View source for Columbidae

{{Short description|Family of birds}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Pigeon|Dove}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Early Miocene | recent|ref=<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUyB1DrSsU0C&pg=PA120|title=Avian Biology|last=Farner|first=Donald|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-323-15799-5 |page=120}}</ref>}}
| image = Treron vernans male - Kent Ridge Park.jpg
| image_caption = The [[pink-necked green pigeon]], a frugivorous species
| image2 = Speckled pigeon (Columba guinea guinea).jpg
| image2_caption = The [[speckled pigeon]], a granivorous species
| display_parents = 2
| parent_authority = [[John Latham (ornithologist)|Latham]], 1790
| taxon = Columbidae
| authority = [[Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger|Illiger]], 1811
| type_genus = ''[[Columba (bird)|Columba]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| range_map = Pigeon range.png
| range_map_caption = {{legend0|#808000|&nbsp;Geographic range of the family}}
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = See text
}}

'''Columbidae''' is a bird [[Family (biology)|family]] consisting of '''doves''' and '''pigeons'''. It is the only family in the [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Columbiformes'''. These are stout-bodied birds with small heads, relatively short necks and slender bills that in some species feature fleshy [[cere]]s. They [[Herbivore|feed largely on plant matter]], feeding on seeds ([[granivore|granivory]]), fruit ([[frugivore|frugivory]]), and foliage ([[folivore|folivory]]).

In [[colloquial English]], the smaller species tend to be called "doves", and the larger ones "pigeons",<ref name="floss">{{cite web |last=McDonald |first=Hannah |title=What's the Difference Between Pigeons and Doves? |work=Big Questions |publisher=Mental Floss |date=17 August 2008 |url=https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/554182/what-is-difference-between-pigeons-and-doves}}</ref> although the distinction is not consistent,<ref name="floss" /> and there is no scientific separation between them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dove vs pigeon – what's the difference between these two cooing birds? – Discover Wildlife |author=daniel.hani@sprylab.com |work=Discover Wildlife |date=17 October 2023 |access-date=30 November 2023 |url=https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/birds/dove-vs-pigeon-whats-the-difference-between-these-two-cooing-birds}}</ref> Historically, the common names for these birds involve a great deal of variation. The bird most commonly referred to as "pigeon" is the [[domestic pigeon]], descendant of the wild [[rock dove]], which is a common [[Urban wildlife|inhabitant of cities]] as the [[feral pigeon]].

Columbidae contains 51 [[genera]] divided into 353 [[species]].<ref name="CornellLab">{{cite journal |last1=Winkler |first1=David W. |last2=Billerman |first2=Shawn M. |last3=Lovette |first3=Irby J. |title=Order Columbiformes Columbidae Pigeons and Doves |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/columb2/cur/introduction |website=Birds of the World |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |doi=10.2173/bow.columb2.01 |access-date=16 February 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The family occurs worldwide, often in close proximity to humans, but the greatest diversity is in the [[Indomalayan realm|Indomalayan]] and [[Australasian realm]]s. 118 species (34%) are at risk,<ref name="CornellLab" /> and 13 are [[Extinction|extinct]],<ref name="ioc">{{cite web |editor1-last=Gill |editor1-first=Frank |editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) |editor2-last=Donsker |editor2-first=David |editor3-last=Rasmussen |editor3-first=Pamela |editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen |year=2020 |title=Pigeons |work=IOC World Bird List Version 10.1 |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/pigeons/ |publisher=International Ornithologists' Union |access-date=27 February 2020 }}</ref> with the most famous examples being the [[dodo]], a large, [[Flightless bird|flightless]], [[Island syndrome|island bird]], and the [[passenger pigeon]], that once flocked in the billions.

==Etymology==
{{lang|fr|Pigeon}} is a French word that derives from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|pīpiō}}, for a {{gloss|peeping}} chick,<ref name="oetymd-pigeon">{{OEtymD|pigeon}}</ref> while ''dove'' is an ultimately [[Proto-Germanic language|Germanic]] word, possibly referring to the bird's diving flight.<ref>{{OEtymD|dove}}</ref> The English dialectal word {{wikt-lang|en|culver}} appears to derive from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|columba}}.<ref name="oetymd-pigeon" /> A group of doves has sometimes been called a "dule", taken from the French word {{lang|fr|deuil}} ({{gloss|mourning}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipton |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/exaltationoflark0000lipt_x7z9 |url-access=registration |title=An Exaltation of Larks |date=1991 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-30044-0 |language=en}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2025}}

==Origin and evolution==
Columbiformes is one of the most diverse non-[[passerine]] [[clade]]s of [[neoavian]]s, and its origins are in the [[Cretaceous]]<ref>Pereira, S.L. ''et al''. (2007) Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences support a Cretaceous origin of Columbiformes and a dispersal-driven radiation in the Paleocene. ''Syst Biol''. 56:656–72</ref> and the result of a rapid diversification at the end of the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary|K-Pg boundary]].<ref>Soares, A.E.R. ''et al''. (2016) Complete mitochondrial genomes of living and extinct pigeons revise the timing of the columbiform radiation. ''BMC Evolutionary Biology'', 16(230).</ref> Whole genome analyses have found Columbiformes is the [[sister clade]] to the clade [[Columbimorphae|Pteroclimesites]] a clade consisting the orders Pterocliformes ([[sandgrouse]]s) and Mesitornithiformes ([[mesite]]s).<ref name="Jarvis2014">{{cite journal |last1=Jarvis |first1=E.D. |display-authors=etal |year=2014 |title=Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds |journal=Science |volume=346 |issue=6215 |pages=1320–1331 |doi=10.1126/science.1253451 |pmid=25504713 |pmc=4405904 |bibcode=2014Sci...346.1320J }}</ref><ref name="Prum2015">{{cite journal |last1=Prum |first1=R.O. |display-authors=et al |year=2015 |title=A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing |journal=Nature |volume=526 |issue=7574 |pages=569–573 |bibcode=2015Natur.526..569P |doi=10.1038/nature15697 |pmid=26444237 |s2cid=205246158 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sangster |first1=G. |last2=Braun |first2=E.L. |last3=Johansson |first3=U.S. |last4=Kimball |first4=R.T. |last5=Mayr |first5=G. |last6=Suh |first6=A. |date=2022 |title=Phylogenetic definitions for 25 higher-level clade names of birds |journal=Avian Research |volume=13 |article-number=100027 |doi=10.1016/j.avrs.2022.100027 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022AvRes..1300027S }}</ref> The columbiform-pteroclimesitean clade, or [[Columbimorphae]], monophyly has been supported from several studies.<ref name="Jarvis2014" /><ref name="Prum2015" /><ref name="ReddyKimball2017">{{cite journal|last1=Reddy|first1=Sushma|last2=Kimball|first2=Rebecca T.|last3=Pandey|first3=Akanksha|last4=Hosner|first4=Peter A.|last5=Braun|first5=Michael J.|last6=Hackett|first6=Shannon J.|last7=Han|first7=Kin-Lan|last8=Harshman|first8=John|last9=Huddleston|first9=Christopher J.|last10=Kingston|first10=Sarah|last11=Marks|first11=Ben D.|last12=Miglia|first12=Kathleen J.|last13=Moore|first13=William S.|last14=Sheldon|first14=Frederick H.|last15=Witt|first15=Christopher C.|last16=Yuri|first16=Tamaki|last17=Braun|first17=Edward L.|title=Why Do Phylogenomic Data Sets Yield Conflicting Trees? Data Type Influences the Avian Tree of Life more than Taxon Sampling|journal=Systematic Biology|volume=66|issue=5|year=2017|pages=857–879|issn=1063-5157|doi=10.1093/sysbio/syx041|pmid=28369655|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="BraunCracraft2019">{{cite book|last1=Braun|first1=Edward L.|title=Avian Genomics in Ecology and Evolution|last2=Cracraft|first2=Joel|last3=Houde|first3=Peter|chapter=Resolving the Avian Tree of Life from Top to Bottom: The Promise and Potential Boundaries of the Phylogenomic Era|year=2019|pages=151–210|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-16477-5_6|isbn=978-3-030-16476-8|s2cid=198399272 }}</ref><ref name="Suh2016">{{cite journal|last1=Suh|first1=Alexander|title=The phylogenomic forest of bird trees contains a hard polytomy at the root of Neoaves|journal=Zoologica Scripta|volume=45|year=2016|pages=50–62|issn=0300-3256|doi=10.1111/zsc.12213|url=https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-309580|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="HoudeBraun2019">{{cite journal|last1=Houde|first1=Peter|last2=Braun|first2=Edward L.|last3=Narula|first3=Nitish|last4=Minjares|first4=Uriel|last5=Mirarab|first5=Siavash|title=Phylogenetic Signal of Indels and the Neoavian Radiation|journal=Diversity|volume=11|issue=7|year=2019|page=108|issn=1424-2818|doi=10.3390/d11070108|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Diver..11..108H }}</ref><ref name="Wuetal2024">{{cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=S.|last2=Rheindt|first2=F.E.|last3=Zhang|first3=J.|last4=Wang|first4=J.|last5=Zhang|first5=L.|last6=Quan|first6=C.|last7=Zhiheng|first7=L.|last8=Wang|first8=M.|last9=Wu|first9=F.|last10=Qu|first10=Y|last11=Edwards|first11=S.V.|last12=Zhou|first12=Z.|last13=Liu|first13=L.|title=Genomes, fossils, and the concurrent rise of modern birds and flowering plants in the Late Cretaceous|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=121|issue=8|year=2024|article-number=e2319696121 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2319696121|doi-access=free|pmid=38346181 |pmc=10895254|bibcode=2024PNAS..12119696W }}</ref><ref name="Stilleretal2024">{{cite journal|display-authors=1|vauthors=Stiller J, Feng S|title=Complexity of avian evolution revealed by family-level genomes|journal=Nature|year=2024|volume=629|issue=8013|pages=851–860|doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07323-1|doi-access=free|pmid=38560995|pmc=11111414|bibcode=2024Natur.629..851S}}</ref>

