View source for Comorian languages

{{Short description|Bantu language group of the Comoro Islands}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Comorian
| nativename       = {{lang|mul|shikomori}}'<br>{{Script|Arab|شِكُمُرِ / شیكهمهری}}<ref name="lafon"/>
| states           = [[Comoros]] and [[Mayotte]]
| region           = Throughout [[Comoros]] and [[Mayotte]]; also in [[Madagascar]] and [[Réunion]]
| ethnicity        = [[Comorians]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|790,000|1}} in Comoros
| date             = 2011
| ref              = <ref>{{cite web |title=Udzima wa Komori |url=http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/comores.htm |publisher=Université Laval, 2325, rue de l'Université |access-date=4 December 2018 |archive-date=4 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304065836/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/comores.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| speakers2        = {{sigfig|253,700|1}} in Mayotte (2007)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ac-mayotte.fr/IMG/pdf/Interv_BARRETEAU_CM2.pdf |title=Premiers résultats d'une enquête sociolinguistique auprès des élèves de CM2 de Mayotte |author=Daniel Barreteau |access-date=2007-05-17 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614075940/http://www.ac-mayotte.fr/IMG/pdf/Interv_BARRETEAU_CM2.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Population of Mayotte |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3284395 |publisher=INSEE |access-date=2018-12-04 |archive-date=2019-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403070726/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3284395 |url-status=live }}</ref><!--98% of the 256518 inhabitants of Mayotte have one of the Comorian dialects as their native language --><!--data only supports to nearest 100,000-->
| script           = [[Arabic script|Arabic]]<br />[[Latin script|Latin]]
| nation           = {{flag|Comoros}}
| familycolor      = Niger-Congo
| fam2             = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
| fam3             = [[Volta-Congo]]
| fam4             = [[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]]
| fam5             = [[Bantoid]]
| fam6             = [[Southern Bantoid languages|Southern Bantoid]]
| fam7             = [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]
| fam8             = [[Northeast Coast Bantu languages|Northeast Coast Bantu]]
| fam9             = [[Sabaki languages|Sabaki]]
|dia1 = [[Maore dialect|Maore]]
| lc1              = zdj
| ld1              = Ngazidja dialect
| lc2              = wni
| ld2              = Ndzwani (Anjouani) dialect
| lc3              = swb
| ld3              = [[Maore dialect]]
| lc4              = wlc
| ld4              = Mwali dialect
| guthrie          = G.44
| glotto           = como1260
| glottorefname    = Comorian Bantu
}}

'''Comorian''' (''Shikomori'', or ''Shimasiwa'', the "language of islands") is the name given to a group of four [[Bantu language]]s spoken in the [[Comoro Islands]], an [[archipelago]] in the southwestern [[Indian Ocean]] between [[Mozambique]] and [[Madagascar]]. It is named as one of the official languages of the [[Union of the Comoros]] in the Comorian constitution. Shimaore, one of the languages, is spoken on the disputed island of [[Mayotte]], a [[departement of France|French department]] claimed by Comoros.

Like [[Swahili language|Swahili]], the Comorian languages are [[Sabaki languages]], part of the Bantu language family. Each island has its own language, and the four are conventionally divided into two groups: the eastern group is composed of ''[[Shindzuani]]'' (spoken on [[Anjouan|Ndzuani]]) and ''[[Shimaore dialect|Shimaore]]'' (Mayotte), while the western group is composed of ''[[Shimwali]]'' ([[Mohéli|Mwali]]) and ''[[Shingazija]]'' ([[Grande Comore|Ngazidja]]). Although the languages of different groups are not usually [[mutually intelligible]], only sharing about 80% of their lexicon, there is mutual intelligibility between the languages within each group, suggesting that Shikomori should be considered as two language groups, each including two languages, rather than four distinct languages.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Breslar |first1=Jon Haskell |date=1981 |title=An ethnography of the Mahorais (Mayotte Comoro Islands) |id={{ProQuest|303167533}} |oclc=9174567 }}{{pn|date=February 2024}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Ahmed-Chamanga |first=Mohamed |title=Le shiNdzuani |date=2010 |publisher=Komedit CNDRS Palashiyo |isbn=978-2-914564-74-8 |series=Introduction à la grammaire structurale du comorien |location=Moroni (Comores)}}</ref>

