View source for Common kestrel

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{Expand French|topic=scitech|date=September 2025}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Common kestrel falco tinnunculus.jpg
| image_caption = Adult male ''Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus''
| image2 = Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus Tal Chappar Rajasthan India 14.02.2013.jpg
| image2_caption = Adult Female ''Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus'' from [[Tal Chhapar Sanctuary]], [[Churu, Rajasthan]], India
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International|year= 2021 |title= ''Falco tinnunculus'' |article-number= e.T22696362A206316110 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22696362A206316110.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Falco
| species = tinnunculus
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| range_map = FalcoTinnunculusIUCNver2019-2.png
| range_map_caption = Global map of ''Falco tinnunculus'' {{leftlegend|#00FF00|Summer Range|outline=grey}}{{leftlegend|#008000|Year-Round Range|outline=grey}}{{leftlegend|#00FFFF|Passage migrant|outline=grey}}{{leftlegend|#007FFF|Winter Range|outline=grey}}
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
About 10, see [[#Subspecies|text]]
| synonyms =
''Falco rupicolus'' <small>[[Francois-Marie Daudin|Daudin]], 1800</small> (but see [[#Subspecies|text]])<br />
''Falco tinnunculus interstictus'' <small>(''[[lapsus]]'')</small>
}}
[[File:Falco tinnunculus - Common Kestrel XC463430.mp3|thumb|Falco tinnunculus - Common Kestrel]]
The '''common kestrel''' ('''''Falco tinnunculus'''''), also known as the '''European kestrel''', '''Eurasian kestrel''' or '''Old World kestrel''', is a [[species]] of [[bird of prey|predatory bird]] belonging to the [[kestrel]] group of the [[falcon]] [[family (biology)|family]] [[Falconidae]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], where no other kestrel species commonly occurs, it is generally just called the "'''kestrel'''".<ref name=Mangoverde/>

This species occurs over a large [[native range]]. It is widespread in [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of [[North America]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Common Kestrels {{!}} Beauty of Birds|url=https://www.beautyofbirds.com/commonkestrels.html|access-date=2021-01-05|website=www.beautyofbirds.com}}</ref> It has colonized a few [[ocean]]ic islands, but vagrant individuals are generally rare; in the whole of [[Micronesia]] for example, the species was only recorded twice each on [[Guam]] and [[Saipan]] in the [[Marianas]].<ref name=Orta1994/><ref name=Wiles2000/><ref name=Wiles2004/>

==Taxonomy==
The common kestrel was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the current [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Falco tinnunculus''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=90 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726997 }}</ref> Linnaeus specified the [[type location (biology)|type location]] as Europe but restricted this to Sweden in 1761.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1761 | title=Fauna svecica, sistens animalia sveciae regni mammalia, aves amphibia, pisces, insecta, vermes | edition=2nd | location=Stockholmiae | publisher=Sumtu & Literis Direct. Laurentii Salvii | language=Latin | page=21 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32170490 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=405 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16109045 }}</ref> The genus name is [[Late Latin]] from ''falx'', ''falcis'', a [[sickle]], referencing the claws of the bird.<ref name=SOED>{{cite book|title=Shorter Oxford English dictionary | year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press| location=United Kingdom| isbn=978-0-19-920687-2| page=3804}}</ref> The species name ''tinnunculus'' is [[Latin]] for "kestrel" from "tinnulus", "shrill".<ref name= job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher = Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 |pages =[https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n266 266], 386}}</ref> The Latin name ''tinnunculus'' had been used by the Swiss naturalist [[Conrad Gessner]] in 1555.<ref>{{cite book| last=Gesner | first=Conrad | author-link=Conrad Gessner | title=Historiae animalium liber III qui est de auium natura. Adiecti sunt ab initio indices alphabetici decem super nominibus auium in totidem linguis diuersis: & ante illos enumeratio auium eo ordiné quo in hoc volumine continentur | year=1555 | publisher=Froschauer | location=Zurich | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/52660934 | pages=53–55 }}</ref> The word "kestrel" is derived from the French crécerelle which is diminutive for crécelle, which also referred to a bell used by lepers. The word is earlier spelt 'c/kastrel', and is evidenced from the 15th century.<ref name=OED>{{OED|kestrel}}</ref> The kestrel was once used to drive and keep away pigeons.<ref name=Weekley1921/> Archaic names for the kestrel include ''[[wikt:windhover|windhover]]'' and ''[[wikt:windfucker|windfucker]],'' due to its habit of beating the wind (hovering in air).<ref name=OED/>