===Taxonomy and systematics===
{{See also|List of Columbidae genera|List of Columbidae species}}

The name 'Columbidae' for the family was first used by the English zoologist [[William Elford Leach]] in a guide to the contents of the [[British Museum]] published in 1819.<ref>{{ cite book |last=Leach |first=William Elford |author-link=William Elford Leach |year=1819 |chapter=Eleventh Room |title=Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum |location=London |publisher=British Museum |edition=15th |pages=63–68 [66] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YSlhAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA66 }} Although the name of the author is not specified in the document, Leach was the Keeper of Zoology at the time.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bock |first=Walter J. |author-link=Walter Joseph Bock |year=1994 |title=History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names |series=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=222 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |location=New York |pages=139, 245 |hdl=2246/830 |url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/830 }}<!--Linked page allows download of the 48MB pdf--><!-- Bock cites the 17th edition from 1820 but the name was included in the 15th edition published in 1819--></ref> However, Illiger in 1811 established an older name for the family group ("Columbini") and would actually be the proper authority for Columbidae.<ref name="Raphina2024" />

The interrelationships of columbids (between subfamilies) and the ergotaxonomy of them has been debated, with many different interpretations of how they should be classified. As many as five to six families, along with many subfamilies and tribes, have been used in the past including the family Raphidae for the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire.<ref name="Allen2009">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLvMdtxHMC4C&pg=PA200|title=Pigeon|last=Allen|first=Barbara|date=2009|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-711-4 |page=200}}</ref><ref name="Shapiro">{{cite journal|author=Janoo, Anwar |year=2005|title=Discovery of isolated dodo bones ''Raphus cucullatus'' (L.), Aves, Columbiformes from Mauritius cave shelters highlights human predation, with a comment on the status of the family Raphidae Wetmore, 1930|doi=10.1016/j.annpal.2004.12.002|journal=Annales de Paléontologie|volume=91|issue=2|page=167|bibcode=2005AnPal..91..167J }}</ref><ref name="Chekeetal2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8xXSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA297|title=Lost Land of the Dodo: The Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues|last1=Cheke|first1=Anthony|last2=Hume|first2=Julian P.|date=2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4081-3305-7 |page=297}}</ref> A 2024 paper on the systematics and nomenclature of the dodo and the solitaire from Young and colleagues also provided an overview of columbid family-group nomina. They recommended recognizing three subfamilies: Columbinae (New World doves and quail-doves, and columbin doves), Claravinae (American ground-doves), and Raphinae (Old World doves and pigeons including the dodo and solitaire).<ref name="Raphina2024">{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Mark T |last2=Hume |first2=Julian P |last3=Day |first3=Michael O |last4=Douglas |first4=Robert P |last5=Simmons |first5=Zoë M |last6=White |first6=Judith |last7=Heller |first7=Markus O |last8=Gostling |first8=Neil J |title=The systematics and nomenclature of the Dodo and the Solitaire (Aves: Columbidae), and an overview of columbid family-group nomina |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |date=2024 |volume=201 |issue=4 |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlae086|doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2025 paper on the molecular phylogenetic placement of the [[List of endemic birds of the West Indies|Cuban endemic]] blue-headed quail-dove from Oswald and colleagues found the species to be a [[sister group]] to Columbinae, as opposed to being a true columbine or a raphine as previous authors have suggested in the past. These authors recommended that the blue-headed quail-dove should be placed in fourth monotypic subfamily, Starnoenadinae.<ref name="Oswaldetal2025">{{Cite journal |last1=Oswald |first1=J.A. |last2=Boyd |first2=B.M. |last3=Szewczak |first3=A.R. |last4=LeFebvre |first4=M.J. |last5=Stucky |first5=B.J. |last6=Guralnick |first6=R.P. |last7=Johnson |first7=K.P. |last8=Allen |first8=J.M. |last9=Steadman |first9=D.W. |date=2025 |title=Genomic data reveal that the Cuban blue-headed quail-dove (''Starnoenas cyanocephala'') is a biogeographic relict |journal=Biology Letters |volume=21 |issue=1 |article-number=20240464 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2024.0464 |doi-access=free |pmid=39772915 |pmc=11706640 |pmc-embargo-date=January 8, 2026 }}</ref>