Historically, the language was written in the Arabic-based [[Ajami script]]. The [[French Comoros|French colonial administration]] introduced the [[Latin script]]. In 2009 the current independent government decreed a modified version of the Latin script for official use.<ref name=":0" /> Many Comorians now use the Latin script when writing the Comorian language although the Ajami script is still widely used, especially by women.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} Recently, some scholars have suggested that the language may be on its way to endangerment, citing the unstable code-switching and numerous French words used in daily speech.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Alnet |first=Aimee Johansen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLeU4S5CBt4C&dq=shimaore&pg=PR9 |title=The Clause Structure Of The Shimaore Dialect Of Comorian (Bantu) |date=2009 |publisher=Shimaore.net |language=en |access-date=2024-02-24 |archive-date=2024-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227155556/https://books.google.com/books?id=rLeU4S5CBt4C&dq=shimaore&pg=PR9 |url-status=live }}</ref>

It is the language of ''[[Udzima wa ya Masiwa|Umodja wa Masiwa]],'' the national anthem.

== History and classification ==
The first Bantu speakers arrived at the Comoros sometime between the 5th and 10th centuries, before the Shirazi Arabs.<ref name=":2" />

=== Shimwali ===
The Shimwali dialect was possibly one of the earliest Bantu languages to be recorded by a European. On July 3, 1613, Walter Payton claimed to have recorded 14 words on the island of [[Mohéli|Moheli]], stating "They speak a kind of [[Morisco]] language." [[Thomas Roe|Sir Thomas Roe]] and Thomas Herbert also claimed to have recorded vocabulary.<ref>Roe, Sir Thomas (1615). Observations Collected out of the Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, Knight, Lord Embassadour from His Majestie of Great Britaine, to the Great Mogol . . . I. Occurrents and Observations, in Samuel Purchas (1905) Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas his Pilgrimes,-ol. IV. Glasgow.</ref>

Until the 1970s, it was considered a dialect or archaic form of Swahili. This was first proposed in 1871, when Kersten suggested it might be a mixture of Shingazija, Swahili, and Malagasy. In 1919 Johnston, referring to it as  'Komoro Islands Swahili - the dialect of 'Mohila' and 'the 'Mohella' language', suggested that, taken together with the other two dialects in the Comoros, it might be an ancient and corrupt form of Swahili. However, Ottenheimer et al. (1976) found this to not be the case. Instead, they classify Shimwali, as well as the other Comorian languages, as a separate language group from Swahili.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Ottenheimer |first1=Harriet Joseph |last2=Ottenheimer |first2=Martin |title=The Classification of the Languages of the Comoro Islands |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |date=1976 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=408–415 |jstor=30027589 }}</ref>

=== Shinzwani ===
Shinzwani was first noted by a South African missionary Reverend William Elliott in 1821 and 1822. During a 13-months' mission stay on the island of [[Anjouan]] he compiled a vocabulary and grammar of the language. Elliott included a 900-word vocabulary and provided 98 sample sentences in Shinzwani. He does not appear to have recognized noun- classes (of which there are at least six in Shinzwani) nor does he appear to have considered Shinzwani a Bantu language, only making a superficial connection to Swahili.<ref name=":1" />

The dialect was noted again in 1841 by Casalis, who placed it within Bantu, and by Peters, who collected a short word list. In 1875 Hildebrandt published a Shinzwani vocabulary and suggested in 1876 that Shinzwani was an older form of Swahili.

The idea of the distinctness of Shingazija and Shinzwani from Swahili finally gained prominence during the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century. In 1883, an analysis by Gust distinguished Shinzwani from Swahili. He discusses Shinzwani and Swahili as two separate languages which had contributed to the port-language which he referred to as Barracoon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Irvine |date=1963 |title=Evolutionary Factors in Mauritian Creole |journal=Journal of African Languages |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=2–14 }}</ref>

In 1909 two publications reaffirmed and clarified the distinctiveness of Shinzwani, Shingazija and Swahili. Struck published a word list which appeared to have been recorded by a Frenchman in Anjouan in 1856, identified the words as belonging to Shinzwani and noted some influence from Swahili.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doke |first=Clement M. |title=Bantu: Modern Grammatical, Phonetical and Lexicographical Studies Since 1860 |year=1945 |isbn=9781138095816 |location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Heepe |first=Martin |title=Die Komorendialekte Ngazidja, Nzwani und Mwali |year=1920 |isbn=978-1361862162 |location=Hamburg |language=de |trans-title=The Comorian Dialects Shingazija and Shimwali}}</ref>

In his Swahili Grammar, Sacleux cautioned that although Swahili was spoken in the Comoros it must not be confused with the native languages of the Comoros, Shinzwani and Shingazija. He said that while Swahili was mostly spoken in cities, the Comorian languages were widely spoken in the countryside.<ref>Sacleux, Ch. (1909). Grammaire des Dialects Swahilis. Paris.{{pn|date=February 2024}}</ref>

=== Shingazija ===
Shingazija was not documented until 1869 when Bishop Edward Steere collected a word list and commented that he did not know which language family it belonged to. In 1870 Gevrey characterized both Shingazija and Shinzwani as the 'Souaheli des Comores' (Swahili of the Comoros) which was only a 'patois de celui de Zanzibar'. However, Kersten noted in 1871 that Shingazija was not at all like Swahili but was a separate Bantu language.