This species is part of a [[clade]] that contains the kestrel species with black [[Cheek|malar]] stripes, a feature which apparently was not present in the most ancestral kestrels. They seem to have [[radiation (biology)|radiated]] in the [[Gelasian]] ([[Late Pliocene]],<ref>Possibly to be reclassified as [[Early Pleistocene]].</ref> roughly 2.5–2 [[mya (unit)|mya]], probably starting in tropical East Africa, as indicated by [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] [[DNA sequence|sequence]] data analysis and considerations of [[biogeography]].<ref name=Groombridge2002/> A [[molecular phylogenetic]] study published in 2015 found that the common kestrel's closest relatives were the [[spotted kestrel]] ''Falco moluccensis'' and the [[Nankeen kestrel]] ''Falco cenchroides''.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Fuchs | first1=J. | last2=Johnson | first2=J.A. | last3=Mindell | first3=D.P. | date=2015 | title=Rapid diversification of falcons (Aves: Falconidae) due to expansion of open habitats in the Late Miocene | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=82 | pages=166–182 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2014.08.010| pmid=25256056 | bibcode=2015MolPE..82..166F }}</ref>

The [[rock kestrel]] (''F. rupicolus''), previously considered a subspecies, is now treated as a distinct species.<ref name=ioc/> The [[lesser kestrel]] (''F. naumanni''), which much resembles a small common kestrel with no black on the upperside except wing and tail tips, is probably not very closely related to the present species, and the [[American kestrel]] (''F. sparverius'') is apparently not a true [[kestrel]] at all.<ref name=Groombridge2002/> Both species have much grey in their wings in males, which does not occur in the common kestrel or its close living relatives but does in almost all other falcons.

=== Subspecies ===
[[File:Falco tinnunculus -El Castillo del Romeral, Canary Islands, Spain-8.jpg|right|thumb|''F. t. canariensis'' from [[Gran Canaria]]]]
[[File:Common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Hurghada, Egypt - 20110923.jpg|thumb|''F. t. rupicolaeformis'' from [[Hurghada]], Egypt]]
Eleven [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=December 2023 | title=Seriemas, falcons | work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/falcons/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=10 February 2024 }}</ref>  Most differ little, and mainly in accordance with [[Bergmann's rule|Bergmann's]] and [[Gloger's rule]]s. Tropical African forms have less grey in the male plumage.<ref name=Orta1994/>

* ''F. t. tinnunculus'' <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> – [[temperate]] areas of Europe, North Africa, the [[Middle East]], and Asia north of the [[Hindu Kush]]-[[Himalaya]] mountain ranges to the NW [[Sea of Okhotsk]] region. Northern Asian populations [[Bird migration|migrate]] south in winter, apparently not crossing the Himalayas but diverting to the west.
* ''F. t. perpallidus'' <small>([[Austin Hobart Clark|Clark, AH]], 1907)</small> – northeast Siberia to northeast China and [[Korea|Korea Peninsula]]
* ''F. t. interstinctus'' <small>[[John McClelland (doctor)|McClelland]], 1840</small> –  breeds [[East Asia]] from [[Tibet]] to [[Korea]] and [[Japan]], south into [[Indochina]]. Winters to the south of its breeding range, from northeastern [[India]] to the [[Philippines]] (where it is localized, e.g. from [[Mindanao]] only two records exist). Has dark heavily marked birds and has a foxed red phase but not reliably identified in the field.<ref name=Peterson2008/><ref name=Rasmussen2005/>
* ''F. t. objurgatus'' <small>([[E. C. Stuart Baker|Baker, ECS]], 1929)</small> – [[Western Ghats|Western]], [[Nilgiris]] and [[Eastern Ghats]] of India; [[Sri Lanka]]. Heavily marked, has rufous thighs with dark grey head in males.<ref name=Rasmussen2005/><ref name=Whistler1949/>
* ''F. t. canariensis'' <small>([[Alexander Koenig|Koenig]], 1890)</small> – [[Madeira]] and western [[Canary Islands]]
* ''F. t. dacotiae'' <small>[[Ernst Hartert|Hartert, EJO]], 1913</small> – eastern Canary Islands: [[Fuerteventura]], [[Lanzarote]], [[Chinijo Archipelago]].
* ''F. t. neglectus'' <small>[[Hermann Schlegel|Schlegel]], 1873</small> – northern [[Cape Verde Islands]]
* ''F. t. alexandri'' <small>Bourne, 1955</small> – southwestern Cape Verde Islands.
* ''F. t. rupicolaeformis'' <small>([[Christian Ludwig Brehm|Brehm, CL]], 1855)</small> – [[Arabian Peninsula]] except in the desert and across the [[Red Sea]] into Africa
* ''F. t. archerii'' <small>(Hartert, EJO & [[Oscar Neumann|Neumann]], 1932)</small> – [[Somalia]], coastal [[Kenya]], and [[Socotra]]
* ''F. t. rufescens'' <small>[[William Swainson|Swainson]], 1837</small> – [[Sahel]] east to [[Ethiopia]], southwards around [[Congo Basin]] to south [[Tanzania]] and northeast [[Angola]].