These taxonomic issues are exacerbated by columbids not being well [[Taphonomic bias|represented]] in the [[fossil record]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fountaine|first1=Toby M. R.|last2=Benton|first2=Michael J.|last3=Dyke|first3=Gareth J.|last4=Nudds|first4=Robert L.|date=2005|title=The quality of the fossil record of Mesozoic birds|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=272|issue=1560|pages=289–294|doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2923|pmc=1634967|pmid=15705554}}</ref> with no truly [[Basal (phylogenetics)|primitive form]]s having been found to date.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} The genus ''[[Gerandia]]'' has been described from [[Early Miocene]] deposits in France, but while it was long believed to be a pigeon,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=Storrs L.|editor1-last=Farmer|editor1-first=Donald S.|editor2-last=King|editor2-first=James R.|editor3-last=Parkes|editor3-first=Kenneth C.|title=Avian Biology, Vol. VIII|date=1985|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-249408-6|pages=79–238|chapter=The fossil record of birds|quote=The earliest dove yet known, from the early Miocene (Aquitanian) of France, was a small species named Columba calcaria by Milne-Edwards (1867–1871) from a single humerus, for which Lambrecht (1933) later created the genus Gerandia|hdl=10088/6553}}</ref> it is now considered a [[sandgrouse]].<ref name="auk">{{cite journal|last1=Worthy|first1=Trevor H.|last2=Hand|first2=Suzanne J.|last3=Worthy|first3=Jennifer P.|last4=Tennyson|first4=Alan J. D.|last5=Scofield|first5=R. Paul|title=A large fruit pigeon (Columbidae) from the Early Miocene of New Zealand|journal=The Auk|date=2009|volume=126|issue=3|pages=649–656|doi=10.1525/auk.2009.08244|s2cid=86799657|quote=Because Columba calcaria Milne-Edwards, 1867–1871, from the Lower Miocene at Saint-Gérand-le-Puy in France, is now also considered a sandgrouse, as Gerandia calcaria (Mlíkovský 2002), there is no pre-Pliocene columbid record in Europe.|doi-access=free}}</ref> Fragmentary remains of a probably "[[Ptilinopus|ptilinopine]]" Early Miocene pigeon were found in the Bannockburn Formation of New Zealand and described as ''[[Rupephaps]]'';<ref name="auk" /> ''"Columbina" prattae'' from roughly contemporary deposits of [[Florida]] is nowadays tentatively separated in ''[[Arenicolumba]]'', but its distinction from ''[[Columbina (bird)|Columbina]]/Scardafella'' and related genera needs to be more firmly established (e.g. by [[cladistic]] analysis).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=referenceInfo&reference_no=50415|title=Fossilworks: Gateway to the Paleobiology Database|website=Ecological Register |access-date=17 December 2021|archive-date=24 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124085345/http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=referenceInfo&reference_no=50415}}</ref> Apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_TB72RBLLMC&pg=PA110|title=Paleogene Fossil Birds|last=Mayr|first=Gerald|date=2009|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-89628-9 |page=110}}</ref>

=== List of genera ===
Fossil species of uncertain placement:
* Genus †''[[Arenicolumba]]'' <small>Steadman, 2008</small>
* Genus †''[[Rupephaps]]'' <small>Worthy, Hand, Worthy, Tennyson, & Scofield, 2009</small> (St. Bathans pigeon, Miocene of New Zealand)
==== Subfamily Columbinae (typical pigeons and doves) <small>Illiger, 1811</small> <span class="anchor" id="Columbinae"></span>====
* Tribe Columbini <small>Illiger, 1811</small>
** Genus ''[[Patagioenas]]'' (American pigeons, 17 species)
** Genus †''[[Ectopistes]]'' (passenger pigeon; extinct 1914)
** Genus ''[[Reinwardtoena]]'' (3 species)
** Genus ''[[Turacoena]]'' (3 species)
** Genus ''[[Macropygia]]'' (typical cuckoo-doves, 15 species)
** Genus ''[[Streptopelia]]'' (turtle doves and collared doves, 13 species)
** Genus †''[[Dysmoropelia]]'' <small>Olson, 1975</small> ([[Saint Helena dove]]) (prehistoric)
** Genus ''[[Columba (genus)|Columba]]'' (Old World pigeons, 35 species of which 2 recently [[extinct]])
** Genus ''[[Spilopelia]]'' (2 species)
** Genus ''[[Nesoenas]]'' (3 species)
* Tribe Zenaidini (quail-doves and allies) <small>Bonaparte, 1853</small>
** Genus ''[[Geotrygon]]'' (10 species)
** Genus ''[[Leptotrygon]]'' ([[olive-backed quail-dove]])
** Genus ''[[Leptotila]]'' (11 species)
** Genus ''[[Zenaida doves|Zenaida]]'' (7 species)
** Genus ''[[Zentrygon]]'' (8 species)

==== Subfamily Starnoenadinae <small>Bonaparte, 1855</small> ====
* Genus ''[[Starnoenas]]'' ([[blue-headed quail-dove]])

==== Subfamily Claravinae (American ground doves) <small>Todd, 1913</small>====
* Genus ''[[Claravis (bird)|Claravis]]'' (blue ground dove)
* Genus ''[[Paraclaravis]]'' (2 species)
* Genus ''[[Columbina (bird)|Columbina]]'' (9 species)
* Genus ''[[Metriopelia]]'' (4 species)
* Genus ''[[Uropelia]]'' ([[long-tailed ground dove]])

==== Subfamily Raphinae (Old World doves and pigeons) <small>Oudemans, 1917 (1835)</small><span class="anchor" id="Raphinae"></span>====
* Tribe Phabini (bronzewings and relatives) <small>Bonaparte, 1853</small>
** Genus ''[[Gallicolumba]]'' (bleeding-hearts and allies, 7 species)
** Genus ''[[Henicophaps]]'' (2 species)
** Genus ''[[Pampusana]]'' (13 species of which 3 recently extinct)
** Genus ''[[Ocyphaps]]'' ([[crested pigeon]])
** Genus ''[[Petrophassa]]'' (rock pigeons, 2 species)
** Genus ''[[Leucosarcia]]'' ([[wonga pigeon]])
** Genus ''[[Geopelia]]'' (5 species)
** Genus †''[[Primophaps]]'' <small>Worthy 2012</small>
** Genus ''[[Phaps]]'' (Australian bronzewings, 3 species)
** Genus ''[[Geophaps]]'' (3 species)
* Tribe Ptilinopini (fruit doves and imperial pigeons) <small>Selby, 1835</small>
** Genus ?†''[[Tongoenas]]'' <small>Steadman & Takano, 2020</small> (Tongan giant pigeon) ([[Late Quaternary prehistoric birds|prehistoric]])
** Genus ''[[Phapitreron]]'' (brown doves, 3 species)
** Genus ''[[Ducula]]'' (imperial pigeons, 42 species)
** Genus ''[[Ptilinopus]]'' ([[fruit dove]]s, around 50 living species, 1–2 recently extinct)
** Genus ''[[Alectroenas]]'' (blue pigeons, 3 living species, 3-4 recently extinct)
** Genus ''[[Drepanoptila]]'' (cloven-feathered dove)
** Genus ''[[Hemiphaga]]'' (2 species)
** Genus ''[[Cryptophaps]]'' ([[sombre pigeon]])
** Genus ''[[Lopholaimus]]'' ([[topknot pigeon]])
** Genus ''[[Gymnophaps]]'' (mountain pigeons, 4 species)
* Tribe Raphini <small>Oudemans, 1917 (1835)</small>
** Genus ?†''[[Natunaornis]]'' ([[Viti Levu giant pigeon]]) ([[Late Quaternary prehistoric birds|prehistoric]])
** Genus ''[[Trugon]]'' ([[thick-billed ground pigeon]])
** Genus †''[[Microgoura]]'' ([[Choiseul crested pigeon]], extinct early 20th century)
** Genus ''[[Otidiphaps]]'' ([[pheasant pigeon]])
** Genus ''[[Goura (bird)|Goura]]'' (crowned pigeons, 4 species)
** Genus ''[[Didunculus]]'' ([[tooth-billed pigeon]])
** Genus ?†''[[Deliaphaps]]'' <small>De Pietri, Scofield, Tennyson, Hand, & Worthy, 2017</small> (Zealandian dove, Miocene of New Zealand)
** Genus ''[[Caloenas]]'' ([[Nicobar pigeon]])
** Genus †''[[Bountyphaps]]'' <small>Worthy & Wragg, 2008</small> (Henderson Island pigeon) ([[Late Quaternary prehistoric birds|prehistoric]])
** Subtribe [[Raphina]] (Dodo and solitaire) <small>Oudemans, 1917 (1835)</small>
*** Genus †''[[Raphus]]'' ([[dodo]], extinct late 17th century)
*** Genus †''[[Pezophaps]]'' ([[Rodrigues solitaire]], extinct c. 1730)
* Tribe Treronini <small>Gray, 1840 (1836)</small>
** Genus ''[[Treron]]'' ([[green pigeon]]s, 30 species)
* Tribe Turturini <small>Gray, 1840</small>
** Genus ''[[Oena]]'' ([[Namaqua dove]], tentatively placed here)
** Genus ''[[Turtur]]'' (wood doves, 5 species; tentatively placed here)
** Genus ''[[Chalcophaps]]'' (emerald doves, 3 species)