Torrend was the first to identify the difference between Shingazija and Shinzwani in 1891. He attempted to account for Shingazija by suggesting that it was a mixture of Shinzwani and Swahili.<ref name=":1" />

==Phonology==
The consonants and vowels in the Comorian languages: 
=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Vowels{{Sfnp|Ahmed-Chamanga|1992}}{{Sfnp|Lafon|1991}}
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPAlink|i}} {{IPAlink|ĩ}}
|
|{{IPAlink|u}} {{IPAlink|ũ}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPAlink|e}}
|
|{{IPAlink|o}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPAlink|a}} {{IPAlink|ã}}
|
|}

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonants{{Sfnp|Ahmed-Chamanga|1992}}{{Sfnp|Lafon|1991}}
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br>dental]]
! colspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!{{small|plain}}
!{{small|[[sibilant]]}}
|-
! colspan="3" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
|
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ɲ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="4" | [[Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! rowspan="2" | {{small|voiceless}}
! {{small|plain}}
| {{IPAlink|p}}
|
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡s}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʈ}}
| {{IPAlink|k}}
|({{IPA link|ʔ}})
|-
! {{small|prenasal}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵐp}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ⁿt}}
| {{IPAlink|ⁿt͡s}}
| {{IPAlink|ⁿt͡ʃ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᶯʈ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵑk}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{small|voiced/<br>implosive}}
! {{small|plain}}
| {{IPAlink|ɓ}}~{{IPAlink|b}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ɗ}}~{{IPAlink|d}}
| {{IPAlink|d͡z}}
| {{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɖ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|
|-
! {{small|prenasal}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵐɓ}}~{{IPAlink|ᵐb}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ⁿɗ}}~{{IPAlink|ⁿd}}
| {{IPAlink|ⁿd͡z}}
| {{IPAlink|ⁿd͡ʒ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᶯɖ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵑɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
! colspan="2" | {{small|voiceless}}
|
| {{IPAlink|f}}
|{{IPAlink|θ}}
|{{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|x}}
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|voiced}}
| {{IPAlink|β}}
| {{IPAlink|v}}
|{{IPAlink|ð}}
|{{IPAlink|z}}
| {{IPAlink|ʒ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ɣ}}
|
|-
! colspan="3" | [[Approximant]]
| {{IPAlink|w}}
|
| {{IPAlink|l}}
|
| {{IPAlink|j}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="3" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| {{IPAlink|r}}
|
|
|
|
|
|}

The consonants ''mb'', ''nd'', ''b'', ''d'' are phonemically [[implosives]], but may also be phonetically recognized as ranging from implosives to voiced stops as {{IPA|[ᵐɓ~ᵐb]}}, {{IPA|[ⁿɗ~ⁿd]}}, {{IPA|[ɓ~b]}}, {{IPA|[ɗ~d]}}. A glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} can also be heard when in between vowels. 

In the Shimaore dialect, if when inserting a prefix the leading consonant becomes intervocalic, {{IPA|[p]}} becomes {{IPA|[β]}}, {{IPA|[ɗ]}} becomes {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[ʈ]}} becomes {{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[k]}} becomes {{IPA|[h]}}, and {{IPA|[ɓ]}} is deleted.

There is a preference for multi-syllable words and a CV syllable structures. Vowels are frequently deleted and inserted to better fit the CV structure. There is also an alternate strategy of ''h''-insertion in scenarios which would otherwise results in VV. 

{{Interlinear|I kukuyi li-hi(h)a|5.DEF 5.rooster 5.NOM-crow.PRF|The rooster crowed
| abbreviations = 5:Class 5
}}

There is a strong preference for penultimate stress. There was previously a tone system in the language, but it has been mostly phased out and no longer plays an active role in the majority of cases.

== Orthography ==

Comorian is most commonly written in Latin alphabet today. Traditionally and historically, Arabic alphabet is used as well but to a lesser extent. Arabic alphabet has been universally known in Comoros, due to the fact that there was a near universal attendance at Quranic schools on the islands, whereas knowledge and literacy in French was lacking. Since independence from [[France]], the situation has changed, with improvements to infrastructure of secular education, in which French is the language of instruction.