The common kestrels of Europe living during cold periods of the [[Quaternary glaciation]] differed slightly in size from the current population; they are sometimes referred to as the [[paleosubspecies]] ''F. t. atavus'' (''see also'' [[Bergmann's rule]]). The remains of these birds, which presumably were the direct ancestors of the living ''F. t. tinnunculus'' (and perhaps other subspecies), are found throughout the then-unglaciated parts of Europe, from the [[Late Pliocene]] ([[European Land Mammal Age|ELMA]] [[Villanyian]]/[[International Commission on Stratigraphy|ICS]] [[Piacenzian]], [[MN16]]) about 3 [[million years ago]] to the [[Middle Pleistocene]] [[Saalian]] glaciation which ended about 130,000 years ago, when they finally gave way to birds indistinguishable from those living today. Some of the [[vole]]s the Ice Age common kestrels ate—such as [[European pine vole]]s (''Microtus subterraneus'')—were indistinguishable from those alive today. Other prey species of that time [[Evolution|evolve]]d more rapidly (like ''[[Microtus malei|M. malei]]'', the presumed ancestor of today's [[tundra vole]] ''M. oeconomus''), while yet again others seem to have gone entirely [[extinct]] without leaving any living descendants—for example ''[[Pliomys lenki]]'', which apparently fell victim to the [[Weichselian glaciation]] about 100,000 years ago.<ref name=Mlikovsky2002/><ref name=MourerChauvire2003/>

== Description ==
The common kestrel measures {{convert|32|-|39|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}} from head to tail, with a wingspan of {{convert|65|-|82|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}}. The female is noticeably larger, with the adult male weighing {{convert|136|-|252|g|oz|frac=8|abbr=on}}, around {{convert|155|g|oz|frac=8|abbr=on}} on average; the adult female weighs {{convert|154|-|314|g|oz|frac=8|abbr=on}}, around {{convert|184|g|oz|frac=8|abbr=on}} on average. They are thus small compared with other birds of prey, but larger than most [[songbird]]s. Like the other ''[[falcon|Falco]]'' [[species]], they have long wings as well as a distinctive long tail.<ref name=Orta1994/>

The plumage is mainly light [[chestnut (colour)|chestnut]] brown with blackish spots on the upperside and [[buff (colour)|buff]] with narrow blackish streaks on the underside; the [[remiges]] are also blackish. Unlike most [[bird of prey|raptor]]s, they display [[sexual dimorphism|sexual colour dimorphism]] with the male having fewer black spots and streaks, as well as a blue-grey cap and tail. The tail is brown with black bars in females, and has a black tip with a narrow white rim in both sexes. All common kestrels have a prominent black [[Cheek|malar]] stripe like their closest relatives.<ref name=Orta1994/>

The [[cere]], feet, and a narrow ring around the eye are bright yellow; the toenails, bill and [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] are dark. Juveniles look like adult females, but the underside streaks are wider; the yellow of their bare parts is paler. Hatchlings are covered in white [[down feather]]s, changing to a buff-grey second down coat before they grow their first true plumage.<ref name=Orta1994/>