== Description ==

=== Anatomy and physiology ===
[[File:Touchdown (pigeon).jpg|thumb|A landing [[Eurasian collared dove|collared dove]] (''Streptopelia decaocto'') displays the contour and [[flight feather]]s of its wings.]]
Overall, the [[Bird anatomy|anatomy]] of Columbidae is characterized by short legs, short bills with a fleshy [[Beak|cere]], and small heads on large, compact bodies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faunaparaguay.com/columbidae.html|title=COLUMBIDAE Pigeons and Doves |last=Smith|first=Paul|website=Fauna Paraguay}}</ref> Like some other birds, the Columbidae have no [[gall bladder]]s.<ref name="Hagey">{{cite journal|last1=Hagey|first1=LR|last2=Schteingart|first2=CD|last3=Ton-Nu|first3=HT|last4=Hofmann|first4=AF|year=1994|title=Biliary bile acids of fruit pigeons and doves (Columbiformes)|journal=Journal of Lipid Research|volume=35|issue=11|pages=2041–8|doi=10.1016/S0022-2275(20)39950-8|pmid=7868982|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some medieval naturalists concluded they have no [[bile]] (gall), which in the medieval theory of the [[four humours]] explained the allegedly sweet disposition of doves.<ref name="Isidore">{{cite web|url=https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast253.htm|title=Doves|work=The Medieval Bestiary|access-date=31 January 2010}}</ref> In fact, however, they do have bile (as [[Aristotle]] had earlier realized), which is secreted directly into the [[Gut (anatomy)|gut]].<ref name="Browne">{{cite book|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo33.html|title=Pseudodoxia Epidemica|last=Browne|first=Thomas|publisher=[[University of Chicago]]|year=1646|edition=1672|volume=III.iii|author-link=Thomas Browne|access-date=31 January 2010}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2025}}

The wings of most species are large, and have eleven [[Flight feather|primary feathers]];<ref name="Encyclopedia.com Columbiformes">{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/columbiformes-pigeons-doves-and-dodos|title=Columbiformes (Pigeons, Doves, and Dodos) – Dictionary definition of Columbiformes (Pigeons, Doves, and Dodos)|website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BTj1ao8leWgC&pg=PA42|title=Twirl: A Fresh Spin at Life|last=Clairmont|first=Patsy|date=2014|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-0-8499-2299-2 |page=42}}</ref>) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds.<ref name="Encyclopedia.com Columbiformes" />

In a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr.{{nbsp}}Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/pigeon.html|title=Why do pigeons bob their heads when they walk? Everyday Mysteries: Fun Science Facts from the Library of Congress|publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref> It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr.{{nbsp}}Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on [[treadmill]]s; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Necker|first1=R|year=2007|title=Head-bobbing of walking birds|url=https://www.reinhold-necker.de/Head%20bobbing%20print.pdf|journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A|volume=193|issue=12|pages=1177–83|doi=10.1007/s00359-007-0281-3|pmid=17987297|s2cid=10803990}}</ref>

===Feathers===
[[File:Pigeon Feathers - A Dissection Sampling.pdf|thumb|Pigeon feather types, excluding [[Down feather|down]]]]
Columbidae have unique body [[feather]]s, with the shaft being generally broad, strong, and flattened, tapering to a fine point, abruptly.<ref name="Encyclopedia.com Columbiformes" /> In general, the aftershaft is absent; however, small ones on some tail and wing feathers may be present.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lK_tb2TICq8C&pg=PA313|title=Aves (Columbidae to Coraciidae)|last1=Schodde|first1=Richard|last2=Mason|first2=I. J.|date=1997|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=978-0-643-06037-1 |page=313}}</ref> Body feathers have very dense, fluffy bases, are attached loosely into the skin, and drop out easily.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Skutch, A. F.|year=1964|title=Life Histories of Central American Pigeons|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v076n03/p0211-p0247.pdf|journal=Wilson Bulletin|volume=76|issue=3|page=211}}</ref> Possibly serving as a [[Anti-predator adaptation|predator avoidance mechanism]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://diversityoflife2012.wikispaces.com/Pigeon|title=Pigeon|website=DiversityofLife2012 |access-date=23 April 2017|archive-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106102827/http://diversityoflife2012.wikispaces.com/Pigeon}}</ref> large numbers of feathers fall out in the attacker's mouth if the bird is snatched, facilitating the bird's escape. The [[plumage]] of the family is variable.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40mFwoALUFUC&pg=PA316|title=Birds of Venezuela|last=Hilty|first=Steven L.|date=2002|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3409-9 |page=316}}</ref>

