View source for Computer security

{{Short description|Protection of computer systems from information disclosure, theft or damage}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Computer hacking}}
{{OS}}
[[File:Computer locked.jpg|thumb|right|An example of a physical security measure: a metal lock on the back of a personal computer to prevent hardware tampering.]]

'''Computer security''' (also '''cybersecurity''', '''digital security''', or '''information technology''' ('''IT''') '''security''') is a subdiscipline within the field of [[information security]]. It focuses on protecting [[computer software]], [[system]]s, and [[computer network|networks]] from [[Threat (security)|threats]] that can lead to unauthorized information disclosure, theft or damage to [[computer hardware|hardware]], [[software]], or [[Data (computing)|data]], as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the [[Service (economics)|services]] they provide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Schatz |first1=Daniel |last2=Bashroush |first2=Rabih |last3=Wall |first3=Julie |date=2017 |title=Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security |url=https://commons.erau.edu/jdfsl/vol12/iss2/8/ |journal=Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |issn=1558-7215}}</ref><ref>{{Britannica|130682}}</ref>

The growing significance of computer insecurity reflects the increasing dependence on [[computer systems]], the [[Internet]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tate |first=Nick |date=7 May 2013 |title=Reliance spells end of road for ICT amateurs |newspaper=The Australian |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/reliance-spells-end-of-road-for-ict-amateurs/news-story/6f84ad403b8721100f5957a472a945eb |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and evolving [[wireless network standards]]. This reliance has expanded with the proliferation of [[smart device]]s, including [[smartphone]]s, [[television]]s, and other components of the [[Internet of things]] (IoT).

As digital infrastructure becomes more embedded in everyday life, cybersecurity has emerged as a critical concern. The complexity of modern [[information systems]]—and the societal functions they underpin—has introduced new vulnerabilities. Systems that manage essential services, such as [[Electric power distribution|power grids]], [[Election security|electoral processes]], and [[finance]], are particularly sensitive to security breaches.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kianpour |first1=Mazaher |last2=Kowalski |first2=Stewart |last3=Øverby |first3=Harald |date=2021 |title=Systematically Understanding Cybersecurity Economics: A Survey |journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=24 |article-number=13677 |doi=10.3390/su132413677 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021Sust...1313677K |hdl=11250/2978306 |hdl-access=free | issn=2071-1050 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stevens |first1=Tim |date=11 June 2018 |title=Global Cybersecurity: New Directions in Theory and Methods |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/97261726/PaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904151257/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/97261726/PaG_6_2_Global_Cybersecurity_New_Directions_in_Theory_and_Methods.pdf |archive-date=2019-09-04 |url-status=live |journal=Politics and Governance |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.17645/pag.v6i2.1569 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


Although many aspects of computer security involve digital security, such as electronic [[passwords]] and [[encryption]], [[physical security]] measures, such as [[Lock and key|metal locks]] are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering. IT security is not a perfect subset of [[information security]], therefore does not  completely align with the [[security convergence]] schema.

==Vulnerabilities and attacks==
{{Main|Vulnerability (computing)}}

A vulnerability refers to a flaw in the structure, execution, functioning, or internal oversight of a computer or system that compromises its security. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the [[Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures]] (CVE) database.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the CVE Program |url=https://www.cve.org/About/Overview |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=www.cve.org}}</ref> An ''exploitable'' vulnerability is one for which at least one working [[cyberattack|attack]] or ''[[Exploit (computer security)|exploit]]'' exists.<ref>{{cite conference | last=Zlatanov | first=Nikola |title=Computer Security and Mobile Security Challenges |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298807979 |conference=Tech Security Conference At: San Francisco, CA  |date=3 December 2015 }}</ref> Actors maliciously seeking vulnerabilities are known as ''[[Threat (computer security)|threats]]''. Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using [[Automated threat|automated tools]] or customized scripts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ghidra |url=https://www.nsa.gov/resources/everyone/ghidra/ |access-date=17 August 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815201448/https://www.nsa.gov/resources/everyone/ghidra/ | website=nsa.gov | date=1 August 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Larabel |first=Michael |date=2017-12-28 |title=Syzbot: Google Continuously Fuzzing The Linux Kernel |url=https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=Syzbot-Linux-Kernel-Fuzzing/ |access-date=2021-03-25 |website=www.phoronix.com/ |language=en-US}}</ref>

Various people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks; however, different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others.<ref name="crowdstrike.com">{{Cite web |title=Cyber attacks on SMBs: Current Stats and How to Prevent Them |url=https://www.crowdstrike.com/solutions/small-business/cyber-attacks-on-smbs/ |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=crowdstrike.com |language=en}}</ref>

In April 2023, the [[United Kingdom Government|United Kingdom]] Department for Science, Innovation & Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the previous 12 months.<ref name="Cyber breaches 2023">{{Cite web |title=Cyber security breaches survey 2023 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023 |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities, and 554 education institutions. The research found that "32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months." These figures were much higher for "medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%), and high-income charities with £500,000 or more in annual income (56%)."<ref name="Cyber breaches 2023" /> Yet, although medium or large businesses are more often the victims, since larger companies have generally improved their security over the last decade, [[Small and medium-sized enterprises|small and midsize businesses]] (SMBs) have also become increasingly vulnerable as they often "do not have advanced tools to defend the business."<ref name="crowdstrike.com" /> SMBs are most likely to be affected by malware, ransomware, phishing, [[man-in-the-middle attack]]s, and Denial-of Service (DoS) Attacks.<ref name="crowdstrike.com" />

Normal internet users are most likely to be affected by untargeted cyberattacks.<ref name="Cyber attacks">{{Cite web |title=How cyber attacks work |url=https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/information/how-cyber-attacks-work |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.ncsc.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services, or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of the openness of the Internet. These strategies mostly include [[phishing]], [[ransomware]], [[Watering hole attack|water holing]] and scanning.<ref name="Cyber attacks" />

To secure a computer system, it is important to understand the attacks that can be made against it, and these [[threat (computer)|threats]] can typically be classified into one of the following categories:

===Backdoor===
A [[Backdoor (computing)|backdoor]] in a computer system, a [[cryptosystem]], or an [[algorithm]] is any secret method of bypassing normal [[authentication]] or security controls. These weaknesses may exist for many reasons, including original design or poor configuration.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-30 |title=What is a backdoor attack? Definition and prevention {{!}} NordVPN |url=https://nordvpn.com/blog/backdoor-attack/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=nordvpn.com |language=en}}</ref> Due to the nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals.

Backdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access or by an attacker for malicious reasons. [[Cybercrime|Criminals]] often use [[malware]] to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system.<ref name="McAfee-2023">{{Cite web |date=December 4, 2023 |title=What is a backdoor attack? |url=https://www.mcafee.com/learn/backdoor-threat/ |access-date=December 4, 2023 |website=McAfee}}</ref> Once they have access, cybercriminals can "modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of the entire computer."<ref name="McAfee-2023" />

Backdoors can be difficult to detect, as they often remain hidden within the source code or system firmware intimate knowledge of the [[operating system]] of the computer.

=== Denial-of-service attack ===
[[Denial-of-service attacks]] (DoS) are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users.<ref name="DoS guidance">{{Cite web |title=Denial of Service (DoS) guidance |url=https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/denial-service-dos-guidance-collection |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=www.ncsc.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single [[IP address]] can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of [[Denial-of-service attack#Distributed DoS|distributed denial-of-service]] (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case, defending against these attacks is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the [[zombie computer]]s of a [[botnet]] or from a range of other possible techniques, including [[Denial-of-service attack#Reflected attack|distributed reflective denial-of-service]] (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim.<ref name="DoS guidance" /> With such attacks, the amplification factor makes the attack easier for the attacker because they have to use little bandwidth themselves. To understand why attackers may carry out these attacks, see the 'attacker motivation' section.

=== Physical access attacks===
{{main|Physical access}}
A direct-access attack is when an unauthorized user (an attacker) gains physical access to a computer, most likely to directly copy data from it or steal information.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Computer Security |url=https://www.interelectronix.com/computer-security.html |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.interelectronix.com}}</ref> Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing [[Computer worm|software worms]], [[keystroke logging|keyloggers]], [[covert listening device]]s or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a [[CD-ROM]] or other bootable media. [[Disk encryption]] and the [[Trusted Platform Module]] standard are designed to prevent these attacks.

Direct service attackers are related in concept to [[DMA attack|direct memory attacks]] which allow an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory.<ref name="Kroll">{{Cite web |title=What Is a DMA Attack? Analysis & Mitigation |url=https://www.kroll.com/en/insights/publications/cyber/what-is-dma-attack-understanding-mitigating-threat |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=Kroll |language=en}}</ref> The attacks "take advantage of a feature of modern computers that allows certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards, or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly."<ref name="Kroll" />

===Eavesdropping===
[[Eavesdropping]] is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer conversation (communication), usually between hosts on a network. It typically occurs when a user connects to a network where traffic is not secured or encrypted and sends sensitive business data to a colleague, which, when listened to by an attacker, could be exploited.<ref name="Fortinet">{{Cite web |title=What Are Eavesdropping Attacks? |url=https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/eavesdropping |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Fortinet |language=en}}</ref> Data transmitted across an ''open network'' allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods.

Unlike [[malware]], direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice.<ref name="Fortinet" /> In fact, "the attacker does not need to have any ongoing connection to the software at all. The attacker can insert the software onto a compromised device, perhaps by direct insertion or perhaps by a virus or other malware, and then come back some time later to retrieve any data that is found or trigger the software to send the data at some determined time."<ref>{{Citation |last=York |first=Dan |title=Chapter 3 – Eavesdropping and Modification |date=2010-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978159749547900003X |work=Seven Deadliest Unified Communications Attacks |pages=41–69 |editor-last=York |editor-first=Dan |access-date=2023-12-05 |place=Boston |publisher=Syngress |isbn=978-1-59749-547-9}}</ref>

Using a [[virtual private network]] (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using the best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using [[HTTPS]] instead of an unencrypted [[HTTP]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Are Eavesdropping Attacks & How To Prevent Them |url=https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/articles/s/what-are-eavesdropping-attacks/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Verizon Enterprise |language=en}}</ref>

Programs such as [[Carnivore (FBI)|Carnivore]] and [[Narus (company)|NarusInSight]] have been used by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and the NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of [[internet service provider]]s. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] transmissions generated by the hardware. [[Tempest (codename)|TEMPEST]] is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks.

===Malware===
Malicious software ([[malware]]) is any software code or computer program "intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users."<ref name="Malware-IBM">{{Cite web |title=What is Malware? {{!}} IBM |url=https://www.ibm.com/topics/malware |access-date=2023-12-06 |website=www.ibm.com |date=14 April 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref> Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bendovschi |first1=Andreea |year=2015 |title=Cyber-Attacks – Trends, Patterns and Security Countermeasures |journal=Procedia Economics and Finance |volume=28 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1016/S2212-5671(15)01077-1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is malware? |url=https://www.mcafee.com/en-gb/antivirus/malware.html |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=McAfee}}</ref>

==== Types of malware ====
* [[Computer virus|'''Viruses''']] are a specific type of malware, and are normally a malicious code that hijacks software with the intention to "do damage and spread copies of itself." Copies are made with the aim of spreading to other programs on a computer.<ref name="Malware-IBM" /> 
* [[Computer worm|'''Worms''']] are similar to viruses, however viruses can only function when a user runs (opens) a compromised program. Worms are self-replicating malware that spread between programs, apps and devices ''without'' the need for human interaction.<ref name="Malware-IBM" />
* [[Trojan horse (computing)|'''Trojan horses''']] are programs that pretend to be helpful or hide themselves within desired or legitimate software to "trick users into installing them." Once installed, a [[Remote Access Trojan|RAT (Remote Access Trojan)]] can create a secret backdoor on the affected device to cause damage.<ref name="Malware-IBM" />
* '''[[Spyware]]''' is a type of malware that secretly gathers information from an infected computer and transmits the sensitive information back to the [[Hacker|attacker]]. One of the most common forms of spyware is [[Keystroke logging|keyloggers]], which record all of a user's keyboard inputs/keystrokes, to "allow hackers to harvest usernames, passwords, bank account and credit card numbers."<ref name="Malware-IBM" />
* '''[[Scareware]]''', as the name suggests, is a form of [[malware]] that uses [[Social engineering (security)|social engineering]] (manipulation) to scare, [[Acute stress reaction|shock]], trigger [[anxiety]], or suggest the perception of a threat in order to manipulate users into buying or installing [[Potentially unwanted program|unwanted software]]. These attacks often begin with a "sudden pop-up with an urgent message, usually warning the user that they've broken the law or their device has a virus."<ref name="Malware-IBM" />
* '''[[Ransomware]]''' is when malware installs itself onto a victim's machine, encrypts their files, and then turns around and demands a ransom (usually in [[Bitcoin]]) to return that data to the user.