== Behaviour and ecology ==
In the cool-[[temperate]] parts of its range, the common kestrel [[bird migration|migrates]] south in winter; otherwise it is sedentary, though juveniles may wander around in search for a good place to settle down as they become mature. It is a [[diurnal animal]] of the lowlands and prefers open [[habitat]] such as [[Field (agriculture)|fields]], [[Heath (habitat)|heath]]s, [[shrubland]] and [[marshland]]. It does not require woodland to be present as long as there are alternative perching and nesting sites like rocks or buildings. It will thrive in treeless [[steppe]] where there are abundant [[herbaceous plant]]s and [[shrub]]s to support a population of prey animals. The common kestrel readily adapts to human settlement, as long as sufficient swathes of vegetation are available, and may even be found in [[wetland]]s, [[moorland]]s and [[arid]] [[savanna]]. It is found from the sea to the lower mountain ranges, reaching elevations up to {{convert|4500|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Above mean sea level|ASL]] in the hottest [[tropical]] parts of its range but only to about {{convert|1750|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the [[subtropical]] climate of the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[foothills]].<ref name=Orta1994/><ref name=Inskipp2000/>

Globally, this species is not considered threatened by the [[IUCN]].<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> Its stocks were affected by the indiscriminate use of [[organochlorine]]s and other [[pesticide]]s in the mid-20th century, but being something of an [[r-strategist]] able to multiply quickly under good conditions it was less affected than other birds of prey. The global population has been fluctuating considerably over the years but remains generally stable; it is roughly estimated at 1–2 million pairs or so, about 20% of which are found in [[Europe]]. There has been a recent decline in parts of Western Europe such as [[Ireland]]. Subspecies ''dacotiae'' is quite rare, numbering less than 1000 adult birds in 1990, when the ancient western Canarian subspecies ''canariensis'' numbered about ten times as many birds.<ref name=Orta1994/>

=== Food and feeding ===
[[File:Common-Kestrel-4.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Common-Kestrel-2.jpg|thumb]]
When hunting, the common kestrel characteristically hovers about {{convert|10|-|20|m|ft|round=5|abbr=on}} above the ground, searching for prey, either by flying into the wind or by soaring using [[ridge lift]]. Like most [[birds of prey]], common kestrels have keen eyesight enabling them to spot small prey from a distance. Once prey is sighted, the bird makes a short, steep dive toward the target, unlike the [[peregrine falcon|peregrine]] which relies on longer, higher dives to reach full speed when targeting prey. Kestrels can often be found hunting along the sides of roads and motorways, where the [[road verge]]s support large numbers of prey. This [[species]] is able to see [[near ultraviolet]] light, allowing the birds to detect the [[urine]] trails around [[rodent]] burrows as they shine in an ultraviolet colour in the sunlight.<ref name=Viitala1995/> Another favourite (but less conspicuous) hunting technique is to perch a bit above the ground cover, surveying the area. When the bird spots prey animals moving by, it will pounce on them. They also prowl a patch of hunting ground in a ground-hugging flight, ambushing prey as they happen across it.<ref name=Orta1994/>

[[File:Common-Kestrel-5.jpg|thumb]]
They eat almost exclusively mouse-sized [[mammal]]s. [[Vole]]s, [[shrew]]s and true [[mice]] supply up to three-quarters or more of the [[biomass]] most individuals ingest. On oceanic islands (where [[mammal]]s are often scarce), small [[bird]]s (mainly [[passerine]]s) may make up the bulk of its diet.<ref name=Wiles2004/> Elsewhere, birds are only an important food during a few weeks each summer when inexperienced [[fledgling (birds)|fledgling]]s abound. Other suitably sized [[vertebrate]]s like [[bat]]s, [[Swift (bird)|swift]]s,<ref name=Mikula2013/> [[frog]]s{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} and [[lizard]]s are eaten only on rare occasions. However, kestrels are more likely to prey on lizards in southern latitudes. In northern latitudes, the kestrel is found more often to deliver lizards to their nestlings during midday and also with increasing ambient temperature.<ref name=Steen2011a/> Seasonally, [[arthropod]]s may be a main prey item. Generally, [[invertebrate]]s like [[camel spider]]s and even [[earthworm]]s, but mainly sizeable [[insect]]s such as [[beetle]]s, [[orthoptera]]ns and winged [[termite]]s will be eaten.<ref name=Orta1994/>

The common kestrel requires the equivalent of 4–8 voles a day, depending on energy expenditure (time of the year, amount of hovering, etc.). They have been known to catch several voles in succession and [[hoarding (animal behavior)|cache]] some for later consumption. An individual nestling consumes on average 4.2&nbsp;g/h, equivalent to 67.8&nbsp;g/d (3–4 voles per day).<ref name=Steen2011b/>