[[Seed predation|Granivorous]] species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the [[Frugivore|frugivorous]] species have brightly coloured plumage.<ref name="HBW2">{{cite book|title=Handbook of birds of the world|last1=Baptista|first1=L. F.|last2=Trail|first2=P. W.|last3=Horblit|first3=H. M.|publisher=Lynx Edicions|year=1997|isbn=978-84-87334-22-1|editor-last1=del Hoyo|editor-first1=J.|volume=4: Sandgrouse to Cuckoos|place=Barcelona|chapter=Family Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)|editor-last2=Elliott|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=Sargatal|editor-first3=J.|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2025}} The genera ''Chalcophaps'', ''Ptilinopus'' and ''Alectroenas'' include some of the most brightly coloured pigeons. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or [[Sexual dimorphism|dichromatic]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Valdez|first1=Diego Javier|last2=Benitez-Vieyra|first2=Santiago Miguel|date=2016|title=A Spectrophotometric Study of Plumage Color in the Eared Dove (''Zenaida auriculata''), the Most Abundant South American Columbiforme|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=5|article-number=e0155501|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1155501V|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0155501|pmc=4877085|pmid=27213273|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition to bright colours, some pigeon species may have crests or other ornamentation.<ref name="Creagrus">{{Cite web|url=http://creagrus.home.montereybay.com/pigeons.html|title=Pigeon family Columbidae|website=Creagrus@Monterey Bay}}</ref>
[[File:Snow Pigeon Flock Flying Pangolakha WLS Sikkim India 11.02.2016.jpg|thumb|right|[[Snow pigeon]]s flying at an altitude of {{Convert|12000|ft|m}} above sea level]]
=== Flight ===
Many Columbidae are excellent fliers due to the lift provided by their large wings, which results in low [[wing loading]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_oE29KijRlAC&pg=PA253|title=Bird Migration|last=Alerstam|first=Thomas|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-44822-2 |page=253}}</ref> They are highly maneuverable in flight<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DL4qBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT267|title=Pigeons and Doves in Australia|last1=Forshaw|first1=Joseph|last2=Cooper|first2=William|date=2015|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=978-1-4863-0405-9 |page=267}}</ref> and have a low [[Aspect ratio (aeronautics)|aspect ratio]] due to the width of their wings, allowing for quick flight launches and ability to escape from predators, but at a high energy cost.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pap|first1=Péter L.|last2=Osváth|first2=Gergely|last3=Sándor|first3=Krisztina|last4=Vincze|first4=Orsolya|last5=Bărbos|first5=Lőrinc|last6=Marton|first6=Attila|last7=Nudds|first7=Robert L.|last8=Vágási|first8=Csongor I.|year=2015|editor-last=Williams|editor-first=Tony|title=Interspecific variation in the structural properties of flight feathers in birds indicates adaptation to flight requirements and habitat|journal=Functional Ecology|language=en|volume=29|issue=6|pages=746–757|doi=10.1111/1365-2435.12419|bibcode=2015FuEco..29..746P |doi-access=free}}</ref> A few species are long-distance [[bird migration|migrants]], with some populations of the [[European turtle dove]] migrating in excess of 5,000 km between northern Europe in summer and tropical Africa in winter, and the [[Oriental turtle dove]] nearly as far in eastern Asia between eastern Siberia and southern China.

=== Size ===
Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variation in size, ranging in length from {{convert|15|to|75|cm}}, and in weight from {{convert|30|g|lb|abbr=on}} to above {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Animal Diversity">{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Columbidae/|title=Columbidae (doves and pigeons)|website=Animal Diversity Web}}</ref> The largest extant species are the [[crowned pigeon]]s of [[New Guinea]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/victoria-crowned-pigeon/goura-victoria/|title=Victoria crowned-pigeon videos, photos and facts – Goura victoria|website=Arkive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424015104/http://www.arkive.org/victoria-crowned-pigeon/goura-victoria/|archive-date=24 April 2017|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref> which are nearly [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]-sized, with lengths of {{convert|66|–|79|cm|ft|abbr=on}} and weights ranging {{convert|1.8|–|4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/southern-crowned-pigeon/goura-scheepmakeri/|title=Southern crowned-pigeon videos, photos and facts – Goura scheepmakeri|website=Arkive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424015544/http://www.arkive.org/southern-crowned-pigeon/goura-scheepmakeri/|archive-date=24 April 2017|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Western Crowned-Pigeon Goura cristata |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/wecpig1/cur/introduction |website=Birds of the World |date=2020 |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |doi=10.2173/bow.wecpig1.01 |access-date=16 February 2025 |last1=Baptista |first1=Luis F. |last2=Trail |first2=Pepper W. |last3=Horblit |first3=H.M. |last4=Kirwan |first4=Guy M. |last5=Bonan |first5=Arnau |editor-first1=Josep |editor-first2=Andrew |editor-first3=Jordi |editor-first4=David |editor-first5=Eduardo |editor-last1=Del Hoyo |editor-last2=Elliott |editor-last3=Sargatal |editor-last4=Christie |editor-last5=De Juana |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Scheepmaker's Crowned-Pigeon Goura scheepmakeri |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/soucrp2/cur/introduction |website=Birds of the World |date=2020 |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |doi=10.2173/bow.soucrp2.01 |access-date=16 February 2025 |last1=Baptista |first1=Luis F. |last2=Trail |first2=Pepper W. |last3=Horblit |first3=H.M. |last4=Kirwan |first4=Guy M. |last5=Garcia |first5=Ernest |editor-first1=Josep |editor-first2=Andrew |editor-first3=Jordi |editor-first4=David |editor-first5=Eduardo |editor-last1=Del Hoyo |editor-last2=Elliott |editor-last3=Sargatal |editor-last4=Christie |editor-last5=De Juana |url-access=subscription }}</ref> One of the largest [[arboreal]] species, the [[Marquesan imperial pigeon]] with a length of {{convert|55|cm|in|abbr=on}}, currently battles extinction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Thorsen, M., Blanvillain, C., & Sulpice, R. (2002). Reasons for decline, conservation needs, and a translocation of the critically endangered upe (Marquesas imperial pigeon, Ducula galeata), French Polynesia. Department of Conservation.}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2025}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nuku Hiva Imperial-Pigeon Ducula galeata |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/marimp1/cur/introduction |website=Birds of the World |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |doi=10.2173/bow.marimp1.01 |access-date=16 February 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The extinct, flightless [[dodo]] is the largest columbid to have ever existed, with a height of about {{cvt|62.6|-|75|cm}}, and a range of suggested weights from {{convert|10.2|-|27.8|kg}}, although the higher estimates are thought to be based on overweight birds.<ref name="Hume2017">{{cite book |last1=Hume |first1=J. P. |author-link1=Julian Pender Hume |year=2017 |title=Extinct Birds |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London |isbn=978-1-4729-3744-5 |pages=155–158}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Parish|first1=Jolyon C.|title=The Dodo and the Solitaire: A Natural History|date=2013|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington (US)|isbn=978-0-253-00099-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bp8wK8zCg7wC|pages=265–282}}</ref><ref name="Angst2011">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00114-010-0759-7 |last1=Angst |first1=D. |last2=Buffetaut |first2=E. |last3=Abourachid |first3=A. |date=March 2011 |title=The end of the fat dodo? A new mass estimate for ''Raphus cucullatus'' |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=233–236 |pmid=21240603 |ref={{sfnRef|Angst|Buffetaut|Abourachid March 2011}} |bibcode=2011NW.....98..233A |s2cid=29215473 }}</ref><ref name="KitchenerAugust1993">{{cite magazine |last=Kitchener |first=A. C. |date=28 August 1993 |title=Justice at last for the dodo |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |page=24 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13918884.300-justice-at-last-for-the-dodo.html |ref={{sfnRef|Kitchener August 1993}} |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626154703/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13918884.300-justice-at-last-for-the-dodo.html |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref>

The least massive columbids belong to species in the genus ''[[Columbina (bird)|Columbina]]''; the common ground dove (''[[Columbina passerina]]'') and the plain-breasted ground dove (''[[Columbina minuta]]'') which are about the same size as a [[house sparrow]], weighing a little above {{convert|22|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="HBW2" />{{page needed|date=July 2025}}<ref name="Uni StA pdf">{{cite web |title=The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago: Columbina minuta (Plain-breasted Ground Dove) |url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Columbina_minuta%20-%20Plain-breasted%20Ground%20Dove.pdf |publisher=The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Plain-breasted Ground-Dove (Columbina minuta) |last1=Soberanes-González |first1=C. |last2=Rodríguez-Flores |first2=C. |last3=Arizmendi |first3=M.C. |url=https://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/portal/species/overview?p_p_spp=173941 |website=Neotropical Birds Online |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref> The [[dwarf fruit dove]], which may measure as little as {{convert|13|cm|abbr=on}} long, has a marginally smaller total length than any other species from this family.<ref name="HBW2" />{{page needed|date=July 2025}}