=== Man-in-the-middle attacks ===
[[Man-in-the-middle attack]]s (MITM) involve a malicious attacker trying to intercept, surveil or modify communications between two parties by spoofing one or both party's identities and injecting themselves in-between.<ref name="verizon-mitm"/> Types of MITM attacks include:
* IP address spoofing is where the attacker hijacks routing protocols to reroute the targets traffic to a vulnerable network node for traffic interception or injection.
* Message spoofing (via email, SMS or OTT messaging) is where the attacker spoofs the identity or carrier service while the target is using messaging protocols like email, SMS or OTT (IP-based) messaging apps. The attacker can then monitor conversations, launch social attacks or trigger zero-day-vulnerabilities to allow for further attacks.
* WiFi SSID spoofing is where the attacker simulates a WIFI base station SSID to capture and modify internet traffic and transactions. The attacker can also use local network addressing and reduced network defenses to penetrate the target's firewall by breaching known vulnerabilities. Sometimes known as a Pineapple attack thanks to a popular device. See also [[Wireless security#Malicious association|Malicious association]].
* [[DNS spoofing]] is where attackers hijack domain name assignments to redirect traffic to systems under the attackers control, in order to surveil traffic or launch other attacks.
* SSL hijacking, typically coupled with another media-level MITM attack, is where the attacker spoofs the SSL authentication and encryption protocol by way of Certificate Authority injection in order to decrypt, surveil and modify traffic. See also [[Transport Layer Security#TLS interception|TLS interception]]<ref name="verizon-mitm">
{{Cite web |url=https://www.verizon.com/business/resources/articles/s/what-is-a-man-in-the-middle-attack-and-how-can-i-protect-my-organization/ |title=What is a man-in-the-middle attack and how can I protect my organization? |website=[[verizon|verizon.com]]}}
</ref>

=== Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks ===
Surfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector,<ref>{{cite web | title=Multi-Vector Attacks Demand Multi-Vector Protection | website=MSSP Alert | date=24 July 2017 | url=https://www.msspalert.com/analysis/multi-vector-attacks-demand-multi-vector-protection }}</ref> polymorphic<ref>{{cite news |first=Renee |last=Millman |title=New polymorphic malware evades three-quarters of AV scanners |work=SC Magazine UK |date=15 December 2017 |url=https://www.scmagazineuk.com/new-polymorphic-malware-evades-three-quarters-of-av-scanners/article/718757/ |archive-date=14 June 2018 |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614034417/https://www.scmagazineuk.com/new-polymorphic-malware-evades-three-quarters-of-av-scanners/article/718757/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread.

Multi-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic.<ref name="Tounsi-2019">{{Citation |last=Tounsi |first=Wiem |title=What is Cyber Threat Intelligence and How is it Evolving? |date=2019-05-15 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119618393.ch1 |work=Cyber-Vigilance and Digital Trust |pages=1–49 |editor-last=Tounsi |editor-first=Wiem |access-date=2023-12-06 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781119618393.ch1 |isbn=978-1-78630-448-3|s2cid=187294508 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are "multi-vectored" (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via the Web, email and applications). However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that "they can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network."<ref name="Tounsi-2019" /> The attacks can be polymorphic, meaning that the cyberattacks used such as viruses, worms or trojans "constantly change ("morph") making it nearly impossible to detect them using signature-based defences."<ref name="Tounsi-2019" />

===Phishing===
[[File:PhishingTrustedBank.png|thumb|An example of a phishing email, disguised as an official [[email]] from a ([[fiction]]al) bank. The [[sender]] is attempting to trick the recipient into revealing [[Confidentiality|confidential]] information by confirming it at the phisher's website. Note the misspelling of the words ''received'' and ''discrepancy'' as {{typo|rec''ie''ved}} and {{typo|discrep''e''ncy}}, respectively. Although the [[URL]] of the bank's [[webpage]] appears to be legitimate, the hyperlink points at the phisher's webpage.|324x324px]]
[[Phishing]] is the attempt to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.case.edu/its/kba/its-kba-27196-phishing-attempt/ |title=Identifying Phishing Attempts |publisher=Case |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913200707/http://www.case.edu/its/kba/its-kba-27196-phishing-attempt/ |archive-date=13 September 2015  |access-date=4 July 2016 }}</ref> Phishing is typically carried out by [[email spoofing]], [[instant messaging]], [[Text messaging|text message]], or on a [[Telephone call|phone]] call. They often direct users to enter details at a fake website whose [[look and feel]] are almost identical to the legitimate one.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protect yourself from phishing – Microsoft Support |url=https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/protect-yourself-from-phishing-0c7ea947-ba98-3bd9-7184-430e1f860a44 |access-date=2023-12-06 |website=support.microsoft.com}}</ref> The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website.

Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of [[Social engineering (security)|social engineering]]. Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices<ref>{{cite web |last=Lazarus |first=Ari |date=23 February 2018 |title=Phishers send fake invoices |url=https://www.consumer.ftc.gov/blog/2018/02/phishers-send-fake-invoices |access-date=17 February 2020 |website=Consumer Information |language=en}}</ref> to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts.<ref name=":3">{{cite web | website=Trellix | title=Email Security | date=17 May 2022 | url=https://www.trellix.com/en-us/platform/email-security.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522081555/https://www.trellix.com/en-us/platform/email-security.html | archive-date=22 May 2022 | access-date=24 October 2022 }}</ref>

===Privilege escalation===
[[Privilege escalation]] describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level.<ref name="Privilege escalation">{{Cite web |title=What is Privilege Escalation? – CrowdStrike |url=https://www.crowdstrike.com/cybersecurity-101/privilege-escalation/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=crowdstrike.com |language=en}}</ref> For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a [[Vulnerability (computing)|vulnerability]] in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become ''[[superuser|root]]'' and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a [[Ransomware|ransomware attack]] on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with [[Social engineering (security)|social engineering]] techniques, often [[phishing]].<ref name="Privilege escalation" />

Privilege escalation can be separated into two strategies, horizontal and vertical privilege escalation:

* Horizontal escalation (or account takeover) is where an attacker gains access to a normal user account that has relatively low-level privileges. This may be through stealing the user's username and password. Once they have access, they have gained a ''foothold'', and using this foothold the attacker then may move around the network of users at this same lower level, gaining access to information of this similar privilege.<ref name="Privilege escalation" />
* Vertical escalation, however, targets people higher up in a company and often with more administrative power, such as an employee in IT with a higher privilege. Using this privileged account will then enable the attacker to invade other accounts.<ref name="Privilege escalation" />

===Side-channel attack===
{{Main|Side-channel attack}}

Any computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment can range from electromagnetic radiation, to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequence make a [[Cold boot attack]] possible, to hardware implementation faults that allow for access or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios, the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure. The target information in a side channel can be challenging to detect due to its low amplitude when combined with other signals <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spence |first1=Aaron |last2=Bangay |first2=Shaun |date=June 2022 |title=Security beyond cybersecurity: side-channel attacks against non-cyber systems and their countermeasures |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10207-021-00563-6 |journal=International Journal of Information Security |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=437–453 |doi=10.1007/s10207-021-00563-6 |issn=1615-5262|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Social engineering===
[[Social engineering (security)|Social engineering]], in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer.<ref>{{cite web |last=Arcos Sergio |title=Social Engineering |url=http://upcommons.upc.edu/pfc/bitstream/2099.1/12289/1/73827.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203043630/http://upcommons.upc.edu/pfc/bitstream/2099.1/12289/1/73827.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=2019-04-16 |website=upc.edu}}</ref> This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their [[cognitive bias]]es. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of the main techniques of social engineering are [[phishing]] attacks.

In early 2016, the [[FBI]] reported that such [[business email compromise]] (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Scannell |first1=Kara |title=CEO email scam costs companies $2bn |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/83b4e9be-db16-11e5-a72f-1e7744c66818.html#axzz41pN5YBV4 |access-date=7 May 2016 |work=Financial Times |issue=25 February 2016 |date=24 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623105523/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/83b4e9be-db16-11e5-a72f-1e7744c66818.html#axzz41pN5YBV4 |archive-date=23 June 2016}}</ref>

In May 2016, the [[Milwaukee Bucks]] [[NBA]] team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president [[Peter Feigin]], resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 [[Form W-2|W-2]] tax forms.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bucks leak tax info of players, employees as result of email scam|url=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/15615363/milwaukee-bucks-leak-tax-information-players-employees-result-email-scam|access-date=20 May 2016|agency=Associated Press|date=20 May 2016|url-status=live <!-- technically unfit but effectively dead-->|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520144908/http://espn.go.com/nba/story/_/id/15615363/milwaukee-bucks-leak-tax-informatiopn-players-employees-result-email-scam|archive-date=20 May 2016}}</ref>

===Spoofing===
{{Main|Spoofing attack}}

Spoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to [[phishing]].<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Spoofing? – Definition from Techopedia |url=https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5398/spoofing |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630134737/https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5398/spoofing |archive-date=30 June 2016 |access-date=2022-01-16 |website=techopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-4987|chapter=spoofing|access-date=8 October 2017|title=A Dictionary of Computer Science|doi=10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-968897-5|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=21 January 2016|editor1-last=Butterfield|editor1-first=Andrew|editor2-last=Ngondi|editor2-first=Gerard Ekembe}}</ref> There are several types of spoofing, including:
* [[Email spoofing]] is where an attacker forges the sending (''From'', or source) address of an email.
* [[IP address spoofing]], where an attacker alters the source IP address in a [[network packet]] to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system.
* [[MAC spoofing]], where an attacker modifies the [[MAC address|Media Access Control (MAC) address]] of their [[network interface controller]] to obscure their identity, or to pose as another.
* [[Biometrics|Biometric]] spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Marcel|editor1-first=Sébastien|editor2-last=Nixon|editor2-first=Mark|editor3-last=Li|editor3-first=Stan|year=2014|title=Handbook of Biometric Anti-Spoofing: Trusted Biometrics under Spoofing Attacks|language=en|location=London|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-6524-8|isbn=978-1-4471-6524-8|issn=2191-6594|lccn=2014942635|series=Advances in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition|s2cid=27594864 |url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/203843 }}</ref>
* [[Address Resolution Protocol]] (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a [[local area network]] to associate their [[MAC address|Media Access Control address]] with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host.
In 2018, the cybersecurity firm [[Trellix]] published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=80 to 0 in Under 5 Seconds: Falsifying a Medical Patient's Vitals |url=https://www.trellix.com/en-us/about/newsroom/stories/research/80-to-0-in-under-5-seconds-falsifying-a-medical-patients-vitals.html |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=www.trellix.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Tampering===
[[Tampering (crime)|Tampering]] describes a [[Evasion (network security)|malicious modification]] or alteration of data. It is an intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called [[Evil Maid attack]]s and security services planting of [[surveillance]] capability into routers are examples.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gallagher |first=Sean |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant/ |title=Photos of an NSA "upgrade" factory show Cisco router getting implant |website=Ars Technica |date=14 May 2014 |access-date=3 August 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804130416/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/photos-of-an-nsa-upgrade-factory-show-cisco-router-getting-implant/ |archive-date=4 August 2014  }}</ref>

===HTML smuggling===
[[HTML]] smuggling allows an attacker to ''smuggle'' a malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page.<ref name="Intelligence-2021">{{Cite web |last=Intelligence |first=Microsoft Threat |date=2021-11-11 |title=HTML smuggling surges: Highly evasive loader technique increasingly used in banking malware, targeted attacks |url=https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/security/blog/2021/11/11/html-smuggling-surges-highly-evasive-loader-technique-increasingly-used-in-banking-malware-targeted-attacks/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=Microsoft Security Blog |language=en-US}}</ref> [[HTML]] files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat [[content filter]]s. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Obfuscated Files or Information: HTML Smuggling, Sub-technique T1027.006 – Enterprise {{!}} MITRE ATT&CK® |url=https://attack.mitre.org/techniques/T1027/006/ |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=attack.mitre.org}}</ref>

When a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then ''decodes'' the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device.<ref name="Intelligence-2021" />

==Information security practices==
Employee behavior can have a big impact on [[information security]] in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness toward information security within an organization. Information security culture is the "...totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contributes to the protection of information of all kinds."<ref>{{cite conference | last1=Lim | first1=Joo S. | last2=Chang | first2=Shanton | last3=Maynard | first3=Sean | last4=Ahmad | first4=Atif | title=Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture and Information Security Culture |book-title=Proceedings of the 7th Australian Information Security Management Conference | date=2009 | publisher=Security Research Institute (SRI), Edith Cowan University |doi=10.4225/75/57B4065130DEF |url=http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ism/12}}</ref>

Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes.<ref>{{cite conference | last1=Reimers | first1=Karl | last2=Andersson | first2=David | conference=ICERI2017 Proceedings | title=Post-secondary Education Network Security: the End User Challenge and Evolving Threats | publisher=IATED | year=2017 | volume=1 | page= | issn=2340-1095 | doi=10.21125/iceri.2017.0554 | pages=1787–1796 | isbn=978-84-697-6957-7 |url=https://library.iated.org/view/REIMERS2017POS| url-access=subscription }}</ref> Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company.<ref>{{cite report|title=Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020 |url=https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/reports/2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519161153/https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/reports/2020-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf |archive-date=2020-05-19 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-09-17 |website=verizon.com}}</ref> Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.<ref name="Schlienger, Thomas 2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Schlienger | first1 = Thomas | last2 = Teufel | first2 = Stephanie | year = 2003 | title = Information security culture-from analysis to change | journal = South African Computer Journal | volume = 31 | pages = 46–52 |hdl=10520/EJC27949}}</ref>
* Pre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies.
* Strategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it.
* Operative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program.<ref name="Schlienger, Thomas 2003" />
* Implementation: Four stages should be used to implement the information security culture. They are:
:# Commitment of the management
:# Communication with organizational members
:# Courses for all organizational members
:# Commitment of the employees<ref name="Schlienger, Thomas 2003" />
* Post-evaluation: To assess the success of the planning and implementation, and to identify unresolved areas of concern.