=== Latin alphabet ===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
! colspan="27" | Comorian Latin alphabet<ref>{{cite journal |language= |first1=Mohamed |last1=Ahmed-Chamanga |title=Transcription et orthographe du comorien |journal=KomEDIT |volume= |date=5 June 2019 |pages=  |url=https://editions-komedit.com/2019/06/05/transcription-et-orthographe-du-comorien/ |access-date=26 August 2022 }}</ref>

|-----
! Upper Case
| [[A (letter)|A]] || [[Ɓ]] || [[B (letter)|B]] || [[C (letter)|C]] || [[Ɗ]] || [[D (letter)|D]]
| [[E (letter)|E]] || [[F (letter)|F]] || [[G (letter)|G]] || [[H (letter)|H]] || [[I (letter)|I]]
| [[J (letter)|J]] || [[K (letter)|K]] || [[L (letter)|L]] || [[M (letter)|M]] || [[N (letter)|N]]
|  [[O (letter)|O]] || [[P (letter)|P]]
| [[R (letter)|R]] || [[S (letter)|S]] || [[T (letter)|T]] || [[U (letter)|U]] || [[V (letter)|V]]
|  [[W (letter)|W]] || [[Y (letter)|Y]] || [[Z (letter)|Z]]
|-----
! Lower Case 
| a || ɓ || b || c || ɗ
| d || e || f || g || h || i
| j || k || l || m || n
| o || p
| r || s || t || u || v || w
| y || z
|-----
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
| {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɓ}} || {{IPAblink|b}} || {{IPAblink|t͡ʃ}} || {{IPAblink|ɗ}} ||{{IPAblink|d}} || {{IPAblink|e}}
| {{IPAblink|f}} || {{IPAblink|ɡ}} || {{IPAblink|h}} || {{IPAblink|i}}
| {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}<ref group="a">Only in the shiMaore and in the shiNdzuani dialects.</ref> || {{IPAblink|k}} || {{IPAblink|l}} || {{IPAblink|m}} || {{IPAblink|n}}
| {{IPAblink|o}} || {{IPAblink|p}}
| {{IPAblink|r}} || {{IPAblink|s}} || {{IPAblink|t}} || {{IPAblink|u}} || {{IPAblink|v}} || {{IPAblink|w}}
| {{IPAblink|j}} || {{IPAblink|z}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"  style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|+ List of digraphs in Comorian
|-
![[Digraph (orthography)|Digraphs]]
|dh || dj || dr || dz ||gh || ny || sh || pv || th || tr || ts 
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|{{IPAblink|ð}}
|{{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}<ref group="a">Only used in the shiMwali and in the shiNgazidja dialects.</ref>
|{{IPAblink|ɖ}}
|{{IPAblink|d͡z}}
|{{IPAblink|ɣ}}
|{{IPAblink|ɲ}}
|{{IPAblink|ʃ}}
|{{IPAblink|β}}
|{{IPAblink|θ}}
|{{IPAblink|ʈ}}
|{{IPAblink|t͡s}}
|}

'''Note''': In [[Maore dialect|Shimaore]], the digraphs " vh " and " bv " are used for representing the phoneme {{IPAblink|β}}.
<references group="a" />

=== Arabic alphabet ===

[[Comoros]] being located near the East African coast, the archipelago being connected by deep trade links to the mainland, and Comorian being a [[Bantu languages|Bantu language]] much like [[Swahili language]], means that historically, the Arabic orthography of Comorian followed the [[Swahili Ajami|Swahili suit]] in being part of the tradition of the African [[Ajami script]]. Key components of the Ajami  tradition are mainly that vowels were always represented with [[Arabic diacritics|diacritics]] (thus differing from [[Persian alphabet|Persian]] conventions). The letters ''alif'' {{script/Arabic|ا}}, ''wāw'' {{script/Arabic|و}}, and ''yāʼ'' {{script/Arabic|ي}} were used for indicating stressed syllable or long vowels. Furthermore, whereas Bantu languages have 5 vowels, while Arabic has 3 vowels and 3 diacritics; until recently, specifically until the early 20th century, there hasn't been an agreed upon way of writing the vowels {{IPAblink|e}} and {{IPAblink|o}}. Furthermore, sounds unique to Bantu languages were generally shown with the closest matching letter in the Arabic alphabet, avoiding as much as possible the creation of new letters in order not to deviate from the authentic 28-letter base. In addition, [[Prenasalized consonant|prenasalized consonants]] were shown using digraphs.<ref name="lafon">{{cite journal |language= fr |first1=Michel |last1=Lafon |title=Le système Kamar-Eddine : une tentative originale d’écriture du comorien en graphie arabe |journal=Ya Mkobe |volume= |issue=14-15 |date=2007 |pages=29-48 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00265704/document |access-date=26 August 2022 }} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20230430044934/https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00265704/document Archive]).</ref>