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths="250" noborder="no" caption="Diversity of pigeons and doves">
File:Nicobar Pigeon on the bar.jpg|The Nicobar pigeon (''[[Caloenas nicobarica]]'') is often stated to be the dodo's closest living relative.
File:SNOW-PIGEON-SELA.jpg|Snow pigeon (''[[Columba leuconota]]'') in Sela, [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
File:2019-03-17 Columba oenas, Jesmond Dene 4.jpg|The stock dove (''[[Columba oenas]]'') of Europe is a typical member of the Columbinae.
File:2018-03-14 Columba palumbus eating Cotoneaster frigidus berries.jpg|The common wood pigeon (''[[Columba palumbus]]'') is common throughout Europe. This one is eating ''[[Cotoneaster frigidus]]'' berries.
File:Columbina passerina.jpg|The common ground dove (''[[Columbina passerina]]'') is one of the smallest species in the family.
File:Ducula galeata Nuku Hiva.jpg|Nuku Hiva/Marquesan imperial pigeon (''[[Ducula galeata]]'')
File:Goura victoria LC0384.jpg|The Victoria crowned pigeon (''[[Goura victoria]]'') is one of the largest extant pigeons.
File:Blue-headed quail dove (Starnoenas cyanocephala).JPG|The blue-headed quail-dove (''[[Starnoenas cyanocephala]]'') of Cuba is a [[Relict (biology)|relictual]] species with no close relatives.
File:Red-eyed dove (Streptopelia semitorquata).jpg|A red-eyed dove (''[[Streptopelia semitorquata]]'') on the [[Zambezi]] in [[Zimbabwe]].
File:Spilopelia chinensis Zhengzhou 20220915, crop.jpg|A spotted dove (''[[Spilopelia chinensis]]'') in [[Zhengzhou]], [[China]].
</gallery>

== Distribution and habitat ==
Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, having adapted to most terrestrial habitats available on the planet, except for the driest areas of the [[Sahara Desert]]<!-- and [[Atacama Desert|Atacama]]?-->, [[Antarctica]] and [[List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands|its surrounding islands]], and the high [[Arctic]].<ref name="Animal Diversity" /> They have colonised most of the world's [[oceanic island]]s, reaching eastern [[Polynesia]] and the [[Chatham Islands]] in the [[Pacific]], [[Mauritius]], the [[Seychelles]] and [[Réunion]] in the [[Indian Ocean]], and the [[Azores]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

Columbid species may be [[Arboreal locomotion|arboreal]], [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], or semi-terrestrial. They inhabit [[savanna]], [[grassland]], [[shrubland]], [[desert]], [[Temperate climate|temperate]] woodland and forest, [[tropical rainforest]]s, [[Mangrove|mangrove forest]], and even the barren sands and gravels of [[atoll]]s.<ref name="Encyclopedia.com Columbidae">{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/pigeons-and-doves-columbidae|title=Pigeons and Doves (Columbidae) – Dictionary definition of Pigeons and Doves (Columbidae)|website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

Some species have large natural ranges. The [[eared dove]] ranges across the entirety of South America from Colombia to [[Tierra del Fuego]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Zenaida_auriculata/|title=''Zenaida auriculata'' (eared dove)|website=Animal Diversity Web}}</ref> the [[Eurasian collared dove]] has a massive (if discontinuous) distribution from [[Great Britain|Britain]] across Europe, the Middle East, India, Pakistan and China,<ref>{{Cite web |author=Vijay Choudhary |url=http://natureconservation.in/eurasian-collared-dove-streptopelia-decaocto-complete-detail/|title=Eurasian collared dove (''Streptopelia decaocto'') detail|website=Abhinav Nature Conservation |date=5 February 2019 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210203931/http://natureconservation.in/eurasian-collared-dove-streptopelia-decaocto-complete-detail/ |archive-date=10 February 2019}}</ref> and the [[laughing dove]] across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as India, Pakistan, and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gettyimages.in/detail/photo/laughing-dove-this-bird-is-native-to-sub-high-res-stock-photography/140591245|title=Laughing Dove This Bird Is Native To Subsaharan Africa The Middle East And India Where It Is Known As The Little Brown Dove It Inhabits Scrubland And Feeds On Grass Seeds And Grain Stock Photo|website=Getty Images |access-date=24 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425025009/http://www.gettyimages.in/detail/photo/laughing-dove-this-bird-is-native-to-sub-high-res-stock-photography/140591245|archive-date=25 April 2017}}</ref>

When including human-mediated introductions, the largest range of any species is that of the [[rock dove]], also known as the common pigeon.<ref name="Beauty of Birds">{{Cite web|url=https://www.beautyofbirds.com/rockpigeons.html|title=Rock Pigeons (''Columba livia'') aka Feral or Domestic Pigeons|website=Beauty of Birds |date=16 September 2021 }}</ref> This species had a large natural distribution from Britain and Ireland to northern Africa, across Europe, [[Arabia]], [[Central Asia]], India, the [[Himalayas]] and up into China and Mongolia.<ref name="Beauty of Birds" /> The range of the species increased dramatically upon domestication, as the species went [[Introduced species|feral]] in cities around the world.<ref name="Beauty of Birds" /> The common pigeon is currently resident across most of North America, and has established itself in cities and urban areas in South America, sub-Saharan Africa, [[Southeast Asia]], Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.<ref name="Beauty of Birds" /> A 2020 study found that the east coast of the United States includes two pigeon genetic megacities, in New York and Boston, and observes that the birds do not mix together.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sokol|first=Joshua|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/23/science/pigeons-boston-new-york.html|title=New York and Boston Pigeons Don't Mix|date=2020-04-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-04-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

As well as the rock dove, several other species of pigeon have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity, and other species have increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes caused by human activity.<ref name="HBW2" />{{page needed|date=July 2025}}

Other species of Columbidae have tiny, restricted distributions, usually seen on small islands, such as the [[whistling dove]], which is [[endemism|endemic]] to the tiny [[Kadavu Island]] in Fiji,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beautyofbirds.com/whistlingdoves.html|title=Whistling Fruit Doves|website=Beauty of Birds |date=16 September 2021 }}</ref> the [[Caroline ground-dove|Caroline ground dove]], restricted to two islands, [[Chuuk Lagoon|Truk]] and [[Pohnpei]] in the [[Caroline Islands]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMGkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA406|title=Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World|last=Gibbs|first=David|date=2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4081-3555-6|page=406}}</ref> and the [[Grenada dove]], which is only found on the island of [[Grenada]] in the [[Caribbean]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/grenada-dove-leptotila-wellsi/details|title=Grenada Dove (Leptotila wellsi) – BirdLife species factsheet|website=Datazone Birdlife}}</ref>