==Computer protection (countermeasures)==
In computer security, a [[Countermeasure (computer)|countermeasure]] is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an [[attack (computing)|attack]] by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken.<ref>{{cite ietf|rfc=2828|title=Internet Security Glossary}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=26 April 2010 |title=CNSS Instruction No. 4009 |url=http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227163121/http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=InfosecToday Glossary |url=http://www.infosectoday.com/Articles/Glossary.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120041536/http://www.infosectoday.com/Articles/Glossary.pdf |archive-date=20 November 2014}}</ref>

Some common countermeasures are listed in the following sections:

===Security by design===
{{Main|Secure by design}}

Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature.

The UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separates secure cyber design principles into five sections:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cyber security design principles |url=https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/cyber-security-design-principles/cyber-security-design-principles |access-date=2023-12-11 |website=www.ncsc.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref>

# Before a secure system is created or updated, companies should ensure they understand the fundamentals and the context around the system they are trying to create and identify any weaknesses in the system.
# Companies should design and centre their security around techniques and defences which make attacking their data or systems inherently more challenging for attackers.
# Companies should ensure that their core services that rely on technology are protected so that the systems are essentially never down.
# Although systems can be created which are safe against a multitude of attacks, that does not mean that attacks will not be attempted. Despite one's security, all companies' systems should aim to be able to detect and spot attacks as soon as they occur to ensure the most effective response to them. 
# Companies should create secure systems designed so that any attack that is successful has minimal severity.

These design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques:
* The [[principle of least privilege]], where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an [[Hacker (computer security)|attacker]] gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system.
* [[Automated theorem proving]] to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems.
* [[Code review]]s and [[unit testing]], approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible.
* [[Defense in depth (computing)|Defense in depth]], where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds.
* Default secure settings, and design to ''fail secure'' rather than ''fail insecure'' (see [[fail-safe]] for the equivalent in [[safety engineering]]). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure.
* [[Audit trail]]s track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks.
* [[Full disclosure (computer security)|Full disclosure]] of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the ''window of vulnerability'' is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered.

===Security architecture===
Security architecture can be defined as the "practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals."<ref name="NSCS security arch">{{Cite web |title=How the NCSC thinks about security architecture |url=https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/blog-post/how-ncsc-thinks-about-security-architecture |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=www.ncsc.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> These goals have overlap with the principles of "security by design" explored above, including to "make initial compromise of the system difficult," and to "limit the impact of any compromise."<ref name="NSCS security arch" /> In practice, the role of a security architect would be to ensure the structure of a system reinforces the security of the system, and that new changes are safe and meet the security requirements of the organization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secure System Architecture and Design |url=https://www.ukcybersecuritycouncil.org.uk/careers-and-learning/cyber-career-framework/secure-system-architecture-design| date=2024| access-date=4 January 2024 |website=UK Cyber Security Council |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=security architecture – Glossary {{!}} CSRC |url=https://csrc.nist.gov/glossary/term/security_architecture |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=csrc.nist.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref>

Similarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as "a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible." The key attributes of security architecture are:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jannsen |first1=Cory |title=Security Architecture |url=http://www.techopedia.com/definition/72/security-architecture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003064643/http://www.techopedia.com/definition/72/security-architecture |archive-date=3 October 2014 |access-date=9 October 2014 |website=Techopedia |publisher=Janalta Interactive Inc}}</ref>
* the relationship of different components and how they depend on each other.
* determination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters.
* the standardization of controls.

Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization.

===Security measures===
A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following:
* Limiting the access of individuals using [[user account]] [[access control]]s and using [[cryptography]] can protect systems files and data, respectively.
* [[Firewall (networking)|Firewalls]] are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. Firewalls monitor and control incoming and outgoing traffic of a computer network and establish a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network.<ref name="Oppliger-1997">{{Cite journal |last=Oppliger |first=Rolf |date=1997-05-01 |title=Internet security: firewalls and beyond |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=92–102 |doi=10.1145/253769.253802 |issn=0001-0782|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Intrusion Detection System]] (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack [[forensics]], while [[audit trail]]s and [[data logging|logs]] serve a similar function for individual systems.
* ''Response'' is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of [[legal]] authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected.
* Cyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Increase Cybersecurity Awareness |url=https://www.isaca.org/resources/isaca-journal/issues/2019/volume-2/how-to-increase-cybersecurity-awareness |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=ISACA}}</ref>
* Forward web [[Proxy server|proxy]] solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines.

Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like [[Firewall (computing)|firewalls]] or an [[exit procedure]]. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the [[Internet]]. They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the [[network stack]] (or, in the case of most [[UNIX]]-based operating systems such as [[Linux]], built into the operating system [[Kernel (operating system)|kernel]]) to provide real-time filtering and blocking.<ref name="Oppliger-1997" /> Another implementation is a so-called ''physical firewall'', which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet.

Some organizations are turning to [[big data]] platforms, such as [[Apache Hadoop]], to extend data accessibility and [[machine learning]] to detect [[advanced persistent threat]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Woodie |first=Alex |date=9 May 2016 |title=Why ONI May Be Our Best Hope for Cyber Security Now |url=http://www.datanami.com/2016/05/09/oni-may-best-hope-cyber-security-now/ |url-status=live |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820015812/https://www.datanami.com/2016/05/09/oni-may-best-hope-cyber-security-now/ |archive-date=20 August 2016}}</ref>

In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security.<ref>{{cite web |last=Walkowski |first=Debbie |date=9 July 2019 |title=What Is The CIA Triad? |url=https://www.f5.com/labs/articles/education/what-is-the-cia-triad.html |access-date=25 February 2020 |website=F5 Labs |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=November 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 December 2018 |title=Knowing Value of Data Assets is Crucial to Cybersecurity Risk Management {{!}} SecurityWeek.Com |url=https://www.securityweek.com/knowing-value-data-assets-crucial-cybersecurity-risk-management |access-date=25 February 2020 |website=www.securityweek.com}}</ref>

===Vulnerability management===
{{main|Vulnerability management}}

Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, fixing or mitigating [[Software vulnerability|vulnerabilities]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Foreman |first=Park |title=Vulnerability Management |date=2009 |publisher=Auerbach Publications |isbn=978-1-4398-0150-5 |publication-place=Boca Raton, Fla. |page=1}}</ref> especially in software and [[firmware]]. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and [[network security]].

Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a [[vulnerability scanner]], which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FxRbDwAAQBAJ&q=Vulnerabilities+can+be+discovered+with+a+vulnerability+scanner,+which+analyzes+a+computer+system+in+search+of+known+vulnerabilities&pg=SA5-PA83 |title=CCNA Cybersecurity Operations Companion Guide |date=2018 |publisher=Cisco Press |isbn=978-0-13-516624-6 |language=en}}</ref> such as [[open port]]s, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to [[malware]].  In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor releases.  Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently.

Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular [[penetration test]]s against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Calder |first1=Alan |title=PCI DSS: A Pocket Guide |last2=Williams |first2=Geraint |publisher=IT Governance Limited |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-84928-554-4 |edition=3rd |quote=network vulnerability scans at least quarterly and after any significant change in the network}}</ref>

===Reducing vulnerabilities===

The act of assessing and reducing vulnerabilities to cyber attacks is commonly referred to as [[information technology security assessment]]s. They aim to assess systems for risk and to predict and test for their vulnerabilities. While [[formal verification]] of the correctness of computer systems is possible,<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Harrison |first1=J. |year=2003 |title=Formal verification at Intel |conference=18th Annual IEEE Symposium of Logic in Computer Science, 2003. Proceedings |pages=45–54 |doi=10.1109/LICS.2003.1210044 |isbn=978-0-7695-1884-8 |s2cid=44585546}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last1=Umrigar |first1=Zerksis D. |last2=Pitchumani |first2=Vijay |year=1983 |title=Formal verification of a real-time hardware design |url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=800667 |conference=Proceeding DAC '83 Proceedings of the 20th Design Automation Conference |publisher=IEEE Press |pages=221–227 |isbn=978-0-8186-0026-5}}</ref> it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include [[seL4]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Abstract Formal Specification of the seL4/ARMv6 API |url=https://sel4.systems/Docs/seL4-spec.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521171234/https://sel4.systems/Docs/seL4-spec.pdf |archive-date=21 May 2015 |access-date=19 May 2015}}</ref> and [[SYSGO]]'s [[PikeOS]]<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Baumann |first1=Christoph |last2=Beckert |first2=Bernhard |last3=Blasum |first3=Holger |last4=Bormer |first4=Thorsten |title=Ingredients of Operating System Correctness? Lessons Learned in the Formal Verification of PikeOS |url=http://www-wjp.cs.uni-saarland.de/publikationen/Ba10EW.pdf |conference=Embedded World Conference, Nuremberg, Germany |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719110932/http://www-wjp.cs.uni-saarland.de/publikationen/Ba10EW.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ganssle |first=Jack |title=Getting it Right |url=http://www.ganssle.com/rants/gettingitright.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504191958/http://www.ganssle.com/rants/gettingitright.htm |archive-date=4 May 2013}}</ref> – but these make up a very small percentage of the market.

It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates and by hiring people with expertise in security. Large companies with significant threats can hire Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analysts. These are specialists in cyber defences, with their role ranging from "conducting threat analysis to investigating reports of any new issues and preparing and testing disaster recovery plans."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Everything you need for a career as a SOC analyst |url=https://www.cybersecurityjobsite.com/staticpages/10300/everything-you-need-for-a-career-as-a-soc-analyst/ |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=www.cybersecurityjobsite.com}}</ref>

Whilst no measures can completely guarantee the prevention of an attack, these measures can help mitigate the damage of possible attacks. The effects of data loss/damage can be also reduced by careful [[backup|backing up]] and [[insurance]].

Outside of formal assessments, there are various methods of reducing vulnerabilities, including [[Hardening (computing)|hardening]] systems.<ref name="i451">{{cite book | last1=CISM | first1=John Rittinghouse PhD | last2=CISM | first2=William M. Hancock PhD CISSP | title=Cybersecurity Operations Handbook | publisher=Digital Press | date=2003-10-02 | isbn=978-0-08-053018-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKYSfjEsi78C&dq=%2522Hardening%2522+systems&pg=PA436 | access-date=2025-09-04 | page=436-437}}</ref> [[Two factor authentication]] is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turn on 2-step verification (2SV) |url=https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/collection/top-tips-for-staying-secure-online/activate-2-step-verification-on-your-email |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=www.ncsc.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> It requires ''something you know:'' a password or PIN, and ''something you have'': a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access.

Protecting against social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only happen by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk by improving people's knowledge of how to protect themselves and by increasing people's awareness of threats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NCSC's cyber security training for staff now available |url=https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/blog-post/ncsc-cyber-security-training-for-staff-now-available |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=www.ncsc.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> However, even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent.

Inoculation, derived from [[inoculation theory]], seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks and traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Treglia |first1=J. |last2=Delia |first2=M. |year=2017 |title=Cyber Security Inoculation |conference=NYS Cyber Security Conference, Empire State Plaza Convention Center, Albany, NY, 3–4 June}}</ref>

===Hardware protection mechanisms===
{{See also|Computer security compromised by hardware failure}}

Hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as [[dongle]]s, [[trusted platform module]]s, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below.
* USB [[dongle]]s are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a license dongle?  |url=https://www.revenera.com/software-monetization/glossary/license-dongle |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=www.revenera.com |language=en}}</ref> but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or [[Virtual Private Networks]] (VPNs).<ref>{{cite web |title=Token-based authentication |url=http://www.safenet-inc.com/multi-factor-authentication/authenticators/pki-usb-authentication/etoken-5200-token-based-authentication/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320234026/http://www.safenet-inc.com/multi-factor-authentication/authenticators/pki-usb-authentication/etoken-5200-token-based-authentication/ |archive-date=20 March 2014 |access-date=20 March 2014 |publisher=SafeNet.com}}</ref> In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 February 2010 |title=Lock and protect your Windows PC |url=http://www.thewindowsclub.com/lock-protect-your-windows-pc-using-a-usb-drive-with-predator |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320220321/http://www.thewindowsclub.com/lock-protect-your-windows-pc-using-a-usb-drive-with-predator |archive-date=20 March 2014 |access-date=20 March 2014 |publisher=TheWindowsClub.com}}</ref>
* [[Trusted platform module]]s (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access.<ref>{{cite web |first=James |last=Greene |year=2012 |title=Intel Trusted Execution Technology: White Paper |url=http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/white-papers/trusted-execution-technology-security-paper.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611161421/http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/white-papers/trusted-execution-technology-security-paper.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2014 |access-date=18 December 2013 |publisher=Intel Corporation}}</ref>
* [[Computer case#Intrusion detection|Computer case intrusion detection]] refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time.
* Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 October 2008 |title=SafeNet ProtectDrive 8.4 |url=http://www.scmagazine.com/safenet-protectdrive-84/review/2596/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320220133/http://www.scmagazine.com/safenet-protectdrive-84/review/2596/ |archive-date=20 March 2014 |access-date=20 March 2014 |work=SCMagazine.com}}</ref> Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 May 2009 |title=Secure Hard Drives: Lock Down Your Data |url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2342798,00.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621202140/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2342798,00.asp |archive-date=21 June 2017 |publisher=PCMag.com}}</ref>
* Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks.
* Disconnecting or disabling peripheral devices (like camera, GPS, removable storage, etc.), that are not in use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Souppaya |first1=Murugiah P. |last2=Scarfone |first2=Karen |date=2013 |title=Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices in the Enterprise |url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/guidelines-managing-security-mobile-devices-enterprise |journal=National Institute of Standards and Technology |series=Special Publication (NIST SP) |location=Gaithersburg, MD |doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-124r1 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-23 |title=Access Control Statistics: Trends & Insights |url=https://entrycare.com/access-control-statistics/ |access-date=2024-04-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Built-in capabilities such as [[Bluetooth]], the newer [[Bluetooth low-energy]] (LE), [[near-field communication]] (NFC) on non-iOS devices and [[biometrics|biometric]] validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as [[QR code]] reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 November 2013 |title=Forget IDs, use your phone as credentials |url=http://video.foxbusiness.com/v/2804966490001/forget-ids-use-your-phone-as-credentials/?playlist_id=937116503001#sp=show-clips |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320215829/http://video.foxbusiness.com/v/2804966490001/forget-ids-use-your-phone-as-credentials/?playlist_id=937116503001#sp=show-clips |archive-date=20 March 2014 |access-date=20 March 2014 |publisher=[[Fox Business Network]]}}</ref>
* [[IOMMU]]s allow for hardware-based [[Sandbox (computer security)|sandboxing]] of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing [[direct memory access]] protections.<ref>{{cite web |title=Direct memory access protections for Mac computers |url=https://support.apple.com/guide/security/direct-memory-access-protections-seca4960c2b5/1/web/1 |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=Apple}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Using IOMMU for DMA Protection in UEFI Firmware |url=https://www.intel.com/content/dam/develop/external/us/en/documents/intel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209062425/https://www.intel.com/content/dam/develop/external/us/en/documents/intel-whitepaper-using-iommu-for-dma-protection-in-uefi-820238.pdf |archive-date=2021-12-09 |access-date=16 November 2022 |publisher=Intel Corporation}}</ref>
* [[Physical unclonable function|Physical Unclonable Functions]] (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Babaei |first1=Armin |last2=Schiele |first2=Gregor |last3=Zohner |first3=Michael |date=2022-07-26 |title=Reconfigurable Security Architecture (RESA) Based on PUF for FPGA-Based IoT Devices |journal=Sensors |language=en |volume=22 |issue=15 |page=5577 |bibcode=2022Senso..22.5577B |doi=10.3390/s22155577 |issn=1424-8220 |pmc=9331300 |pmid=35898079 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassija |first1=Vikas |last2=Chamola |first2=Vinay |last3=Gupta |first3=Vatsal |last4=Jain |first4=Sarthak |last5=Guizani |first5=Nadra |date=2021-04-15 |title=A Survey on Supply Chain Security: Application Areas, Security Threats, and Solution Architectures |journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=6222–6246 |doi=10.1109/JIOT.2020.3025775 |bibcode=2021IITJ....8.6222H |issn=2327-4662 |s2cid=226767829}}</ref>

===Secure operating systems===
{{Main|Security-evaluated operating system}}

One use of the term ''computer security'' refers to technology that is used to implement [[Security-evaluated operating system|secure operating system]]s. Using secure operating systems is a good way of ensuring computer security. These are systems that have achieved certification from an external security-auditing organization, the most popular evaluations are [[Common Criteria]] (CC).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Most Secure OS: What is the Safest OS Available? |url=https://tech.co/antivirus-software/what-is-the-most-secure-os |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=Tech.co |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Secure coding===
{{Main|Secure coding}}

In software engineering, [[secure coding]] aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are ''[[secure by design]]''. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the [[correctness (computer science)|correctness]] of the [[algorithms]] underlying a system;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanghavi |first=Alok |date=21 May 2010 |title=What is formal verification? |journal=EE Times_Asia}}</ref>
important for [[cryptographic protocol]]s for example.

===Capabilities and access control lists===
{{Main|Access control list|Role-based access control|Capability-based security}}

Within computer systems, two of the main [[Computer security model|security models]] capable of enforcing privilege separation are [[access control list]]s (ACLs) and [[role-based access control]] (RBAC).

An [[access-control list]] (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects.

Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ferraiolo, D.F. |author2=Kuhn, D.R. |name-list-style=amp |date=October 1992 |title=Role-Based Access Control |url=http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/rbac/documents/ferraiolo-kuhn-92.pdf |journal=15th National Computer Security Conference |pages=554–563}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sandhu |first1=R |last2=Coyne |first2=EJ |last3=Feinstein|first3=HL |last4=Youman |first4=CE |date=August 1996 |title=Role-Based Access Control Models |url=http://csrc.nist.gov/rbac/sandhu96.pdf |journal=IEEE Computer |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=38–47 |citeseerx=10.1.1.50.7649 |doi=10.1109/2.485845 |bibcode=1996Compr..29b..38S |s2cid=1958270}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference |author1=Abreu, Vilmar |author2=Santin, Altair O. |author3=Viegas, Eduardo K. |author4=Stihler, Maicon |date=2017 |title=A multi-domain role activation model |url=https://secplab.ppgia.pucpr.br/files/papers/2017-1.pdf |conference=2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC) |publisher=IEEE Press |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1109/ICC.2017.7997247 |isbn=978-1-4673-8999-0 |s2cid=6185138}}</ref>  used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees,<ref name="autogenerated2002">{{cite book |author1=A.C. O'Connor |url=http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/rbac/documents/20101219_RBAC2_Final_Report.pdf |title=Economic Analysis of Role-Based Access Control |author2=R.J. Loomis |date=2002 |publisher=Research Triangle Institute |page=145 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> and can implement [[mandatory access control]] (MAC) or [[discretionary access control]] (DAC).

A further approach, [[capability-based security]] has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the [[E programming language|E language]].

===User security training===
The end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain<ref>{{cite web |date=22 January 2014 |title=Studies prove once again that users are the weakest link in the security chain |url=https://www.csoonline.com/article/2137210/security-awareness/studies-prove-once-again-that-users-are-the-weakest-link-in-the-security-chain.html |access-date=8 October 2018 |website=CSO Online}}</ref> and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 September 2014 |title=The Role of Human Error in Successful Security Attacks |url=https://securityintelligence.com/the-role-of-human-error-in-successful-security-attacks/ |access-date=8 October 2018 |website=IBM Security Intelligence}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2015 |title=90% of security incidents trace back to PEBKAC and ID10T errors |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2910316/90-of-security-incidents-trace-back-to-pebkac-and-id10t-errors.html |access-date=8 October 2018 |website=Computerworld}}</ref> Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments.  A common mistake that users make is saving their user id/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites.  This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means.  The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 October 2018 |title=Protect your online banking with 2FA |url=https://www.nzba.org.nz/2018/10/08/protect-your-online-banking-with-2fa/ |access-date=7 September 2019 |website=NZ Bankers Association |archive-date=21 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121073825/https://www.nzba.org.nz/2018/10/08/protect-your-online-banking-with-2fa/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk<ref>{{cite web |year=2014 |title=IBM Security Services 2014 Cyber Security Intelligence Index |url=https://pcsite.co.uk/computer-security/IBM_Security_Services_2014_Cyber_Security_Intelligence_Index.pdf |access-date=9 October 2020 |website=PcSite}}</ref> an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential<ref>{{cite news |last1=Caldwell |first1=Tracey |date=12 February 2013 |title=Risky business: why security awareness is crucial for employees |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-network-blog/2013/feb/12/business-cyber-security-risks-employees |access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref> in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats.

The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers<ref>{{cite web |title=Developing a Security Culture |url=https://www.cpni.gov.uk/developing-security-culture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009013120/https://www.cpni.gov.uk/developing-security-culture |archive-date=9 October 2018 |access-date=8 October 2018 |website=CPNI – Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure}}</ref> to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks.

===Digital hygiene===
Related to end-user training, '''digital hygiene''' or '''cyber hygiene''' is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with [[personal hygiene]] shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks.<ref name="Cyber Hygiene">{{cite web |title=Cyber Hygiene – ENISA |url=https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/cyber-hygiene |access-date=27 September 2018 |language=en-gb}}</ref> Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for [[proactive cyber defence]], a military term.<ref name="Kaljulaid-2017">{{cite web |last=Kaljulaid |first=Kersti |date=16 October 2017 |title=President of the Republic at the Aftenposten's Technology Conference |url=https://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/13671-president-of-the-republic-at-the-aftenpostens-technology-conference/index.html |access-date=27 September 2018}}</ref>

The most common acts of digital hygiene can include updating malware protection, cloud back-ups, passwords, and ensuring restricted admin rights and network firewalls.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cyber security breaches survey 2023 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023/cyber-security-breaches-survey-2023 |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kuchler |first=Hannah |date=27 April 2015 |title=Security execs call on companies to improve 'cyber hygiene' |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de |url-access=subscription |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8468cfda-e9e3-11e4-a687-00144feab7de |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> or education.<ref>{{Cite news |title=From AI to Russia, Here's How Estonia's President Is Planning for the Future |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/from-ai-to-russia-heres-how-estonias-president-is-planning-for-the-future/ |access-date=28 September 2018}}</ref> It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts.

Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term ''computer virus'' was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses,<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 November 2017 |title=Professor Len Adleman explains how he coined the term "computer virus" |language=en-US |work=WeLiveSecurity |url=https://www.welivesecurity.com/2017/11/01/professor-len-adleman-explains-computer-virus-term/ |access-date=28 September 2018}}</ref> the term ''cyber hygiene'' is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement of Dr. Vinton G. Cerf |url=https://www.jec.senate.gov/archive/Documents/Hearings/cerf22300.htm |access-date=28 September 2018 |website=www.jec.senate.gov}}</ref> by Internet pioneer [[Vint Cerf]]. It has since been adopted by the [[United States Congress|Congress]]<ref>{{USBill|115|HR|3010|pipe=Promoting Good Cyber Hygiene Act of 2017|site=yes}}</ref> and [[United States Senate|Senate]] of the United States,<ref>{{cite news |title=Analysis {{!}} The Cybersecurity 202: Agencies struggling with basic cybersecurity despite Trump's pledge to prioritize it |language=en |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/paloma/the-cybersecurity-202/2018/07/26/the-cybersecurity-202-agencies-struggling-with-basic-cybersecurity-despite-trump-s-pledge-to-prioritize-it/5b58a84e1b326b1e64695548/ |access-date=28 September 2018}}</ref> the FBI,<ref>{{cite web |title=Protected Voices |url=https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/counterintelligence/foreign-influence/protected-voices |access-date=28 September 2018 |website=Federal Bureau of Investigation |language=en-us}}</ref> [[European Union|EU]] institutions<ref name="Cyber Hygiene" /> and heads of state.<ref name="Kaljulaid-2017" />

===Difficulty of responding to breaches===
Responding to attempted [[security breaches]] is often very difficult for a variety of reasons, including:
* Identifying attackers is difficult, as they may operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back-tracing difficult – and are often located in another [[jurisdiction]]. If they successfully breach security, they have also often gained enough administrative access to enable them to delete [[Data logging|logs]] to cover their tracks.
* The sheer number of attempted attacks, often by automated vulnerability scanners and computer worms, is so large that organizations cannot spend time pursuing each.
* [[Law enforcement officer]]s often lack the skills, interest or budget to pursue attackers. Furthermore, identifying attackers across a network may necessitate collecting logs from multiple locations within the network and across various countries, a process that can be both difficult and time-consuming.

Where an attack succeeds and a breach occurs, many jurisdictions now have in place mandatory [[security breach notification laws]].

===Types of security and privacy===
{{div col}}
* [[Access control]]
* [[Anti-keylogger]]s
* [[Anti-malware]]
* [[Anti-spyware]]
* [[Anti-subversion software]]
* [[Anti-tamper software]]
* [[Anti-theft]]
* [[Antivirus software]]
* [[Cryptographic software]]
* [[Computer-aided dispatch]] (CAD)
* [[Data loss prevention software]]
* [[Firewall (computing)|Firewall]]
* [[Intrusion detection system]] (IDS)
* [[Intrusion prevention system]] (IPS)
* [[Log management software]]
* [[Parental control]]
* [[Records management]]
* [[Sandbox (computer security)|Sandbox]]
* [[Security information management]]
* [[Security information and event management]] (SIEM)
* [[Patch (computing)|Software and operating system updating]]
* [[Vulnerability Management]]
{{div col end}}

==Systems at risk==
The growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk.

===Financial systems===
The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]], SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for [[Cybercrime|cybercriminals]] interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The New Market Manipulation|first=Tom C. W.|last=Lin|date=3 July 2017|ssrn=2996896|journal= Emory Law Journal |volume=66|page=1253 }}</ref> Websites and apps that accept or store [[credit card number]]s, brokerage accounts, and [[bank account]] information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the [[black market]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Financial Weapons of War |journal=Minnesota Law Review|year= 2016|ssrn=2765010|last1=Lin|first1=Tom C. W.}}</ref> In-store payment systems and [[Automated teller machine|ATMs]] have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and [[Personal identification number|PINs]].