The 20th century marked the start of a process of orthographic reform and standardization across the [[Muslim world]]. This process included standardizing, unifying, and clarifying the Arabic script in most places, ditching the Arabic script in favour of Latin or Cyrillic in others in places such as [[Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Turkistan]] and [[Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Caucasus]], to [[Turkey]] and [[Kurdistan]], to [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]],<ref>{{citation | last = Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu | author-link = Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka | title = Ejaan Rumi Baharu Bahasa Malaysia | url = http://prpm.dbp.gov.my/Search.aspx?k=ejaan+rumi+baharu&d=8 | year = 2014 | access-date = 2014-10-04}}</ref> to the Eastern African coast ([[Swahili Ajami]]) and Comoros.

The mantle of standardization and improvement of Arabic-based orthography in Comoros was carried by the literaturist ''Said Kamar-Eddine (1890-1974)'' in 1960. Only two decades before, in 1930s and  1940s, Swahili literaturists such as ''Sheikh el Amin'' and ''Sheikh Yahya Ali Omar'' had developed the Swahili Arabic alphabet as well.<ref name="Omar">{{Cite journal |last=Omar |first=Yahya Ali |last2=Frankl |first2=P. J. L. |date=April 1997 |title=An Historical Review of the Arabic Rendering of Swahili Together with Proposals for the Development of a Swahili Writing System in Arabic Script (Based on the Swahili of Mombasa) |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=55-71 |doi=10.1017/S1356186300008312}}</ref><ref name="lafon"/>

In [[Swahili Ajami|Swahili]], two new diacritics were added to the 3 original [[Arabic diacritics|diacritics]], namely {{Script/Arabic|◌ٖ}} to represent the phoneme {{IPA|[e]}}, and {{Script/Arabic|◌ٗ}} to represent the phoneme {{IPA|[o]}}. Furthermore, the usage of the 3 [[mater lectionis]] (or vowel carrier letters) followed the following convention too: Vowels in stressed ([[wikt:Swahili/Pronunciation#Stress|second-to-last]]) syllable of the word are marked with diacritic as well as a carrier letter, namely ''alif'' {{script/Arabic|ا}} for vowel {{IPA|[a]}}, ''yāʼ'' {{script/Arabic|ي}} for vowels {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[i]}}, and ''wāw'' {{script/Arabic|و}} for vowels {{IPA|[o]}} and {{IPA|[u]}}.<ref name="Omar"/><ref name="lafon"/>

But, in the proposal by ''Said Kamar-Eddine'' for Comorian, there was a departure from the [[Ajami script|Ajami tradition]] and a divergence from what was done by Swahili literaturists. ''Kamar-Eddine'' had an eye on [[Iraqi Kurdistan|Iraqi]] and [[Iranian Kurdistan|Iranian]] [[Kurdistan]], and the orthographic reforms implemented there. In Kurdish, the direction of the reforms of the alphabet favoured elimination of all diacriticts and designating specific letters to each and every vowel sound, thus creating a full ''[[alphabet]]''. Kurdish orthography wasn't unique in this regard. A similar direction was pursued in various Turkic languages such as [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], and [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], as well as languages of the Caucasus such as [[Adyghe language|Western]] and [[Kabardian language|Eastern]] Circassian languages and [[Chechen language]]. This makes ''Said Kamar-Eddine'' orthography for Comorian, a unique case for Sub-saharan African languages that have been written with the Arabic script.<ref name="lafon"/>

In the initial position, the vowels are written as a single letter. No preceding ''alif'' or ''hamza'' is required. (This is similar to the convention of [[Kazakh alphabets|Kazakh Arabic alphabet]])

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Vowels in Comorian<ref name="lafon"/>
! 
! Final !! Medial !! Initial !! Isolated
|-
! a 
| colspan = "2" dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|ـا}}</span>
| colspan = "2" dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|ا}}</span>
|-
! u
| colspan = "2" dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـو}}</span>
| colspan = "2" dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic| و }}</span>
|-
! i 
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـی}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـیـ}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍یـ}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|ی}}</span>
|-
! o 
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـه}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـهـ}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|هـ}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|ه}}</span>
|-
! e
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـ‍ہ‍}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ـ‍ہ‍ـ}}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ ‍ہ‍ـ }}</span>
| dir="rtl" | <span style="font-size:150%;line-height:1.00;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ ‍ہ‍ }}</span>
|}