Some continental species also have tiny distributions, such as the [[black-banded fruit dove]], which is restricted to a small area of the [[Arnhem Land]] of Australia,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lK_tb2TICq8C&pg=PA60|title=Aves (Columbidae to Coraciidae)|last1=Schodde|first1=Richard|last2=Mason|first2=I. J.|date=1997|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=978-0-643-06037-1 |page=60}}</ref> the [[Somali pigeon]], found only in a tiny area of northern Somalia,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.hbw.com/species/somali-pigeon-columba-oliviae|title=Somali Pigeon (Columba oliviae)|journal=Birds of the World|date=4 March 2020|last1=Baptista|first1=Luis F.|last2=Trail|first2=Pepper W.|last3=Horblit|first3=H. M.|last4=Sharpe|first4=Christopher J.|last5=Boesman|first5=Peter F. D.|last6=Garcia|first6=Ernest|editor1-first=Josep|editor1-last=Del Hoyo|editor2-first=Andrew|editor2-last=Elliott|editor3-first=Jordi|editor3-last=Sargatal|editor4-first=David|editor4-last=Christie|editor5-first=Eduardo|editor5-last=De Juana|doi=10.2173/bow.sompig1.01|s2cid=240954419|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and [[Moreno's ground dove]], endemic to the area around [[Salta]] and [[San Miguel de Tucumán|Tucuman]] in northern Argentina.<ref name="HBW2" />{{page needed|date=July 2025}}

==Behaviour==
===Feeding===
[[File:Treron Sieboldii.jpg|thumb|[[White-bellied green pigeon]] (''Treron sieboldii'') feeding on fruit]]
Seeds and fruit form the major component of the diets of pigeons and doves,<ref name="Animal Diversity" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.birdfeedersspot.com/wild-birds-basics-tips/what-do-doves-eat.html|title=What Do Doves Eat – Best Food For Doves|website=Bird Feeders Spot |access-date=23 April 2017|archive-date=8 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208144856/https://www.birdfeedersspot.com/wild-birds-basics-tips/what-do-doves-eat.html|url-status=usurped}}</ref> and the family can be loosely divided between seed-eating ([[Granivore|granivorous]]) species, and fruit-and-[[Mast seeding|mast]]-eating ([[Frugivore|frugivorous]]) species, though many species consume both.<ref name="birdsofeden">{{Cite news|url=http://www.birdsofeden.co.za/pigeons-and-doves---whats-differance_article_op_view_id_1672|title=Pigeons And Doves – What's The Differance?|publisher=birdsofeden.co.za|date=22 July 2011|access-date=23 April 2017|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120135153/https://www.birdsofeden.co.za/pigeons-and-doves---whats-differance_article_op_view_id_1672}}</ref>

The granivorous species typically feed on seed found on the ground, whereas the frugivorous species are more [[Arboreal locomotion|arboreal]], tending to feed in trees.<ref name="birdsofeden" /> The morphological adaptations used to distinguish between the two groups include granivores tending to having thick walls in their gizzards, [[Gastrointestinal tract|intestines]], and [[Esophagus|esophagi]], with the frugivores evolved with thin walls,<ref name="Animal Diversity" /> and the fruit-eating species have short intestines, as opposed to the seed eaters having longer intestines.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k_7UBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA462|title=A Dictionary of Birds|last1=Campbell|first1=Bruce|last2=Lack|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4081-3838-0 |page=462}}</ref> Frugivores are capable of clinging to branches and even hang upside down to reach fruit.<ref name="HBW2" />{{page needed|date=July 2025}}<ref name="birdsofeden" />

In addition to fruit and seeds, a number of other food items are taken by many species. Some, particularly the ground doves and quail-doves, eat a large number of prey items such as [[Insectivore|insects]] and [[Vermivore|worms]].<ref name="birdsofeden" /> One species, the [[atoll fruit dove]], is specialised in taking insect and [[reptile]] prey.<ref name="birdsofeden" /> [[Snail]]s, [[moth]]s, and other insects are taken by [[white-crowned pigeon]]s, [[orange fruit dove]]s, and [[ruddy ground dove]]s.<ref name="HBW2" />{{page needed|date=July 2025}} Flowers are also taken by some species.<ref name="CornellLab" />

Urban feral pigeons, descendants of domestic [[rock dove]]s (''Columbia livia''), [[Urban wildlife|reside in urban environments]], disturbing their natural feeding habits. They depend on human activities and interactions to obtain food, causing them to forage for [[Food loss and waste|spilled food]] or food provided by humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Belguermi |first1=Ahmed |last2=Bovet |first2=Dalila |last3=Anouck |first3=Pascal |last4=Prevot-Julliard |first4=Anne-Caroline |last5=Jalme |first5=Michel Saint |last6=Rat-Fishcer |first6=Lauriane |last7=Leboucher |first7=Gerard |title=Pigeons discriminate between human feeders |journal=Animal Cognition |date=2011 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=909–914 |doi=10.1007/s10071-011-0420-7 |pmid=21647649 |s2cid=8632076 }}</ref>
[[File:Spotted Dove and its egg.jpg|thumb|150px|Spotted dove (''[[Spilopelia chinensis]]'') on its nest, with one unhatched egg and one hatchling]]
===Reproduction===
Doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy [[Bird nest|nests]], often using sticks, other vegetable matter, and other debris, which may be placed on trees, on [[Outcrop|rocky ledge]]s, or on the ground, depending on species. The female may either build the nest, with material gathered by the male, or the male builds the nest by himself. A few species [[Bird colony|nest colonially]], others nest in aggregation.<ref name="CornellLab" />

Most lay a [[Clutch (eggs)|clutch]] of one or (usually) two white eggs at a time which take 11-30 days to hatch (larger species have longer incubation times). Both [[Parental care|parents care]] for the young; unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce "[[crop milk]]" to feed their young. This fluid is secreted by a sloughing of [[epithelial cell]]s from the lining of the [[Crop (anatomy)|crop]].<ref name="CornellLab" />

Unfledged baby doves and pigeons are called squabs and are generally able to fly by five weeks old. These [[Fledge|fledglings]], with their immature squeaking voices, are called squeakers once they are [[weaning|weaned]],<ref name="EoB">{{cite book |editor=Forshaw, Joseph |author=Crome, Francis H.J. |year=1991 |title=Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds |publisher=Merehurst Press |place=London |pages=115–116 |isbn=978-1-85391-186-6}}</ref> and leave the nest after 25–32 days.

== Status and conservation ==
While many species of pigeons and doves have benefited from human activities and have increased their ranges, many other species have declined in numbers and some have become [[threatened]] or even succumbed to extinction.<ref name="Species Extinction Time Line" /> Among the ten species to have become extinct since 1600 (the conventional date for estimating [[Recently extinct birds|modern extinctions]]) are two of the most famous extinct species, the dodo and the passenger pigeon.<ref name="Species Extinction Time Line">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/deextinction/selected-species-extinctions-since-1600/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130316050309/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/deextinction/selected-species-extinctions-since-1600|archive-date=16 March 2013|title=Species Extinction Time Line {{!}} Animals Lost Since 1600|work=National Geographic}}</ref><ref name="CornellLab" />