=== Breeding ===
[[File:Faucon crécerelle MHNT.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Egg]]
[[File:Turmfalken IMG 2659.jpg|thumb|Young kestrels, not yet able to fly, waiting for food]]
The common kestrel starts breeding in spring (or the start of the [[dry season]] in the [[tropics]]), i.e. April or May in [[temperate]] [[Eurasia]] and some time between August and December in the tropics and southern [[Africa]]. It is a cavity nester, preferring holes in cliffs, trees or buildings; in built-up areas, common kestrels will often nest on buildings, and will reuse the old nests of [[corvid]]s. The diminutive [[subspecies]] ''dacotiae'', the ''sarnicolo'' of the eastern [[Canary Islands]] is peculiar for nesting occasionally in the dried fronds below the top of [[palm tree]]s, apparently coexisting with small [[songbird]]s which also make their home there.<ref name=AlamoTavio1975/> In general, common kestrels will usually tolerate conspecifics nesting nearby, and sometimes a few dozen pairs may be found nesting in a loose colony.<ref name=Orta1994/>

The [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]] is normally 3–7 eggs; more eggs may be laid in total but some will be removed during the laying time. This lasts about 2 days per egg laid. The eggs are abundantly patterned with brown spots, from a wash that tinges the entire surface [[buff (colour)|buff]]ish white to large almost-black blotches. Incubation lasts from 4 weeks to one month, both male and female will take shifts incubating the eggs. After the eggs have hatched, the parents share brooding and hunting duties. Only the female feeds the chicks, by tearing apart prey into manageable chunks. The young fledge after 4–5 weeks. The family stays close together for a few weeks, during which time the young learn how to fend for themselves and hunt prey. The young become sexually mature the next breeding season.<ref name=Orta1994/> Female kestrel chicks with blacker plumage have been found to have bolder personalities, indicating that even in juvenile birds plumage coloration can act as a status signal.<ref>{{cite journal | author1= López-Idiáquez, D. | author2= Fargallo, J.A. | author3= López-Rull , I. | author4= Martínez-Padilla, J. | year=2019 | title=  Plumage coloration and personality in early life: sexual differences in signalling | journal=Ibis| volume=161| pages = 216–221| doi= 10.1111/ibi.12665| issue=1| s2cid= 91263096 | doi-access= free | hdl= 10651/49948 | hdl-access= free }}</ref>

Data from [[Great Britain|Britain]] shows nesting pairs bringing up about 2–3 chicks on average, though this includes a considerable rate of total brood failures; actually, few pairs that do manage to fledge offspring raise less than 3 or 4. Compared to their siblings, first-hatched chicks have greater survival and recruitment probability, thought to be due to the first-hatched chicks obtaining a higher body condition when in the nest.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Martínez-Padilla, J. |author2= Vergara, P. | author3= Fargallo, J. A. | year=2017| title = Increased lifetime reproductive success of first-hatched siblings in Common Kestrels ''Falco tinnunculus''. | journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=803–811| doi=10.1111/ibi.12494| issue=4| hdl=10651/45388| hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Population cycle]]s of prey, particularly voles, have a considerable influence on breeding success. Most common kestrels die before they reach 2 years of age; mortality up until the first birthday may be as high as 70%. At least females generally breed at one year of age;<ref name=anage2010/> possibly, some males take a year longer to maturity as they do in related species. The biological lifespan to death from [[senescence]] can be 16 years or more, however; one was recorded to have lived almost 24 years.<ref name=anage2010/>

<gallery>
File:Falcon3.jpg|Hatchling of common kestrel (note white [[down (feather)|down]])
File:Falken(loz).jpg|Fledglings in nest cavity
File:Turmfalke P1020197.jpg|Immature after fledging
File:Pst7.jpg|Common kestrel nest
</gallery>

== In culture ==
[[File:Torenvalk (DSC 3525).jpg|thumb|Wooden common kestrel sculpture]]
The kestrel is sometimes seen, like other birds of prey, as a symbol of the power and vitality of nature. In "Into Battle" (1915), the war poet [[Julian Grenfell]] invokes the superhuman characteristics of the kestrel among several birds, when hoping for prowess in battle:

{{Poem quote|The kestrel hovering by day,
And the [[little owl]] that call at night,
Bid him be swift and keen as they,
As keen of ear, as swift of sight.}}

[[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] (1844–1889) writes on the kestrel in his poem "[[The Windhover]]", exalting in their mastery of flight and their majesty in the sky.