In [[Kurdo-Arabic alphabet|Kurdish]], new vowel letters were created by adding accents on existing letters. The phonemes {{IPA|[o]}} and {{IPA|[e]}} are written with {{Script/Arabic|ۆ}} and {{Script/Arabic|ێ}} respectively. In Comorian, new independent letters were assigned instead. The letter ''hāʾ'' in two of its variants are used for both aforementioned phonemes. A standard Arabic ''hāʾ'', in all its 4 positional shapes ({{Script/Arabic|ه هـ ـهـ ـه}}) is used for the vowel {{IPA|[o]}}. This is a unique innovation exclusive to this orthography. The letter ''hāʾ'' in these shapes is not used as vowel in any other Arabic orthography. A letter ''hāʾ'', in a fixed ''medial'' zigzag shape (medial form of what's known in Urdu as [[gol he]]) ({{Script/Arabic| ‍ہ‍ }}) is used for the vowel {{IPA|[e]}}. The usage of this variant of the letter ''hāʾ'' as a vowel is not unique to Comorian. In the early 20th century, [[Adyghe language|West]] and [[Kabardian language|East]] Circassian Arabic orthography also used this variant of the letter ''hāʾ'' to represent the vowel {{IPA|[ə]}} (written as ''ы'' in Cyrillic).

Letters representing consonant phonemes that are not present in Arabic have been formed in either of the two following methods. First method is similar to [[Persian alphabet|Persian]] and [[Kurdo-Arabic alphabet|Kurdish]], where new letters are created by adding or modifying of dots. The second method is to use the Arabic gemination diacritic ''[[Shaddah]]'' on letters that are most similar to the missing consonant phoneme. This is similar to the tradition of [[Sorabe alphabet|Sorabe (Arabo-Malagasy)]] orthograhpy, where a geminated ''r'' ({{Script/Arabic|رّ}}) is meant to represent {{IPA|[nd]}} or {{IPA|[ndr]}}, and where a geminated ''f'' ({{script/Arabic|فّـ ࢻّ}}) is meant to represent {{IPA|[p]}} or {{IPA|[mp]}}.

{|class="wikitable Unicode" dir="rtl"
|+ ''Kamar-Eddine's'' Comorian Arabic Alphabet<ref name="lafon"/>
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Latin)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ا}}</span><br><small>‌( A a )</small><br>{{IPAblink|a}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ب}}</span><br><small>(B b / Ɓ ɓ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|b}}/{{IPAblink|ɓ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|پ}}</span><br><small>(P p)</small><br>{{IPAblink|p}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ت}}</span><br><small>(T t)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t}}   
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|تّ}}</span><br><small>(Tr tr)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʈ}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ث}}</span><br><small>(Th th)</small><br>{{IPAblink|θ}}  
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Latin)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ج}}</span><br><small>(J j / Dj dj)</small><br>{{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}   
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ح}}</span><br><small>(H h)</small><br>{{IPAblink|h}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|د}}</span><br><small>(D d / Ɗ ɗ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|d}}/{{IPAblink|ɗ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ذ}}</span><br><small>(Dh dh)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ð}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ر}}</span><br><small>(R r / Dr dr)</small><br>{{IPAblink|r}} / {{IPAblink|ɖ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ز}}</span><br><small>(Z z)</small><br>{{IPAblink|z}} 
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Latin)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|زّ}}</span><br><small>(Dz dz)</small><br>{{IPAblink|d͡z}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|س}}</span><br><small>(S s)</small><br>{{IPAblink|s}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|سّ}}</span><br><small>(Ts ts)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t͡s}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ش}}</span><br><small>(Sh sh)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʃ}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|شّ}}</span><br><small>(C c)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t͡ʃ}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|غ}}</span><br><small>(G g / Gh gh)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ɡ}}/{{IPAblink|ɣ}}  
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Latin)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ف}}</span><br><small>(F f)</small><br>{{IPAblink|f}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ڢ}}</span><br><small>(Pv pv)</small><br>{{IPAblink|β}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ڤ	}}</span><br><small>(V v)</small><br>{{IPAblink|v}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ك}}</span><br><small>(K k)</small><br>{{IPAblink|k}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ل}}</span><br><small>(L l)</small><br>{{IPAblink|l}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|م}}</span><br><small>(M m)</small><br>{{IPAblink|m}}  
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Latin)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ن}}</span><br><small>(N n)</small><br>{{IPAblink|n}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|نّ}}</span><br><small>(Ny ny)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ɲ}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|هـ ـهـ ـه ه}}</span><br><small>(O o)</small><br>{{IPAblink|o}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|‍ ‍ہ‍ }}</span><br><small>(E e)</small><br>{{IPAblink|e}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|و}}</span><br><small>(U u / W w)</small><br>{{IPAblink|u}}/{{IPAblink|w}}  
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ی}}</span><br><small>(I i / Y y)</small><br>{{IPAblink|i}}/{{IPAblink|j}}  
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Latin)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ئ}}</span><br><small>( - )</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʔ}}   
|}

There are two types of [[Vowel sequence|vowel sequencees]] in Comorian, a glide or a vowel hiatus. Latin letters ''w'' and ''y'', represented by {{script/Arabic|و}} and {{script/Arabic|ی}}, are considered semivowels. When these letters follow another vowel, they are written sequentially.

