and devices such as [[Euler's Disk]]. The slowing down is predominantly caused by [[rolling friction]] (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a [[power law]] with exponent approximately −1/3.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Easwar |first1=K. |last2=Rouyer |first2=F. |last3=Menon |first3=N. |title=Speeding to a stop: The finite-time singularity of a spinning disk |doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.66.045102 |journal=Physical Review E |volume=66 |issue=4 |article-number=045102 |year=2002 |pmid=12443243 |bibcode=2002PhRvE..66d5102E }}</ref>

===Odor===
Iron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule [[1-octen-3-one]].<ref>[http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061023/full/news061023-7.html A 'metallic' smell is just body odour] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160524004703/http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061023/full/news061023-7.html |date=2016-05-24 }}</ref>

==Regional examples==
===Philippines===
[[File:Piloncitos ang gold rings.jpg|thumb|The [[Piloncitos]] are tiny engraved gold coins found in the [[Philippines]], along with [[barter ring]]s, which are gold ring-like [[ingot]]s. These barter rings are bigger than softballs in size and are made of pure gold from the Archaic period ({{Circa|10th}} to 16th century).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.ph/permanenttraveling.php?page=classicalgoldwork |title=Metropolitan Museum of Manila, Philippines: Art for All - www.metmuseum.ph |access-date=2013-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215062936/http://www.metmuseum.ph/permanenttraveling.php?page=classicalgoldwork |archive-date=2012-12-15 }}</ref>]]
In the Philippines, small, engraved gold coins called [[Piloncitos]] have been excavated, some as lightweight as 0.09 to 2.65 grams. Piloncitos have been unearthed from [[Mandaluyong]], [[Bataan]], the banks of the [[Pasig River]], [[Batangas]], [[Marinduque]], [[Samar]], [[Leyte]] and some areas in [[Mindanao]]. Large quantities were found in [[Indonesia]]n archaeological sites, suggesting that they may not have originated in the Philippines, but rather were imported. However, numerous [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] accounts state that the gold coins were mined and made in the Philippines, such as the following from 1586:

{{Blockquote|"The people of this island ([[Luzon]]) are very skillful in their handling of gold. They weigh it with the greatest skill and delicacy that have ever been seen. The first thing they teach their children is the knowledge of gold and the weights with which they weigh it, for there is no other money among them."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/10991/%E2%80%98piloncitos%E2%80%99-and-the-%E2%80%98philippine-golden-age%E2%80%99 |title='Piloncitos' and the 'Philippine golden age' &#124; Inquirer Opinion |date=30 August 2011 |access-date=2017-04-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516155436/http://opinion.inquirer.net/10991/%e2%80%98piloncitos%e2%80%99-and-the-%e2%80%98philippine-golden-age%e2%80%99 |archive-date=2017-05-16 }}</ref>}}

The term "Piloncitos" is a contemporary word, used by modern-day antique collectors,<ref name="Ocampo20110830">{{Cite web|url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/10991/%E2%80%98piloncitos%E2%80%99-and-the-%E2%80%98philippine-golden-age%E2%80%99|title = 'Piloncitos' and the 'Philippine golden age'|date = August 30, 2011}}</ref> who thought that the cone-shaped pieces looked like a pilon of sugar.<ref name="Ocampo20110830"/> Early historical descriptions of the term include the Spanish "granitas de oro" (small grains of gold), or simply by whatever local language terms were used to mean "gold" in those times, such as "bulawan."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edgedavao.net/vantage-points/2015/11/11/history-of-davao-currencies-of-the-lumads/|title=HISTORY OF DAVAO – Currencies of the Lumads|date=November 11, 2015}}</ref>

Piloncitos are presumably an offshoot of [[silver]] coinage and may have evolved into the bullet or [[Bullet money|pod duang]] coinage of Sukhothai in [[Thailand]].<ref name="treasure">{{Cite web |url=http://coin.filipinonumismatist.com/2011/06/piloncitos-treasure-of-philippine.html |title=Philippine Coin Information: PILONCITOS: The treasure of Philippine numismatic |access-date=March 22, 2017 |archive-date=February 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219181808/http://coin.filipinonumismatist.com/2011/06/piloncitos-treasure-of-philippine.html }}</ref>

Early historical records document the extensive use of gold throughout the Philippine archipelago before the arrival of European colonists.<ref name="Scott1994">{{cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |author-link = William Henry Scott (historian) |title= Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society |publisher= Ateneo de Manila University Press |year= 1994 |location= Quezon City |isbn=971-550-135-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC }}</ref> It was used extensively as currency, and also used in everyday items such as clothing and finery.<ref name="Scott1994"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Numismatics|Economy|Money}}
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Bi-metallic coin]]
* [[Coin base weight]]
* [[Coin collecting]]
* [[Coin counter]]
* [[Coin counterfeiting]]
* [[Coin magic]]
* [[Coin sorter]]
* [[Coin standard]]
* [[Currency]]
* [[Hanukkah gelt]] – [[Chocolate coin]]
* [[History of coins]]
* [[Legal tender]]
* [[List of currencies]]
* [[List of circulating currencies]]
* [[List of mints]]
* [[List of most expensive coins]]
* [[Mint (coin)|Mint]]
* [[Money]]
* [[Seigniorage]]
* [[Token coin]]
* [[Ten-cent coin]]{{colend}}
== Notes == 
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Works cited===
* {{citation |last1=Cribb |first1=Joe |author-link=Joe Cribb |title=Investigating the introduction of coinage in India - A review of recent research |journal=Journal of the Numismatic Society of India |year=1983|pages=80–101 |url=https://www.academia.edu/33456187 |ref={{sfnref|Cribb, Investigating the introduction of coinage in India|1983}}}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last1=Angus |first1=Ian |title=Coins and money tokens |date=1973 |publisher=Ward Lock |location=London |isbn=0-7063-1811-0}}
* {{citation |last1=Bopearachchi |first1=Osmund |author-link=Osmund Bopearachchi |title=Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest) |journal=Indologica Taurinensia |publisher=International Association of Sanskrit Studies |volume=25 |year=2000 |url=https://www.academia.edu/15798938 |ref={{sfnref|Bopearachchi, Coin Production and Circulation|2000}}}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons-inline|Coins}}

{{Coin collecting}}
{{Means of Exchange}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Coins| ]]
[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:Money]]