{{Poem quote|I caught this morning morning's minion, king-
dom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding}}

A kestrel is also one of the main characters in ''[[The Animals of Farthing Wood (book)|The Animals of Farthing Wood]]''.

[[Barry Hines]]' novel ''[[A Kestrel for a Knave]]'' - together with the 1969 film based on it, [[Ken Loach]]'s ''[[Kes (film)|Kes]]'' - is about a working-class boy in [[England]] who befriends a kestrel.

The Pathan name for the kestrel, Bād Khurak, means "wind hover" and in Punjab it is called Larzānak or "little hoverer". It was once used as a decoy to capture other birds of prey in Persia and Arabia. It was also used to train greyhounds meant for hunting gazelles in parts of Arabia. Young greyhounds would be set after jerboa-rats which would also be distracted and forced to make twists and turns by the dives of a kestrel.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Phillott, D.C.| title=Note on the Common Kestril (Tinnunculus alaudarius)|journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal| pages=527–528 | volume=2| issue=10|url=https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753003193114#page/527/mode/1up| year=1832}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=AlamoTavio1975>{{harvnb|Álamo Tavío|1975}}</ref>

<ref name=anage2010>{{harvnb|AnAge|2010}}</ref>

<ref name=Groombridge2002>See {{harvnb|Groombridge|Jones|Bayes|van Zyl|2002}} for a thorough discussion of common kestrel and relatives' divergence times.</ref>

<ref name=Inskipp2000>{{harvnb|Inskipp|Inskipp|Sherub|2000}}</ref>

<ref name=Orta1994>{{harvnb|Orta|1994}}</ref>

<ref name=Mangoverde>{{harvnb|Mangoverde World Bird Guide|2009}}</ref>

<ref name=Mikula2013>{{harvnb|Mikula|Hromada|Tryjanowski|2013}}</ref>

<ref name=Mlikovsky2002>{{harvnb|Mlíkovský|2002|pp=222–223}}</ref>

<ref name=MourerChauvire2003>{{harvnb|Mourer-Chauviré|Philippe|Quinif|Chaline|2003}}</ref>

<ref name=OED>{{OED|kestrel}}</ref>
<ref name=Peterson2008>{{harvnb|Peterson|Brooks|Gamauf|Gonzalez|2008}}</ref>

<ref name=Rasmussen2005>{{harvnb|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}}</ref>

<ref name=Steen2011a>{{harvnb|Steen|Løw|Sonerud|2011a}}</ref>
<ref name=Steen2011b>{{harvnb|Steen|Løw|Sonerud|Selås|2011b}}</ref>