Other succession of vowels are treated as ''vowel hiatus''. In these instances, a ''hamza'' ({{script/Arabic|ئ}}) is written in between.

[[Prenasalized consonant]]s are written as digraphs, with either ''m'' ({{script/Arabic|م}}) or ''n'' ({{script/Arabic|ن}}).

===Sample text===

''Comorian Latin Alphabet'':
* Ha mwakinisho ukaya ho ukubali ye sheo shaho wo ubinadamu piya pvamwedja ne ze haki za wadjibu zaho usawa, zahao, uwo ndo mshindzi waho uhuria, no mlidzanyiso haki, ne amani yahe duniya kamili.

''Comorian Arabic (Kamar-Eddine's) Alphabet'':
* {{Script/Arabic|حا مواكینیشه وكایا حه وكوبالی یہ‍ شہ‍ئه شاحه وبین‌ادامو پییا ڢ‎اموہ‍جا نہ‍ زـہ‍ حاقی زا واجیبو زاحو وساوا، زاحائه، ووه نده مشینزّی واحو وحوریا، نه ملیزّانّیسه حاقی، نہ‍ امانی یاحہ‍ دونیا كامیلی.}}

== Grammar ==

=== Noun class ===
As in other Bantu languages, Shikomor displays a noun class/gender system in which classes share a prefix. Classes 1 through 10 generally have singular/plural pairings.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Class
!Prefix
!Class
!Prefix
|-
!1
|''m(u)-, mw''
!2
|''wa-''
|-
!3
|''m(u)-,mw-''
!4
|''m(i)-''
|-
!5
|''Ø-''
!6
|''ma-''
|-
!7
|''shi-''
!8
|''zi-''
|-
!9
|''Ø-''
!10
|''Ø-''
|-
!10a
|''ngu-''
!11
|''u-''
|}
Classes 9 & 10 consists mainly of borrowed words, such as ''dipe'' (from French ''du pain'' 'some bread') and do not take prefixes. Class 7 & 8 and class 9 & 10 take on the same agreements in adjectives and verbs. Class 10a contains a very small amount of words, generally plurals of Class 11. Class 15 consists of verbal infinitives, much like English gerunds. 
{{Interlinear|Ufanya hazi njema|15.do work good|Working is good
| abbreviations = 15:Class 15
}}
Class 16 contains only two words, ''vahana'' and ''vahali'', both meaning 'place'. It was probably borrowed from Swahili ''pahali'', which was borrowed from Arabic ''mahal''. Class 17 consists of locatives with the prefix ''ha-'', and Class 18 consists of locatives with the prefix ''mwa-.''<ref name=":2" /><ref>Rombi, Mmie-Franyoise 1983. Le Shimaore Paris: SELAF.</ref>

=== Numerals ===
Numerals in Comorian follow the noun. If the number is 1 through 5 or 8, it must agree with the class of its noun.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Numerals
!Number
!Comorian
!Num.
!Comorian
|-
!1
|oja/muntsi
!6
|sita
|-
!2
|ili/mbili
!7
|saba
|-
!3
|raru/ndraru
!8
|nane
|-
!4
|nne
!9
|shendra
|-
!5
|tsano/ntsanu
!10
|kumi/kume
|}

=== Demonstratives ===
There are three demonstratives: One that refers to a proximate object, a non-proximate object, and an object that  was previously mentioned in the conversation.<ref name=":2" />

=== Possessives ===
The possessive element -''a'' agrees with the possessed noun. The general order of a possessive construction is possessed-''Ca''-possessor.<ref name=":2" />
{{Interlinear|gari l-a Sufa|5.car 5-GEN Sufa|Sufa's car
| abbreviations = 5:Class 5
}}