The [[passenger pigeon]] was exceptional for a number of reasons. In modern times, it is the only pigeon species that was not an island species to have become extinct<ref name="Species Extinction Time Line" /> even though it was once the most numerous species of bird on Earth.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} Its former numbers are difficult to estimate, but one [[Ornithology|ornithologist]], [[Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)|Alexander Wilson]], estimated one flock he observed contained over two billion birds.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/01/06/the-birds-4|title=The Birds|magazine=The New Yorker|date=6 January 2014}}</ref> The decline of the species was abrupt; in 1871, a breeding colony was estimated to contain over a hundred million birds, yet the last individual in the species was dead by 1914.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nebraskabirdlibrary.org/columbiformes/columbidae/passenger-pigeon/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329221440/http://www.nebraskabirdlibrary.org/columbiformes/columbidae/passenger-pigeon/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=29 March 2016|title=Passenger Pigeon |publisher=Nebraska Bird Library}}</ref> Although [[habitat loss]] was a contributing factor, the species is thought to have been massively [[Overhunting|over-hunted]], being used as food for [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] and, later, the poor, in the United States throughout the 19th{{nbsp}}century.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}}
[[File:Zenaida graysoni 1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Socorro dove]] (''Zenaida graysoni'') is [[extinct in the wild]].]]
The [[dodo]], and its extinction, was more typical of the extinctions of pigeons in general. Like many species that colonise remote [[Island ecology|islands with few predators]], it lost much of its [[island tameness|predator avoidance behaviour]], along with its [[Flightless bird|ability to fly]].<ref name="Gibbs 2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r__Tx8QKQfMC&pg=PA14|title=Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World|last=Gibbs|first=David|date=2010|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4081-3556-3 |page=14}}</ref> The arrival of people, along with a suite of other introduced species such as [[rat]]s, [[pig]]s, and [[cat]]s, quickly spelled the end for this species and many other island species that have become extinct.<ref name="Gibbs 2010" />

118 columbid species are at risk (34% of the total), with 48 species [[Near-threatened species|NT]], 40 [[Vulnerable species|VU]], 18 [[Endangered species|EN]], 11 [[Critically endangered|CR]], and 1 [[Extinct in the wild|EW]].<ref name="CornellLab" /><!--<ref name="Walker">{{cite journal|author=Walker, J. |year=2007|title=Geographical patterns of threat among pigeons and doves (Columbidae)|doi=10.1017/S0030605307001016|journal=Oryx|volume=41|issue=3|pages=289–299|doi-access=free}}</ref>--> Most of these are tropical and live on islands. All of the species are threatened by [[introduced predators]], [[habitat loss]], [[hunting]], or a combination of these factors.<ref name="Gibbs 2010" /> In some cases, they may be [[extinct in the wild]], as is the [[Socorro dove]] of [[Socorro Island]], Mexico, last seen in the wild in 1972, driven to extinction by habitat loss and introduced [[feral cat]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=2555&m=0|title=Socorro Dove ''Zenaida graysoni''|last=BirdLife International|author-link=BirdLife International|year=2009|work=Data Zone|publisher=BirdLife International|access-date=26 June 2009|archive-date=5 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105145239/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=2555&m=0}}</ref> In some areas, a lack of knowledge means the true status of a species is unknown ([[Data deficient|DD]]); the [[Negros fruit dove]] has not been seen since 1953,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://iucnredlist.org/details/22691568/0|title=Ptilinopus arcanus (Negros Fruit-dove, Negros Fruit Dove, Negros Fruit-Dove)|journal=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|date=October 2016}}</ref> and may or may not be extinct, and the [[Polynesian ground dove]] is classified as [[critically endangered]], as whether it survives or not on remote islands in the far west of the Pacific Ocean is unknown.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://iucnredlist.org/details/22691030/0|title=Alopecoenas erythropterus (Polynesian Ground-dove, Polynesian Ground Dove, Polynesian Ground-Dove, Society Islands Ground-dove, White-collared Ground-dove)|journal=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|date=October 2017}}</ref>

Various [[conservation biology|conservation]] techniques are employed to prevent these extinctions, including [[Environmental law|laws and regulations]] to control hunting pressure, the establishment of [[protected area]]s to prevent further habitat loss, the establishment of [[Captive breeding|captive populations]] for [[reintroduction]] back into the wild (''[[ex situ]]'' conservation), and the [[Species translocation|translocation]] of individuals to suitable habitats to create additional populations.<ref name="Gibbs 2010" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qoeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|title=Ethno-ornithology: "Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society"|last1=Tidemann|first1=Sonia C.|last2=Gosler|first2=Andrew|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-54384-5 |page=25}}</ref>

==Domestication==
{{Main|Domestic pigeon}}
The [[Domestic pigeon|domestic pigeon (''Columba livia domestica'')]] is a descendant of the rock dove (''[[Columba livia]]'') that underwent [[domestication]], with studies suggesting domestication as early as 10 thousand years ago. Domestic pigeons have long been a part of human culture; [[Doves as symbols|doves were important symbols]] of the goddesses [[Innana]], [[Asherah]], and [[Aphrodite]], and revered by the early [[Christian]], [[Islamic]] and [[Jewish]] religions. Domestication of pigeons led to significant use of [[homing pigeon]]s for communication, including [[war pigeon]]s, such as the 32 pigeons who were awarded the [[Dickin Medal]] for "brave service" to their country, in World War II.

The [[ringneck dove]] is a smaller species of domestic columbid that was kept as a source of food. As a result of selection for tame individuals who would not escape their cages, they lack a survival instinct and cannot survive release.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brough|first=Clarice|title=White Dove|url=http://animal-world.com/encyclo/birds/doves_pigeons/whitedove.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060104204629/http://animal-world.com/encyclo/birds/doves_pigeons/whitedove.php|archive-date=4 January 2006|website=Animal World|access-date=March 12, 2022}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Birds}}
* [[List of Columbidae species]]
* [[List of Columbiformes by population]]
* ''[[Dinosaur (statue)|Dinosaur]]'', 2024 pigeon statue exhibited in New York City

== References ==
<!-- BulletinOfTheBritishOrnithologistsClub125:293. Condor54:174. JournalOfSystematicPaleontology5:1. -->
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Blechman, Andrew, ''Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World's Most Revered and Reviled Bird'' ([[Grove Press]] 2007) {{ISBN|978-0-8021-4328-0}}
* Gibbs, Barnes and Cox, ''Pigeons and Doves'' (Pica Press 2001) {{ISBN|1-873403-60-7}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project auto|q=Doves|wikt=Columbidae}}

* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150906001345/http://www.columbidae.org.uk/ Columbidae.org.uk]}} Conservation of pigeons and doves
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090118213519/http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/pigeons-doves-columbidae Dove videos]}} on the Internet Bird Collection
* [https://pigeonpedia.com/difference-between-dove-and-pigeon/ The differences between doves & pigeons]
* [https://www.pestworld.org/pest-guide/birds/pigeons/ Pigeon Fact Sheet] from the [[National Pest Management Association]] with information on habits, habitat and health threats
* {{cite web |url=https://npausa.com/breeds/breeds_groups.html |title=Pigeon breeds: from the NPA Standard – Table of Contents by Groups |publisher=American National Pigeon Association |date=2014}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.nunpigeons.com/www.nunpigeons.coms/info.php?p=14 |title=British Pigeon Show Society Hall of Fame, Show Categories and Trophies |publisher=British Pigeon Show Society |date=2014 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.golebnik.pl/wzorce/ee_%20rejestr_golebi.pdf |title=List of the Breeds of Fancy Pigeons |date=1 October 2009 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=Entente Européenne d'Áviculture et de Cuniculture }}
* [https://pigeonpedia.com/pigeons/ The Complete Guide To Pigeons (Columbidae)]

{{Pigeons}}
{{Birds}}
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[[Category:Columbidae| ]]
[[Category:Bird families]]
[[Category:Game birds]]
[[Category:National symbols of Cyprus]]
[[Category:National symbols of Fiji]]
[[Category:National symbols of Guinea]]
[[Category:National symbols of Tonga]]
[[Category:Extant Miocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Taxa named by William Elford Leach]]
[[Category:Peace symbols]]