<ref name=Viitala1995>{{harvnb|Viitala|Korpimäki|Palokangas|Koivula|1995}}</ref>

<ref name=Weekley1921>{{harvnb|Weekley|1921}}</ref>

<ref name=Whistler1949>{{harvnb|Whistler|1949|pp=385–387}}</ref>

<ref name=Wiles2000>{{harvnb|Wiles|Worthington|Beck|Pratt|2000}}</ref>
<ref name=Wiles2004>{{harvnb|Wiles|Johnson|de Cruz|Dutson|2004}}</ref>
}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Álamo Tavío |first=Manuel |year=1975 |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/117010874 |title=Aves de Fuerteventura en peligro de extinción |trans-title=Birds of Fuerteventura threatened with extinction |editor=Asociación Canaria para Defensa de la Naturaleza |journal=Aves y Plantas de Fuerteventura en Peligro de Extinción |pages=10–32 |language=es }}
* {{cite web |website=AnAge |year=2010 |url=http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Falco_tinnunculus |title=''Falco tinnunculus'' life history data |access-date=1 August 2010 |ref={{harvid|AnAge|2010}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302232408/http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Falco_tinnunculus |archive-date=2 March 2012 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Groombridge |first1=Jim J. |author-link2=Carl Jones (biologist) |last2=Jones |first2=Carl G. |last3=Bayes |first3=Michelle K. |last4=van Zyl |first4=Anthony J. |last5=Carrillo |first5=José |last6=Nichols |first6=Richard A. |last7=Bruford |first7=Michael W. |year=2002 |title=A molecular phylogeny of African kestrels with reference to divergence across the Indian Ocean |url=http://www.kestreling.com/files/Groombridge_etal_MPE_paper.pdf |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=267–277 |doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00254-3 |pmid=12414309 |bibcode=2002MolPE..25..267G |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914145250/http://www.kestreling.com/files/Groombridge_etal_MPE_paper.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-14 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Inskipp |first1=Carol |last2=Inskipp |first2=Tim |last3=Sherub<!-- no second name --> |year=2000 |url=http://orientalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Inskipp-Bhutan.pdf |title=The ornithological importance of Thrumshingla National Park, Bhutan |journal=[[Forktail (journal)|Forktail]] |volume=14 |pages=147–162 |access-date=2015-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810200320/http://orientalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Inskipp-Bhutan.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-10 }}
* {{cite web |website=mangoverde.com |publisher=Mangoverde World Bird Guide (MWBG) |year=2009 |url=http://www.mangoverde.com/birdsound/spec/spec32-27.html |title=Eurasian Kestrel ''Falco tinnunculus'' |access-date=2 January 2009 |ref={{harvid|Mangoverde World Bird Guide|2009}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207151353/http://www.mangoverde.com/birdsound/spec/spec32-27.html |archive-date=7 December 2008 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mikula |first1=P. |last2=Hromada |first2=M. |last3=Tryjanowski |first3=P. |year=2013 |url=http://www.ornisfennica.org/pdf/latest/4Mikula.pdf |title=Bats and Swifts as food of the European Kestrel (''Falco tinnunculus'') in a small town, in Slovakia |journal=Ornis Fennica |volume=3 |pages=178–185 |access-date=2015-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203203447/http://www.ornisfennica.org/pdf/latest/4Mikula.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-03 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mlíkovský |first=Jiří |year=2002 |url=http://www.nm.cz/download/JML-18-2002-CBE.pdf |title=Cenozoic Birds of the World (Part 1: Europe) |publisher=Ninox Press |location=Prague |access-date=2018-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520101755/http://www.nm.cz/download/JML-18-2002-CBE.pdf |archive-date=2011-05-20 }} {{Listed Invalid ISBN|80-901105-3-8}} <!-- This should be treated with extreme caution as regards merging of species. Splits are usually good though. See also critical review in Auk121:623-627 here http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3793/is_200404/ai_n9396879 -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Mourer-Chauviré |first1=C. |last2=Philippe |first2=M. |last3=Quinif |first3=Y. |last4=Chaline |first4=J. |last5=Debard |first5=E. |last6=Guérin |first6=C. |last7=Hugueney |first7=M. |year=2003 |title=Position of the palaeontological site Aven I des Abîmes de La Fage, at Noailles (Corrèze, France), in the European Pleistocene chronology |journal=Boreas |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=521–531 |doi=10.1111/j.1502-3885.2003.tb01232.x |bibcode=2003Borea..32..521M |s2cid=129833747 }}
* {{cite book |last=Orta |first=Jaume |year=1994 |number=26 |chapter=Common Kestrel |editor1-last=del Hoyo |editor1-first=Josep |editor2-last=Elliott |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Sargatal |editor3-first=Jordi |title=Handbook of Birds of the World |volume=2 (New World vultures to Guineafowl) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/259 259–260, plates 26] |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-87334-15-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/259 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=A. Townsend |last2=Brooks |first2=Thomas |last3=Gamauf |first3=Anita |last4=Gonzalez |first4=Juan Carlos T. |last5=Mallari |first5=Neil Aldrin D. |last6=Dutson |first6=Guy |last7=Bush |first7=Sarah E. |last8=Fernandez |first8=Renato |year=2008 |url=http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PubsHTML/PDF-Files/90.pdf |title=The Avifauna of Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon Province, Mindanao, Philippines |journal=[[Fieldiana Zoology]] |series=New Series |volume=114 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.3158/0015-0754(2008)114[1:TAOMKB]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=31061087 |access-date=2009-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902200013/http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PubsHTML/PDF-Files/90.pdf |archive-date=2009-09-02 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Pamela C. |author-link1=Pamela C. Rasmussen |first2=John C. |last2=Anderton |author-link2=John C. Anderton |year=2005 |title=Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. |volume=2 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions |location=Washington DC and Barcelona |pages=112–113 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Steen |first1=R. |last2=Løw |first2=L.M. |last3=Sonerud |first3=T. |s2cid=67822269 |year=2011a |title=Delivery of Common Lizards (Zootoca ''Lacerta vivipara'') to nests of Eurasian Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) determined by solar height and ambient temperature |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=199–205 |doi=10.1139/z10-109|bibcode=2011CaJZ...89..199S }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Steen |first1=R. |last2=Løw |first2=L.M. |last3=Sonerud |first3=G.A. |last4=Selås |first4=V. |last5=Slagsvold |first5=T. |year=2011b |title=Prey delivery rates as estimates of prey consumption by Eurasian Kestrel (''Falco tinnunculus'') |journal=Ardea |volume=99 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.5253/078.099.0101|s2cid=84472078 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Viitala |first1=Jussi |last2=Korpimäki |first2=Erkki |last3=Palokangas |first3=Päivi |last4=Koivula |first4=Minna |year=1995 |title=Attraction of kestrels to vole scent marks visible in ultraviolet light |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=373 |number=6513 |pages=425–427 |doi=10.1038/373425a0 |bibcode=1995Natur.373..425V |s2cid=4356193 }}
* {{cite book |last=Weekley |first=Ernest |page=801 |url=https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00weekuoft#page/401/mode/1up |title=An etymological dictionary of modern English |year=1921 |publisher=John Murray |location=London }}
* {{Cite book |last=Whistler |first=Hugh |year=1949 |url=https://archive.org/stream/popularhandbooko033226mbp#page/n435/mode/2up |title=Popular handbook of Indian birds |edition=4th |publisher=Gurney and Jackson |location=London }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wiles |first1=Gary J. |last2=Worthington |first2=David J. |last3=Beck |first3=Robert E. Jr. |last4=Pratt |first4=H. Douglas |last5=Aguon |first5=Celestino F. |last6=Pyle |first6=Robert L. |year=2000 |title=Noteworthy bird records for Micronesia, with a summary of raptor sightings in the Mariana Islands, 1988-1999 |journal=Micronesica |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=257–284 |citeseerx=10.1.1.393.1140 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wiles |first1=Gary J. |last2=Johnson |first2=Nathan C. |last3=de Cruz |first3=Justine B. |last4=Dutson |first4=Guy |last5=Camacho |first5=Vicente A. |last6=Kepler |first6=Angela Kay |last7=Vice |first7=Daniel S. |last8=Garrett |first8=Kimball L. |last9=Kessler |first9=Curt C. |last10=Pratt |first10=H. Douglas |year=2004 |title=New and Noteworthy Bird Records for Micronesia, 1986–2003 |journal=Micronesica |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=69–96 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228788814 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Falco tinnunculus}}
{{Wikispecies|Falco tinnunculus}}
* [https://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/181.pdf Rock kestrel species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
* {{Avibase}}
* [http://www.birds.org.il/en/species-page.aspx?speciesId=105 Common kestrel page] at [http://www.birds.org.il Israel Birding Portal]
* [http://www.rspb.org.uk/birds/guide/k/kestrel/index.asp Kestrel Bird Guide at The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]
* [https://www.bartleby.com/122/12.html Text of the Hopkins poem mentioned in the article]
* [https://birdwatch.by/pustalga_brest2013 Kestrel on-line 2013: Brest, Belarus]
* [http://www.vogelcamera.nl/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=98&Itemid=64 Kestrel on-line 2012: Groningen, The Netherlands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127034227/http://vogelcamera.nl/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=98&Itemid=64 |date=2013-11-27 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120808155230/http://www.livestream.com/janelafalcao Live Streaming of common kestrel nest in Amadora, Portugal]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170921224558/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/131_KestrelFtinnunculus.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.5 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze]
* [http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Falco_tinnunculus/Falco_tinnunculus.htm Feathers of common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103220735/http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Falco_tinnunculus/Falco_tinnunculus.htm |date=2013-11-03 }}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|common-kestrel-falco-tinnunculus}}
* {{VIREO|eurasian+kestrel|Eurasian kestrel}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22696362/210515355|Falco tinnunculus}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q26490}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Falco (genus)|common kestrel]]
[[Category:Falconry]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Eurasia]]
[[Category:Birds of Macaronesia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758]]
[[Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]