=== Verbs ===
Comorian languages exhibit a typical Bantu verb structure. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comorian Verb Structure
!Slot
!1
!2
!3
!4
!5
!6
!7
!8
|-
|Content
|Verbal preprefix (pre)
|Subject Marker (SM)
|Tense-Aspect-Mood
|Object Marker (OM)
|Root
|Extension
|Final Vowel
|Suffix
|}
Although there is only one form of the subject marker for personal plural subjects and for subjects belonging to the classes 3-18.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Subject Pronouns<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Full |first1=Wolfram |title=Two past tenses in Comorian: morphological form and inherent meaning |journal=Swahili Forum |date=2001 |volume=8 |pages=49–58 |url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-91542 |access-date=2024-02-24 |archive-date=2024-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306034800/https://ul.qucosa.de/landing-page/?tx_dlf&#91;id&#93;=https%3A%2F%2Ful.qucosa.de%2Fapi%2Fqucosa%253A11537%2Fmets |url-status=live }}</ref>
!
!Set 1
!Set 2
!Set 3 
(Shingazija and Shimwali only)
|-
!1sg
|''ni-''
|''tsi-''
|''-m-''
|-
!2sg
|''u-''
|''hu-/u-''
|''-o-''
|-
!3sg
|''a-''
|''ha-/a-''
|''-u-''
|-
!1pl
| colspan="3" |''ri-''
|-
!2pl
| colspan="3" |''m-/mu-''
|-
!3pl
| colspan="3" |''wa-''
|}
In Proto-Sabaki, the 2sg and 2sg subject markers were ''*ku'' and *''ka'', respectively. However, the ''*k'' was weakened to ''h'' in Shingazija and further to ''Ø'' in all other dialects.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{INIST|6144169}} |last1=Nurse |first1=D |title=The Proto-Sabaki Verb System and its Subsequent Development |journal=The Proto-Sabaki Verb System and Its Subsequent Development |date=1983 |volume=5 |pages=45–109 }}</ref> 

Verbs can be negated by adding the prefix ''ka-''. However, occasionally other morphemes of the verb may take on different meanings when the negative prefix is added, such as in the following example, where the suffix ''-i'', usually the past tense, takes on the present habitual meaning when it is in a negative construction.

{{Interlinear|ri-dy-i nyama|1PL-eat-PST meat|We ate meat
}}{{Interlinear|ka-ri-dy-i nyama|NEG-1PL-eat-PRES.HAB.NEG meat|We don't eat meat
}}
The present progressive uses the prefix si-/su-, the future tense uses tso-, and the conditional uses a-tso-.There are two past tense constructions in Comorian.<ref name=":2" />The first of these is the simple past tense, which uses the structure SM-Root-Suffix 1. 

The second is the compound past, using the structure SM-''ka'' SM-Root-Suffix 1.<ref name=":3" />
{{Interlinear|tsi-ka tsi-hu-on-o|1sg.NOM-PST 1sg.NOM-2sg.ACC-see-FV|I(sg) saw you(sg)
| abbreviations = FV:final vowel
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed-Chamanga |first=Mohamed |date=1992 |title=Lexique Comorien (shindzuani) – Français |location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-7384-1663-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed-Chamanga |first=Mohamed |date=2010 |title=Introduction à la grammaire structurale du comorien |location=Moroni |publisher=Komedit |isbn=9782914564748}} 2 vols.
* {{cite thesis |last=Breslar |first=Jon |date=1981 |title=An Ethnography of the Mahorais (Mayotte, Comoro Islands) |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Pittsburgh}}
* {{cite book |last=Lafon |first=Michel |date=1991 |title=Lexique Français-Comorien (Shingazidja) |location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-296-24728-4}}

==Further reading==
*Ahmed-Chamanga, Mohamed. (1997) ''Dictionnaire français-comorien (dialecte Shindzuani)''. Paris: L'Harmattan.
*Djohar, Abdou. (2014) ''Approche contrastive Franco-comorienne: les séquences figées à caractère adjectival''. Université Paris-Nord.
*Johansen, Aimee. ''A History of Comorian Linguistics''. in John M. Mugane (ed.), ''Linguistic Typology and Representation of African Languages''. Africa World Press. Trenton, New Jersey.
*Rey, Veronique. (1994) ''Première approche du mwali''. Africana Linguistica XI. Tervuren: MRAC.

==External links==
*[http://www.chez.com/shingazidja/ Shingazidja]

{{Languages of Comoros}}
{{Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H)}}
{{Arabic script}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Languages of the Comoros]]
[[Category:Swahili language]]
[[Category:Culture of Mayotte]]
[[Category:Comoros archipelago]]
[[Category:Languages of Madagascar]]
[[Category:Bantu languages]]
[[Category:East Bantu languages]]
[[Category:Northeast Coast Bantu languages]]
[[Category:Northeast Bantu languages]]