The [[UCLA]] Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about [[credit card]] security.<ref>{{cite report|last1=Cole|first1=Jeffrey I.|first2=Michael|last2=Suman|first3=Phoebe|last3=Schramm|first4=Daniel|last4=van Bel|first5=B.|last5=Lunn|first6=Phyllisane|last6=Maguire|first7=Koran|last7=Hanson|first8=Rajesh|last8=Singh|first9=Jedrix-Sean|last9=Aquino|first10=Harlan|last10=Lebo|title=The UCLA Internet report: Surveying the digital future|website=ccp.ucla.edu|year=2000|url=http://ccp.ucla.edu/UCLA-Internet-Report-2000.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030423221926/http://ccp.ucla.edu/UCLA-Internet-Report-2000.pdf|archive-date=23 April 2003|access-date=15 September 2023}}</ref>

The most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS ([[Transport Layer Security]]), [[identity management]] and [[authentication]] services, and [[domain name]] services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, [[instant messaging]], and [[VoIP]] (voice-over-IP). There are various [[Interoperability|interoperable]] implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is [[open source]]. Open source allows anyone to view the application's [[source code]], and look for and report vulnerabilities.

The credit card companies [[Visa Debit|Visa]] and [[MasterCard]] cooperated to develop the secure [[EMV]] chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the [[Chip Authentication Program]] where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping [[mall kiosk]]s acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers.

===Utilities and industrial equipment===
Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of [[telecommunications]], the [[power grid]], [[nuclear power plant]]s, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the [[Stuxnet]] worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the [[Computer Emergency Readiness Team]], a division of the [[Department of Homeland Security]], investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pagliery |first1=Jose |title=Hackers attacked the U.S. energy grid 79 times this year |url=https://money.cnn.com/2014/11/18/technology/security/energy-grid-hack/ |website=CNN Money |publisher=Cable News Network |access-date=16 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218070238/https://money.cnn.com/2014/11/18/technology/security/energy-grid-hack |archive-date=18 February 2015  |date=18 November 2014 }}</ref>

===Aviation===
The [[aviation]] industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked.<ref>{{cite conference |first=P. G. |last=Neumann |title=Computer Security in Aviation: Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Risks |conference=International Conference on Aviation Safety and Security in the 21st Century, White House Commission on Safety and Security |year=1997 |url=https://www.csl.sri.com/~neumann/air.html}}</ref> A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide,<ref>{{cite report | last=Dillingham | first=Gerald L. | title=Aviation security: terrorist acts demonstrate urgent need to improve security at the nation's airports | publisher=United States. General Accounting Office | date=20 September 2001 | url=https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/33937}}</ref> much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.securityweek.com/air-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat|title=Air Traffic Control Systems Vulnerabilities Could Make for Unfriendly Skies [Black Hat] – SecurityWeek.Com|date=27 July 2012 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208070914/http://www.securityweek.com/air-traffic-control-systems-vulnerabilities-could-make-unfriendly-skies-black-hat|archive-date=8 February 2015}}</ref> and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 August 2014 |title=Hacker Says He Can Break into Airplane Systems Using In-Flight Wi-Fi |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/04/337794061/hacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208072554/http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/04/337794061/hacker-says-he-can-break-into-airplane-systems-using-in-flight-wi-fi |archive-date=8 February 2015 |access-date=2020-03-19 |work=NPR}}</ref> There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jim |last=Finkle |date=4 August 2014 |title=Hacker says to show passenger jets at risk of cyber attack |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-hackers-airplanes-idUSKBN0G40WQ20140804 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013061705/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/04/us-cybersecurity-hackers-airplanes-idUSKBN0G40WQ20140804 |archive-date=13 October 2015}}</ref>

Implementing fixes in aerospace systems poses a unique challenge because efficient air transportation is heavily affected by weight and volume. Improving security by adding physical devices to airplanes could increase their unloaded weight, and could potentially reduce cargo or passenger capacity.<ref>{{cite magazine  | last = Cesar | first = Alan | title = Online course bolsters cybersecurity in aviation | magazine = Aerogram | date = 15 Dec 2023 | url =  https://engineering.purdue.edu/AAE/Aerogram/2023-2024/articles/41-cyber-course | publisher=Purdue University School of Aeronautics and Astronautics| access-date =2024-01-09 }}</ref>

In Europe, with the ([[Pan-European Network Service]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eurocontrol.int/articles/pan-european-network-services-pens|title=Pan-European Network Services (PENS) – Eurocontrol.int|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212175606/https://www.eurocontrol.int/articles/pan-european-network-services-pens|archive-date=12 December 2016}}</ref> and NewPENS,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eurocontrol.int/news/centralised-services-newpens-moves-forward|title=Centralised Services: NewPENS moves forward – Eurocontrol.int|work=Eurocontrol |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319025329/https://www.eurocontrol.int/news/centralised-services-newpens-moves-forward|archive-date=19 March 2017|date=17 January 2016}}</ref> and in the US with the NextGen program,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/nextgen/update/progress_and_plans/data_comm/|title=NextGen Data Communication|publisher=FAA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313110025/http://www.faa.gov/nextgen/update/progress_and_plans/data_comm/|archive-date=13 March 2015|access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref> [[air navigation service provider]]s are moving to create their own dedicated networks.

Many modern passports are now [[biometric passport]]s, containing an embedded [[Integrated circuit|microchip]] that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries{{which|date=December 2012}} are introducing [[facial recognition technology]] to reduce [[identity fraud|identity-related fraud]]. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=e-Passports {{!}} Homeland Security |url=https://www.dhs.gov/e-passports |access-date=2023-02-03 |website=www.dhs.gov}}</ref> Plans are under way in the US, the [[UK]], and [[Australia]] to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and [[fingerprint recognition]] technology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/dept/passports/|title=The Australian ePassport. Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade website|access-date=1 May 2023|archive-date=9 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109033115/http://www.dfat.gov.au/dept/passports/}}</ref> The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of [[electronic ticket]]s (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies{{which|date=December 2012}} are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today.

The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, [[air traffic control]] outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life.

===Consumer devices===
Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. [[Smartphone]]s, [[tablet computer]]s, [[smart watch]]es, and other [[mobile devices]] such as [[quantified self]] devices like [[activity tracker]]s have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and [[accelerometers]] which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach.<ref name="nestwatch">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/06/338334508/is-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it|title=Is Your Watch Or Thermostat A Spy? Cybersecurity Firms Are On It|date=6 August 2014|work=NPR|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211064650/http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2014/08/06/338334508/is-your-watch-or-thermostat-a-spy-cyber-security-firms-are-on-it|archive-date=11 February 2015}}</ref>

The increasing number of [[home automation]] devices such as the [[Nest thermostat]] are also potential targets.<ref name="nestwatch" />

===Healthcare===
Today many healthcare providers and [[health insurance]] companies use the internet to provide enhanced products and services. Examples are the use of [[Telehealth|tele-health]] to potentially offer better quality and access to healthcare, or fitness trackers to lower insurance premiums.<ref>{{Cite news |last=O'Neill |first=Stephanie |date=2018-11-19 |title=As Insurers Offer Discounts For Fitness Trackers, Wearers Should Step With Caution |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/11/19/668266197/as-insurers-offer-discounts-for-fitness-trackers-wearers-should-step-with-cautio |access-date=2025-10-10 |work=NPR |language=en}}</ref> Patient records are increasingly being placed on secure in-house networks, alleviating the need for extra storage space.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kruse |first1=CB |last2=Smith |first2=B |last3=Vanderlinden |first3=H |last4=Nealand |first4=A |date=July 21, 2017 |title=Security Techniques for the Electronic Health Records |journal=Journal of Medical Systems |volume=41 |issue=8 |page=127 |doi=10.1007/s10916-017-0778-4 |pmc=5522514 |pmid=28733949}}</ref>

===Large corporations===
Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through [[identity theft]] and involve [[data breach]]es. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by [[Home Depot]],<ref>{{cite news |first=Melvin |last=Backman |date=18 September 2014 |title=Home Depot: 56 million cards exposed in breach |publisher=[[CNNMoney]] |url=https://money.cnn.com/2014/09/18/technology/security/home-depot-hack/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218221105/https://money.cnn.com/2014/09/18/technology/security/home-depot-hack/ |archive-date=18 December 2014  }}</ref> [[Staples Inc.|Staples]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://fortune.com/2014/12/19/staples-cards-affected-breach/ |title=Staples: Breach may have affected 1.16 million customers' cards |magazine=Fortune.com |date=19 December 2014 |access-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221160612/http://fortune.com/2014/12/19/staples-cards-affected-breach/ |archive-date=21 December 2014  }}</ref> [[Target Corporation]],<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Not stated.-->|title=Target: 40 million credit cards compromised|url=https://money.cnn.com/2013/12/18/news/companies/target-credit-card/index.html|access-date=29 November 2017|work=CNN|date=19 December 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035530/https://money.cnn.com/2013/12/18/news/companies/target-credit-card/index.html|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> and [[Equifax]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cowley|first1=Stacy|title=2.5 Million More People Potentially Exposed in Equifax Breach|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/02/business/equifax-breach.html|access-date=29 November 2017|work=The New York Times|date=2 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201054900/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/02/business/equifax-breach.html|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref>

Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423|title=Exclusive: FBI warns healthcare sector vulnerable to cyber attacks|first=Jim|last=Finkle|date=23 April 2014|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604120725/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-healthcare-fbi-exclusiv-idUSBREA3M1Q920140423|archive-date=4 June 2016}}</ref> Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/lack-of-employee-security-training/|title=Lack of Employee Security Training Plagues US Businesses|last=Seals|first=Tara|date=6 November 2015|work=Infosecurity Magazine|access-date=8 November 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109081033/https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/lack-of-employee-security-training/|archive-date=9 November 2017}}</ref>

Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm [[HBGary Federal]] had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from [[Hacktivism|hacktivist]] group [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]] in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group,<ref>{{cite web |last=Bright |first=Peter |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/anonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars/ |title=Anonymous speaks: the inside story of the HBGary hack |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=15 February 2011 |access-date=29 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110327045801/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/anonymous-speaks-the-inside-story-of-the-hbgary-hack.ars |archive-date=27 March 2011  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Anderson |first=Nate |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/how-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars/ |title=How one man tracked down Anonymous{{snd}}and paid a heavy price |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=9 February 2011 |access-date=29 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110329090824/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/how-one-security-firm-tracked-anonymousand-paid-a-heavy-price.ars |archive-date=29 March 2011  }}</ref> and [[Sony Pictures]] was [[Sony Pictures hack|hacked in 2014]] with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://money.cnn.com/2014/12/24/technology/security/sony-hack-facts/ |title=What caused Sony hack: What we know now |first=Jose |last=Palilery |website=[[CNN Money]] |date=24 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104195455/https://money.cnn.com/2014/12/24/technology/security/sony-hack-facts/ |archive-date=4 January 2015  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=James |last=Cook |date=16 December 2014 |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12 |title=Sony Hackers Have Over 100 Terabytes Of Documents. Only Released 200 Gigabytes So Far |work=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=18 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217204735/http://www.businessinsider.com/the-sony-hackers-still-have-a-massive-amount-of-data-that-hasnt-been-leaked-yet-2014-12 |archive-date=17 December 2014  }}</ref>

===Automobiles===
{{See also|Autonomous car#Potential disadvantages|Automated driving system#Risks and liabilities|Automotive hacking}}
Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, [[cruise control]], [[anti-lock brakes]], seat belt tensioners, door locks, [[airbag]]s and [[advanced driver-assistance systems]] on many models. Additionally, [[connected car]]s may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network.<ref name="vox" /> [[Self-driving car]]s are expected to be even more complex. All of these systems carry some security risks, and such issues have gained wide attention.<ref>{{cite report | url=http://www.markey.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%202.pdf | title=Tracking & Hacking: Security & Privacy Gaps Put American Drivers at Risk | date=6 February 2015 | access-date=4 November 2016 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109040112/http://www.markey.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/2015-02-06_MarkeyReport-Tracking_Hacking_CarSecurity%202.pdf | archive-date=9 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated.-->|title=Cybersecurity expert: It will take a 'major event' for companies to take this issue seriously|url=https://www.aol.com/article/news/2016/12/26/expert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity/21632630/|website=AOL.com|date=5 January 2017 |access-date=22 January 2017|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120180918/https://www.aol.com/article/news/2016/12/26/expert-warns-major-event-will-need-to-happen-for-cybersecurity/21632630/|archive-date=20 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The problem with self-driving cars: who controls the code?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/dec/23/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=22 January 2017|date=23 December 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316152605/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/dec/23/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-who-controls-the-code|archive-date=16 March 2017}}</ref>

Simple examples of risk include a malicious [[compact disc]] being used as an attack vector,<ref>{{cite conference|url=http://www.autosec.org/pubs/cars-usenixsec2011.pdf|title=Comprehensive Experimental Analyses of Automotive Attack Surfaces|year=2011|conference=SEC'11 Proceedings of the 20th USENIX conference on Security|page=6|publisher=USENIX Association|location=Berkeley, California, US|first1=Stephen|last1=Checkoway|first2=Damon|last2=McCoy|first3=Brian|last3=Kantor|author-link3=Brian Kantor|first4=Danny|last4=Anderson|first5=Hovav|last5=Shacham|first6=Stefan|last6=Savage|author-link6=Stefan Savage|first7=Karl|last7=Koscher|first8=Alexei|last8=Czeskis|first9=Franziska|last9=Roesner|first10=Tadayoshi|last10=Kohno|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221064614/http://www.autosec.org/pubs/cars-usenixsec2011.pdf|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal [[controller area network]], the danger is much greater<ref name="vox">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/1/18/7629603/car-hacking-dangers|title=The next frontier of hacking: your car|first=Timothy B.|last=Lee|date=18 January 2015|work=Vox|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317212726/http://www.vox.com/2015/1/18/7629603/car-hacking-dangers|archive-date=17 March 2017}}</ref> – and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Greenberg|first1=Andy|title=Hackers Remotely Kill a Jeep on the Highway{{snd}}With Me in It|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/07/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway/|access-date=22 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119103855/https://www.wired.com/2015/07/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway/|archive-date=19 January 2017|date=21 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Hackers take control of car, drive it into a ditch|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/hackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=22 January 2017|date=22 July 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202061247/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/hackers-remotely-carjack-jeep-from-10-miles-away-and-drive-it-into-ditch-10406554.html|archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref>

Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with [[Tesla Motors|Tesla]] in 2016 pushing out some security fixes ''over the air'' into its cars' computer systems.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tesla fixes software bug that allowed Chinese hackers to control car remotely|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/09/21/tesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control/|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=22 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202014932/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/09/21/tesla-fixes-software-bug-that-allowed-chinese-hackers-to-control/|archive-date=2 February 2017|date=21 September 2016|author=<!--Not stated.-->}}</ref> In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the [[United States Department of Transportation]] announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kang|first1=Cecilia|title=Self-Driving Cars Gain Powerful Ally: The Government|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/20/technology/self-driving-cars-guidelines.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=22 January 2017|date=19 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214045032/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/20/technology/self-driving-cars-guidelines.html?_r=0|archive-date=14 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Federal Automated Vehicles Policy|url=https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/AV%20policy%20guidance%20PDF.pdf|access-date=22 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121161404/https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/AV%20policy%20guidance%20PDF.pdf|archive-date=21 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vehicle Cybersecurity |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/vehicle-cybersecurity |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=nhtsa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Additionally, e-Drivers' licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico's licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers' licenses to the city of [[Monterrey]], in the state of [[Nuevo León]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Thales supplies smart driver license to 4 states in Mexico | website=Thales Group | url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/markets/digital-identity-and-security/government/customer-cases/mexico }}</ref>

===Shipping===
Shipping companies<ref>{{Cite web |title=4 Companies Using RFID for Supply Chain Management |url=https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/rfid-insider/4-companies-using-rfid-for-supply-chain-management |access-date=2023-02-03 |website=atlasRFIDstore |language=en}}</ref> have adopted [[RFID]] (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, [[tracking device]]. Unlike a [[barcode]], RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by [[FedEx]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.supplychainmarket.com/doc/the-cutting-edge-of-rfid-technology-and-appli-0001|title = The Cutting Edge of RFID Technology and Applications for Manufacturing and Distribution| website=Supply Chain Market}}</ref> and [[United Parcel Service|UPS]].<ref>{{Cite conference|last1=Rahman|first1=Mohammad Anwar|last2=Khadem|first2=Mohammad Miftaur|last3=Sarder|first3=MD.|title=Application of RFID in Supply Chain System|conference=Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Dhaka, Bangladesh, January 9 – 10, 2010|citeseerx=10.1.1.397.7831}}</ref>

===Government===
Government and [[military]] computer systems are commonly attacked by activists<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/4320901/Gary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph |title=Gary McKinnon profile: Autistic 'hacker' who started writing computer programs at 14 |date=23 January 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602065423/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/4320901/Gary-McKinnon-profile-Autistic-hacker-who-started-writing-computer-programs-at-14.html |archive-date=2 June 2010  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090 |title=Gary McKinnon extradition ruling due by 16 October |work=BBC News |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=25 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906185731/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19506090 |archive-date=6 September 2012  }}</ref><ref>{{cite court |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldjudgmt/jd080730/mckinn-1.htm |litigants=Mckinnon V Government of The United States of America and Another |court=House of Lords |date=16 June 2008 |quote=15. ... alleged to total over $700,000 |access-date=30 January 2010  }}</ref> and foreign powers.<ref>{{cite news | title=Fresh Leak on US Spying: NSA Accessed Mexican President's Email | website=SPIEGEL ONLINE | date=2013-10-20 | url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106193613/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nsa-hacked-email-account-of-mexican-president-a-928817.html | archive-date=2015-11-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/06/04/412086068/massive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk |title=Massive Data Breach Puts 4 Million Federal Employees' Records at Risk |work=NPR |date=4 June 2015 |access-date=5 June 2015 |author=Sanders, Sam |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605041629/http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/06/04/412086068/massive-data-breach-puts-4-million-federal-employees-records-at-risk |archive-date=5 June 2015  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/04/politics/federal-agency-hacked-personnel-management/ |title=U.S. government hacked; feds think China is the culprit |work=CNN |date=4 June 2015 |access-date=5 June 2015 |author=Liptak, Kevin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606063139/http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/04/politics/federal-agency-hacked-personnel-management/ |archive-date=6 June 2015  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Encryption "would not have helped" at OPM, says DHS official |first=Sean |last=Gallagher |url=https://arstechnica.com/security/2015/06/encryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624014751/https://arstechnica.com/security/2015/06/encryption-would-not-have-helped-at-opm-says-dhs-official/ |archive-date=24 June 2017  }}</ref> Local and regional government infrastructure such as [[traffic light]] controls, police and intelligence agency communications, [[Office of Personnel Management data breach|personnel records]], as well as student records.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/10/21/lessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html|title=Schools Learn Lessons From Security Breaches|date=19 October 2015|journal=Education Week|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610130749/http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/10/21/lessons-learned-from-security-breaches.html|archive-date=10 June 2016|last1=Davis|first1=Michelle R.}}</ref>

The [[FBI]], [[CIA]], and [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]], all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording.<ref>{{cite web |title=GE's Introduces ACUVision as a Single Panel Solution |url=https://www.securityinfowatch.com/access-identity/access-control/press-release/10577631/ge-infrastructure-security-ges-introduces-acuvision-as-a-single-panel-solution |website=www.securityinfowatch.com |date=11 August 2005 |publisher=Security Info Watch |access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref>

===Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities===
The [[Internet of things]] (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are [[Embedded system|embedded]] with [[electronics]], [[software]], [[sensor]]s, and [[Internet access|network connectivity]] that enables them to collect and exchange data.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsi/iot/Pages/default.aspx|title=Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative|work=ITU|access-date=26 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626125229/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsi/iot/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date=26 June 2015}}</ref> Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Jatinder|last2=Pasquier|first2=Thomas|last3=Bacon|first3=Jean|last4=Ko|first4=Hajoon|last5=Eyers|first5=David|title=Twenty Cloud Security Considerations for Supporting the Internet of Things|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=3|issue=3|date=2015|pages=269–284|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2015.2460333|s2cid=4732406|url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/35349952/1/iot-2016.pdf|url-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisclearfield/2013/09/18/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things/|title=Why The FTC Can't Regulate The Internet Of Things|first=Chris|last=Clearfield|work=Forbes|access-date=26 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627090938/http://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisclearfield/2013/09/18/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things/|archive-date=27 June 2015}}</ref>

While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://hbr.org/resources/pdfs/comm/verizon/18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317052909/https://hbr.org/resources/pdfs/comm/verizon/18980_HBR_Verizon_IoT_Nov_14.pdf |archive-date=2015-03-17 |url-status=live | title=Internet of Things: Science Fiction or Business Fact? | work=Harvard Business Review | access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf | title=Internet of Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems | publisher=River Publishers | access-date=4 November 2016 | first1=Ovidiu | last1=Vermesan | first2=Peter | last2=Friess | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012010519/http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf | archive-date=12 October 2016 }}</ref>
it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Clearfield | first=Chris | title=Rethinking Security for the Internet of Things | journal=Harvard Business Review | date=2013-06-20 | url=http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/06/rethinking-security-for-the-in/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920145534/http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/06/rethinking-security-for-the-in/ | archive-date=2013-09-20 | url-status=live }}</ref> If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/security/2012/11/hotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks/|title=Hotel room burglars exploit critical flaw in electronic door locks|work=Ars Technica|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514002208/http://arstechnica.com/security/2012/11/hotel-room-burglars-exploit-critical-flaw-in-electronic-door-locks/|archive-date=14 May 2016|date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

An attack aimed at physical infrastructure or human lives is often called a cyber-kinetic attack. As IoT devices and appliances become more widespread, the prevalence and potential damage of cyber-kinetic attacks can increase substantially.

===Medical systems===
{{See also|Medical device hijack|Medical data breach}}
[[Medical devices]] have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darkreading.com/vulnerabilities---threats/hospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks/d/d-id/1320751|title=Hospital Medical Devices Used As Weapons in Cyberattacks|work=Dark Reading|date=6 August 2015|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529002947/http://www.darkreading.com/vulnerabilities---threats/hospital-medical-devices-used-as-weapons-in-cyberattacks/d/d-id/1320751|archive-date=29 May 2016}}</ref> and implanted devices including [[pacemaker]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2492453/malware-vulnerabilities/pacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html|title=Pacemaker hack can deliver deadly 830-volt jolt|first=Jeremy|last=Kirk|date=17 October 2012|work=Computerworld|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604201841/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2492453/malware-vulnerabilities/pacemaker-hack-can-deliver-deadly-830-volt-jolt.html|archive-date=4 June 2016}}</ref> and [[insulin pump]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/11/17/how-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html|title=How Your Pacemaker Will Get Hacked|newspaper=The Daily Beast|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520155616/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/11/17/how-your-pacemaker-will-get-hacked.html|archive-date=20 May 2016|date=17 November 2014|agency=Kaiser Health News}}</ref> There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including [[ransomware]] attacks,<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Leetaru|first1=Kalev|title=Hacking Hospitals And Holding Hostages: Cybersecurity In 2016|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/03/29/hacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016/|magazine=Forbes|access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229104021/http://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/03/29/hacking-hospitals-and-holding-hostages-cybersecurity-in-2016/|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="wiwo1">{{cite web|title=Cyber-Angriffe: Krankenhäuser rücken ins Visier der Hacker|date=7 December 2016 |url=http://www.wiwo.de/technologie/digitale-welt/cyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker/14946040.html|publisher=Wirtschafts Woche|access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101724/http://www.wiwo.de/technologie/digitale-welt/cyber-angriffe-krankenhaeuser-ruecken-ins-visier-der-hacker/14946040.html|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hospitals keep getting attacked by ransomware{{snd}}Here's why|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/hospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5|website=Business Insider|access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101247/http://www.businessinsider.com/hospital-ransomware-hack-2016-5|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=MedStar Hospitals Recovering After 'Ransomware' Hack|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/medstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121|work=NBC News|date=31 March 2016 |access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229103355/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/medstar-hospitals-recovering-after-ransomware-hack-n548121|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref> [[Windows XP]] exploits,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pauli|first1=Darren|title=US hospitals hacked with ancient exploits|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/06/28/medjack/|website=The Register|access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116141207/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/06/28/medjack|archive-date=16 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Pauli|first1=Darren|title=Zombie OS lurches through Royal Melbourne Hospital spreading virus|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/01/19/melbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus/|website=The Register|access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101019/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/01/19/melbourne_hospital_pathology_wing_splattered_by_virus/|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref> viruses,<ref>{{cite news|title=Hacked Lincolnshire hospital computer systems 'back up'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37849746|work=BBC News|access-date=29 December 2016|date=2 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101819/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37849746|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Lincolnshire operations cancelled after network attack|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37822084|work=BBC News|access-date=29 December 2016|date=31 October 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229101209/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-37822084|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref> and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Legion cyber-attack: Next dump is sansad.nic.in, say hackers|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/legion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167/|newspaper=The Indian Express|access-date=29 December 2016|date=12 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229100631/http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/legion-hacking-no-political-agenda-just-computer-geeks-says-hacker-4423167/|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="wiwo1" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Former New Hampshire Psychiatric Hospital Patient Accused Of Data Breach|url=http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/12/27/former-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital/|publisher=CBS Boston|access-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929233237/http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/12/27/former-patient-accused-data-breech-new-hampshire-psychiatric-hospital/|archive-date=29 September 2017|date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Texas Hospital hacked, affects nearly 30,000 patient records|url=http://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/texas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records|publisher=Healthcare IT News|access-date=29 December 2016|date=4 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229171117/http://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/texas-hospital-hacked-affects-nearly-30000-patient-records|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref> On 28 December 2016 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] released its recommendations for how medical [[Medical device manufacturing|device manufacturers]] should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices – but no structure for enforcement.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Becker|first1=Rachel|title=New cybersecurity guidelines for medical devices tackle evolving threats|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/27/14095166/fda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines|website=The Verge|access-date=29 December 2016|date=27 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228210257/http://www.theverge.com/2016/12/27/14095166/fda-guidance-medical-device-cybersecurity-cyberattack-hacking-guidelines|archive-date=28 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Postmarket Management of Cybersecurity in Medical Devices|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]|url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/UCM482022.pdf|access-date=29 December 2016|date=28 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229102808/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/UCM482022.pdf|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Energy sector ===
In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to ''Daily Energy Insider''. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, [[Pepco]], the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would "allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://dailyenergyinsider.com/featured/13110-d-c-distributed-4:.energy-proposal-draws-concerns-of-increased-cybersecurity-risks/|title=D.C. distributed energy proposal draws concerns of increased cybersecurity risks|last=Brandt|first=Jaclyn|date=18 June 2018|work=Daily Energy Insider|access-date=4 July 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Telecommunications===
Perhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the [[Subscriber Identity Module|SIM]] (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world's cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment.

The Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an [[HTTP server]] in a [[smart card]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openmobilealliance.org/Technical/release_program/scws_v1_0.aspx|title=Current Releases - The Open Mobile Alliance|work=openmobilealliance.org}}</ref> Tests are being conducted to secure OTA ("over-the-air") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. 
Combination SIM/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a [[DVD]]-compliant [[optical disc]] into the card body of a regular SIM card.

Other telecommunication developments involving digital security include [[mobile signature]]s, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding [[electronic signature]].

==Cost and impact of security breaches==
Serious financial damage has been caused by [[security breaches]], but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to [[computer virus|virus]] and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal."<ref>{{cite report |last1=Cashell|first1=B.|last2=Jackson|first2=W. D.|last3=Jickling|first3=M.|last4=Webel|first4=B. |year=2004 |title=The Economic Impact of Cyber-Attacks |publisher=Congressional Research Service, Government, and Finance Division |location=Washington DC |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL32331.pdf |id=RL32331}}</ref>

However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic [[Gordon-Loeb Model]] analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the [[expected value]] of the loss resulting from a cyber/information [[security breach]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Lawrence |last2=Loeb |first2=Martin |title=The Economics of Information Security Investment |journal=ACM Transactions on Information and System Security |date=November 2002 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=438–457 |doi=10.1145/581271.581274|s2cid=1500788 }}</ref>

==Attacker motivation==
As with [[physical security]], the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or [[Vandalism|vandals]], some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the [[KGB]], as recounted by [[Clifford Stoll]] in ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg]]''.

Attackers motivations can vary for all types of attacks from pleasure to political goals.<ref name="DoS guidance" /> For example, hacktivists may target a company or organization that carries out activities they do not agree with. This would be to create bad publicity for the company by having its website crash.

High capability hackers, often with larger backing or state sponsorship, may attack based on the demands of their financial backers. These attacks are more likely to attempt more serious attack. An example of a more serious attack was the [[2015 Ukraine power grid hack]], which reportedly utilised the spear-phising, destruction of files, and denial-of-service attacks to carry out the full attack.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. |last2=Barnes |first2=Julian E. |date=2021-12-20 |title=U.S. and Britain Help Ukraine Prepare for Potential Russian Cyberassault |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/20/us/politics/russia-ukraine-cyberattacks.html |access-date=2023-12-04 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-20 |title=Cyber-Attack Against Ukrainian Critical Infrastructure {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/ics-alerts/ir-alert-h-16-056-01 |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=www.cisa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=Chen|last2=Dongre|first2=Rituja|date=2014|title=Q&A. What Motivates Cyber-Attackers?|journal=Technology Innovation Management Review|language=en|volume=4|issue=10|pages=40–42|doi=10.22215/timreview/838|issn=1927-0321|doi-access=free}}</ref> The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of [[nation state]] actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chermick |first1=Steven |last2=Freilich |first2=Joshua |last3=Holt |first3=Thomas |title=Exploring the Subculture of Ideologically Motivated Cyber-Attackers |journal=Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice |date= April 2017 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=212–233 |doi=10.1177/1043986217699100|s2cid=152277480 }}</ref>

A key aspect of threat modeling for any system is identifying the motivations behind potential attacks and the individuals or groups likely to carry them out. The level and detail of security measures will differ based on the specific system being protected. For instance, a home personal computer, a bank, and a classified military network each face distinct threats, despite using similar underlying technologies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Ross |title=Security engineering: a guide to building dependable distributed systems|date=2020|isbn=978-1-119-64281-7|edition=3rd | publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Indianapolis, IN|oclc=1224516855}}</ref>

==Computer security incident management==
[[Computer security incident management]] is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a [[data breach]] or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icims.com/gc/incident-response-procedures/|access-date=2021-03-13| publisher=iCIMS | title= The Leading Cloud Recruiting Software}}</ref>
Incident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution.

There are four key components of a computer security incident response plan:
# Preparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises
# Detection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident
# Containment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains
# Post incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts.<ref>Wilcox, S. and Brown, B. (2005) 'Responding to Security Incidents – Sooner or Later Your Systems Will Be Compromised', ''Journal of Health Care Compliance'', 7(2), pp. 41–48</ref>

==Notable attacks and breaches==
{{Further|List of cyber-attacks|List of data breaches}}
Some illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below.
<!-- We don't want to list every breach ever – and please keep the descriptions short -->

===Robert Morris and the first computer worm===
{{Main|Morris worm}}

In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet [[computer worm]].<ref name="multiple">Jonathan Zittrain, 'The Future of The Internet', Penguin Books, 2008</ref> The software was traced back to 23-year-old [[Cornell University]] graduate student [[Robert Tappan Morris]] who said "he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet".<ref name="multiple" />

===Rome Laboratory===
In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the [[Rome Laboratory]], the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using [[trojan horse (computing)|trojan horses]], hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]'s Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.<ref>[https://fas.org/irp/gao/aim96084.htm Information Security] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306140354/http://fas.org/irp/gao/aim96084.htm |date=6 March 2016 }}. United States Department of Defense, 1986</ref>

===TJX customer credit card details===
In early 2007, American apparel and home goods company [[TJX Companies|TJX]] announced that it was the victim of an [[Hacker (computer security)|unauthorized computer systems intrusion]]<ref>{{cite press release |title=The TJX Companies, Inc. Victimized by Computer System Intrusion; Provides Information to Help Protect Customers  |publisher=The TJX Companies, Inc. |date=17 January 2007 |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/tjx/20070117005971/en |access-date=12 December 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014805/http://www.businesswire.com/news/tjx/20070117005971/en |archive-date=27 September 2012  }}</ref> and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on [[credit card]], [[debit card]], [[cheque|check]], and merchandise return transactions.<ref>[http://www.myfoxtwincities.com/myfox/pages/Home/Detail?contentId=2804836&version=3&locale=EN-US&layoutCode=TSTY&pageId=1.1.1 Largest Customer Info Breach Grows] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041047/http://www.myfoxtwincities.com/myfox/pages/Home/Detail?contentId=2804836&version=3&locale=EN-US&layoutCode=TSTY&pageId=1.1.1 |date=28 September 2007 }}. MyFox Twin Cities, 29 March 2007.</ref>

===Stuxnet attack===
In 2010, the computer worm known as [[Stuxnet]] reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's [[nuclear centrifuge]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/stuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11 |title=The Stuxnet Attack On Iran's Nuclear Plant Was 'Far More Dangerous' Than Previously Thought |website=Business Insider |date=20 November 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509020404/http://www.businessinsider.com/stuxnet-was-far-more-dangerous-than-previous-thought-2013-11 |archive-date=9 May 2014  }}</ref> It did so by disrupting industrial [[programmable logic controller]]s (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/stuxnet-worm-a-us-cyber-attack-on-iran-nukes/ |title=Stuxnet Worm a U.S. Cyber-Attack on Iran Nukes? |work=CBS News |first=Tucker |last=Reals |date=24 September 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016133651/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-501465_162-20017507-501465.html |archive-date=16 October 2013  }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/02/cyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe |title=Cyberwar Issues Likely to Be Addressed Only After a Catastrophe |date=17 February 2011 |first=Kim |last=Zetter |magazine=Wired |access-date=18 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218154415/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/02/cyberwar-issues-likely-to-be-addressed-only-after-a-catastrophe/ |archive-date=18 February 2011  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/cone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090 |title=Cone of silence surrounds U.S. cyberwarfare |date=18 October 2011 |first=Chris |last=Carroll |publisher=Stars and Stripes |access-date=30 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307021747/http://www.stripes.com/news/cone-of-silence-surrounds-u-s-cyberwarfare-1.158090 |archive-date=7 March 2012  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crows.org/images/stories/pdf/IOI/IO%20Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf |title=Computers as Weapons of War |date=27 April 2010 |first=John |last=Bumgarner |publisher=IO Journal |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219174833/http://www.crows.org/images/stories/pdf/IOI/IO%20Journal_Vol2Iss2_0210.pdf |archive-date=19 December 2011  }}</ref> – although neither has publicly admitted this.

===Global surveillance disclosures===
{{Main|Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)}}

In early 2013, documents provided by [[Edward Snowden]] were published by ''[[The Washington Post]]'' and ''[[The Guardian]]''<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenwald|first=Glenn|title=NSA collecting phone records of millions of Verizon customers daily|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=16 August 2013|quote=Exclusive: Top secret court order requiring [[Verizon]] to hand over all call data shows scale of domestic surveillance under [[Barack Obama|Obama]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816045641/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order|archive-date=16 August 2013|date=6 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Seipel |first=Hubert |title=Transcript: ARD interview with Edward Snowden |url=https://www.freesnowden.is/fr/2014/01/27/video-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden/ |work=La Foundation Courage |access-date=11 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714174333/https://www.freesnowden.is/fr/2014/01/27/video-ard-interview-with-edward-snowden/ |archive-date=14 July 2014  }}</ref> exposing the massive scale of [[NSA]] global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a [[NIST]] standard for encryption.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Lily Hay |last=Newman |date=9 October 2013 |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/can-you-trust-nist |title=Can You Trust NIST? |journal=IEEE Spectrum |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201095426/https://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/can-you-trust-nist |archive-date=1 February 2016  }}</ref> This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nist.gov/itl/csd/sp800-90-042114.cfm | work=National Institute of Standards and Technology | title=NIST Removes Cryptography Algorithm from Random Number Generator Recommendations | date=21 April 2014}}</ref> The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between [[Google]]'s data centers.<ref>[http://mashable.com/2013/10/30/nsa-google-yahoo-data-centers/ "New Snowden Leak: NSA Tapped Google, Yahoo Data Centers"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709131535/http://mashable.com/2013/10/30/nsa-google-yahoo-data-centers/ |date=9 July 2014 }}, 31 October 2013, Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai, mashable.com</ref>

===Target and Home Depot breaches===
A Ukrainian hacker known as [[Rescator]] broke into [[Target Corporation]] computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-03-13/target-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data |title=Target Missed Warnings in Epic Hack of Credit Card Data |first1=Michael |last1=Riley |first2=Ben |last2=Elgin |first3=Dune |last3=Lawrence |first4=Carol |last4=Matlack |work=Businessweek |date=17 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150127015928/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-03-13/target-missed-alarms-in-epic-hack-of-credit-card-data |archive-date=27 January 2015  }}</ref> and then [[Home Depot]] computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach/ |first1=Seth |last1=Rosenblatt |title=Home Depot says 53 million emails stolen|date=6 November 2014|publisher=CBS Interactive|work=CNET|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209035159/http://www.cnet.com/news/53-million-emails-stolen-in-home-depot-breach/|archive-date=9 December 2014}}</ref> Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using [[Self-checkout|self checkout machine]]s are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing [[antivirus software]] had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing.

===Office of Personnel Management data breach===
In April 2015, the [[United States Office of Personnel Management|Office of Personnel Management]] [[Office of Personnel Management data breach|discovered it had been hacked]] more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5&nbsp;million personnel records handled by the office.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709|title=Millions more Americans hit by government personnel data hack|date=9 July 2017|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=25 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228005352/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709|archive-date=28 February 2017}}</ref> The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888|title=U.S. Suspects Hackers in China Breached About four (4) Million People's Records, Officials Say|last=Barrett|first=Devlin|website=The Wall Street Journal|date=4 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604215718/http://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-suspects-hackers-in-china-behind-government-data-breach-sources-say-1433451888|archive-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> Data targeted in the breach included [[personally identifiable information]] such as [[Social Security number]]s, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/06/05/china-suspected-in-theft-of-federal-employee-records|title=China Suspected in Theft of Federal Employee Records|last=Risen|first=Tom|date=5 June 2015|website=U.S. News & World Report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606064331/http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/06/05/china-suspected-in-theft-of-federal-employee-records|archive-date=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709|title=Estimate of Americans hit by government personnel data hack skyrockets|last=Zengerle|first=Patricia|date=19 July 2015|newspaper=Reuters|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710075449/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/09/us-cybersecurity-usa-idUSKCN0PJ2M420150709|archive-date=10 July 2015}}</ref> It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/05/us/breach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html|title=Hacking Linked to China Exposes Millions of U.S. Workers|last=Sanger|first=David|date=5 June 2015|work=The New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605135158/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/05/us/breach-in-a-federal-computer-system-exposes-personnel-data.html|archive-date=5 June 2015}}</ref>

===Ashley Madison breach===
{{main|Ashley Madison data breach{{!}}Ashley Madison Data Breach}}

In July 2015, a hacker group known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Mansfield-Devine
| first = Steve
| date = 1 September 2015
| title = The Ashley Madison affair
| journal = Network Security
| volume = 2015
| issue = 9
| pages = 8–16
| doi = 10.1016/S1353-4858(15)30080-5
}}</ref> When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function.

=== Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack ===
{{Main|Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack}}

In June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast.<ref>{{cite news| title=Hackers Breached Colonial Pipeline Using Compromised Password| author1=Turton, W.| author2=Mehrotra, K.| url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-04/hackers-breached-colonial-pipeline-using-compromised-password| publisher=Bloomberg L.P.| date=4 June 2021| access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref>

==Legal issues and global regulation==
International legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of [[malware]] or form of [[Cyber-Attacks|cyber attack]], often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute.<ref name="ted.com">{{cite web |title=Mikko Hypponen: Fighting viruses, defending the net |date=19 July 2011 |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net |publisher=TED |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116010603/http://www.ted.com/talks/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html |archive-date=16 January 2013  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mikko Hypponen – Behind Enemy Lines | date=9 December 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TMFRO66Wv4 |publisher=Hack in the Box Security Conference |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125075257/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TMFRO66Wv4 |archive-date=25 November 2016  }}</ref> Proving [[cyber attribution|attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks]] is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. "[[Computer viruses]] switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another – moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world."<ref name="ted.com" /> The use of techniques such as [[dynamic DNS]], [[fast flux]] and [[Bulletproof hosting|bullet proof servers]] add to the difficulty of investigation and enforcement.

==Role of government==
The role of the government is to make [[Cyber-security regulation|regulations]] to force companies and organizations to protect their systems, infrastructure and information from any cyberattacks, but also to protect its own national infrastructure such as the national [[Power grid|power-grid]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Ensuring the Security of Federal Information Systems and Cyber Critical Infrastructure and Protecting the Privacy of Personally Identifiable Information |url=http://www.gao.gov/highrisk/protecting_the_federal_government_information_systems/why_did_study |publisher=Government Accountability Office |access-date=3 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119221200/http://www.gao.gov/highrisk/protecting_the_federal_government_information_systems/why_did_study |archive-date=19 November 2015  }}</ref>

The government's regulatory role in [[cyberspace]] is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a [[virtual space]] that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian [[blockchain]] and [[bitcoin]] discussions.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://qz.com/1284178/almost-half-of-cryptocurrency-and-bitcoin-bros-identify-as-libertarian/|work=Quartz|first=Georgia |last=King |title=The Venn diagram between libertarians and crypto bros is so close it's basically a circle |date=23 May 2018}}</ref>

Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. [[Richard A. Clarke|R. Clarke]] said during a panel discussion at the [[RSA Conference|RSA Security Conference]] in [[San Francisco]], he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Former-White-House-aide-backs-some-Net-regulation-2729985.php |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |first=Carrie |last=Kirby |title=Former White House aide backs some Net regulation / Clarke says government, industry deserve 'F' in cyber security |date=24 June 2011}}</ref> On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Daniel |title=Privatizing Political Authority: Cybersecurity, Public-Private Partnerships, and the Reproduction of Liberal Political Order |journal=Politics and Governance |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=5–12 |doi=10.17645/pag.v6i2.1335 |date=11 June 2018 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/download/1335/800 }}</ref>

On 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to [[World peace|international peace]]. According to UN Secretary-General [[António Guterres]], new technologies are too often used to violate rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/26/its-time-treat-cybersecurity-human-rights-issue|title=It's Time to Treat Cybersecurity as a Human Rights Issue|access-date=26 May 2020|website=Human Rights Watch|date=26 May 2020}}</ref>

==International actions==
Many different teams and organizations exist, including:
* The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.first.org/about/mission/|title=FIRST Mission|publisher=FIRST|access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref> The [[US-CERT]], [[AT&T]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Cisco]], [[McAfee]], [[Microsoft]] are all members of this international team.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.first.org/members/|title=FIRST Members|publisher=FIRST|access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref>
* The [[Council of Europe]] helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime.<ref>{{cite web |title=European council |url=http://www.coe.int/t/DGHL/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/default_en.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203223358/http://www.coe.int/t/DGHL/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/default_en.asp |archive-date=3 December 2014  }}</ref>
* The purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations.<ref>{{cite web |title=MAAWG |url=http://www.maawg.org/about_maawg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923153548/http://www.maawg.org/about_maawg |archive-date=23 September 2014  }}</ref> [[France Télécom|France Telecom]], [[Facebook]], [[AT&T]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Cisco]], [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]] are some of the members of the MAAWG.<ref>{{cite web |title=MAAWG |url=http://www.maawg.org/about/roster |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017165203/http://www.maawg.org/about/roster |archive-date=17 October 2014  }}</ref>
* ENISA : The [[European Network and Information Security Agency]] (ENISA) is an [[agency of the European Union]] with the objective to improve network and information security in the [[European Union]].

===Europe===
On 14 April 2016, the [[European Parliament]] and the [[Council of the European Union]] adopted the [[General Data Protection Regulation]] (GDPR). The GDPR, which came into force on 25 May 2018, grants individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) the right to the [[Information privacy|protection of personal data]]. The regulation requires that any entity that processes personal data incorporate data protection by design and by default. It also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO).

The IT Security Association [[TeleTrusT]] exist in [[Germany]] since June 1986, which is an international competence network for IT security.

==National actions==
===Computer emergency response teams===
{{Main|Computer emergency response team}}

Most countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security.

==== Canada ====
Since 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Government of Canada Launches Canada's Cyber Security Strategy |url=http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm |access-date=1 November 2014 |work=Market Wired |date=3 October 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102175904/http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-of-canada-launches-canadas-cyber-security-strategy-1328661.htm |archive-date=2 November 2014  }}</ref><ref name="Canada's Cyber Security Strategy">{{cite web |title=Canada's Cyber Security Strategy |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-scrt-strtgy/index-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102175701/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-scrt-strtgy/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=2 November 2014  }}</ref> This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.<ref name="Government of Canada" /> The strategy has three main pillars: securing government systems, securing vital private cyber systems, and helping Canadians to be secure online.<ref name="Canada's Cyber Security Strategy" /><ref name="Government of Canada">{{cite web |title=Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=3 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102173436/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=2 November 2014  }}</ref> There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Incident Management Framework For Canada |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-ncdnt-frmwrk/index-eng.aspx#_Toc360619104 |website=Public Safety Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=3 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102213822/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/cbr-ncdnt-frmwrk/index-eng.aspx#_Toc360619104 |archive-date=2 November 2014  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102173436/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/ctn-pln-cbr-scrt/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=2 November 2014  }}</ref>

The [[Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre]] (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond & recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/ccirc-ccric-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |access-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008035436/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/ccirc-ccric-eng.aspx |archive-date=8 October 2014  }}</ref> It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Security Bulletins |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/cybr-ctr/index-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |access-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008194739/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/cybr-ctr/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=8 October 2014  }}</ref> & operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident.<ref>{{cite web |title=Report a Cyber Security Incident |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/rprt-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=3 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111212708/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/rprt-eng.aspx |archive-date=11 November 2014  }}</ref>

To inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations,<ref>{{cite news |title=Government of Canada Launches Cyber Security Awareness Month With New Public Awareness Partnership |url=http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm |access-date=3 November 2014 |work=Market Wired |publisher=Government of Canada |date=27 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103225408/http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/government-canada-launches-cyber-security-awareness-month-with-new-public-awareness-1706660.htm |archive-date=3 November 2014  }}</ref> and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Security Cooperation Program |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |access-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102184754/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=2 November 2014  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Security Cooperation Program |url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx |website=Public Safety Canada |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102184754/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cbr-scrt/cprtn-prgrm/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=2 November 2014  |date=16 December 2015 }}</ref> They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.<ref>{{cite web |title=GetCyberSafe |url=http://www.getcybersafe.gc.ca/index-eng.aspx |website=Get Cyber Safe |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=3 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111210737/http://www.getcybersafe.gc.ca/index-eng.aspx |archive-date=11 November 2014  }}</ref>

Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015.<ref name="Government of Canada" />

==== Australia ====
[[Australian federal government]] announced an $18.2 million investment to fortify the [[cybersecurity]] resilience of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and enhance their capabilities in responding to cyber threats. This financial backing is an integral component of the [https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/about-us/our-portfolios/cyber-security/strategy/2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy 2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy]. A substantial allocation of $7.2 million is earmarked for the establishment of a voluntary cyber health check program, facilitating businesses in conducting a comprehensive and tailored self-assessment of their cybersecurity upskill.

This avant-garde health assessment serves as a diagnostic tool, enabling enterprises to ascertain the robustness of [https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/reports-and-pubs/files/strengthening-australias-cyber-security-submissions/nsw-young-lawyers.pdf Australia's cyber security regulations]. Furthermore, it affords them access to a repository of educational resources and materials, fostering the acquisition of skills necessary for an elevated cybersecurity posture. This groundbreaking initiative was jointly disclosed by Minister for Cyber Security [[Clare O'Neil]] and Minister for Small Business [[Julie Collins]].<ref>"Australian federal government announces cybersecurity support for SMBs",{{cite web |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/about-us/our-portfolios/cyber-security/strategy/2023-2030-australian-cyber-security-strategy |title=2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy |access-date=22 November 2023 }}</ref>

==== India ====
Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Need for proper structure of PPPs to address specific cyberspace risks|work=ORF |url=http://www.orfonline.org/cyfy-event/need-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113165123/http://www.orfonline.org/cyfy-event/need-for-proper-structure-of-ppps-to-address-specific-cyberspace-risks/|archive-date=13 November 2017}}</ref>

The [[National Cyber Security Policy 2013]] is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard "information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data". [[Indian Computer Emergency Response Team|CERT- In]] is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of [[National Cyber Coordination Centre#National Cyber Security Coordinator|National Cyber Security Coordinator]] has also been created in the [[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister's Office (PMO)]].

The Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncdrc.res.in/|title=National Cyber Safety and Security Standards(NCSSS)-Home|work=www.ncdrc.res.in|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219150958/https://www.ncdrc.res.in/}}</ref>

==== South Korea ====
Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011,<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea seeks global support in cyber attack probe |newspaper=BBC Monitoring Asia Pacific |date=7 March 2011}}</ref> and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Seoul Puts a Price on Cyberdefense |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/09/23/seoul-puts-a-price-on-cyberdefense/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=23 September 2013 |first=Kwanwoo |last=Jun |agency=Dow Jones & Company, Inc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925102342/http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/09/23/seoul-puts-a-price-on-cyberdefense/ |archive-date=25 September 2013  }}</ref>

==== United States ====

===== Cyber Plan =====
The [[United States]] has its first fully formed cyber plan in 15 years, as a result of the release of this National Cyber plan.<ref>{{cite news |last1=White |first1=House |title=National security strategy |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/National-Cybersecurity-Strategy-2023.pdf |agency=US gov |issue=March 2032 |publisher=white house |date=March 2023}}</ref> In this policy, the US says it will: Protect the country by keeping networks, systems, functions, and data safe; Promote American wealth by building a strong digital economy and encouraging strong domestic innovation; Peace and safety should be kept by making it easier for the US to stop people from using computer tools for bad things, working with friends and partners to do this; and increase the United States' impact around the world to support the main ideas behind an open, safe, reliable, and compatible Internet.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adil |first1=Sajid |title=Do You Know About Biggest Cybersecurity Threats In 2023? |url=https://cybernexguard.com/do-you-know-about-biggest-cybersecurity-threats-in-2023/ |website=Cybernexguard |date=16 October 2023 |publisher=Adil Sajid |access-date=18 December 2023}}</ref>

The new U.S. cyber strategy<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adil |first1=Sajid |title=National Cyber Strategy of the United States of America |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1259394/ |website=University Libraries UNT Digital Library |date=September 2018 |access-date=18 December 2023}}</ref> seeks to allay some of those concerns by promoting responsible behavior in [[cyberspace]], urging nations to adhere to a set of norms, both through international law and voluntary standards. It also calls for specific measures to harden U.S. government networks from attacks, like the June 2015 intrusion into the [[U.S. Office of Personnel Management]] (OPM), which compromised the records of about 4.2 million current and former government employees. And the strategy calls for the U.S. to continue to name and shame bad cyber actors, calling them out publicly for attacks when possible, along with the use of economic sanctions and diplomatic pressure.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adil |first1=Sajid |title=Do You Know About Biggest Cybersecurity Threats In 2023? |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1259394/#collections |website=University Libraries UNT Digital Library |date=September 2018 |access-date=18 December 2023}}</ref>

===== Legislation =====
The 1986 {{USC|18|1030}}, the [[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]] is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of ''protected computers'' as defined in {{USCSub|18|1030|e|2}}. Although various other measures have been proposed<ref>{{USBill|111|HR|4962|pipe=International Cybercrime Reporting and Cooperation Act|site=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Files.View&FileStore_id=4ee63497-ca5b-4a4b-9bba-04b7f4cb0123|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120040012/http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Files.View&FileStore_id=4ee63497-ca5b-4a4b-9bba-04b7f4cb0123|url-status=unfit|title=111th Congress, 2nd Session|archive-date=20 January 2012}}</ref> – none have succeeded.

In 2013, [[executive order]] [[s:Executive Order 13636|13636]] ''Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity'' was signed, which prompted the creation of the [[NIST Cybersecurity Framework]].

In response to the [[Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack]]<ref>{{cite web| last1 = Kelly| first1 = Mary Louise| url = https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996617560/biden-advisor-on-cyber-threats-and-the-new-executive-order-to-combat-them| title = Biden Adviser On Cyber Threats And The New Executive Order To Combat Them| website = [[NPR]]| date = 13 May 2021}}</ref> President [[Joe Biden]] signed Executive Order 14028<ref>[https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/05/12/executive-order-on-improving-the-nations-cybersecurity/ Executive Order on Improving the Nation's Cybersecurity] (full text)</ref> on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response.

=====Standardized government testing services=====

The [[General Services Administration]] (GSA) has{{when|date=September 2021}} standardized the ''penetration test'' service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS).
{{further|Penetration test#Standardized government penetration test services}}

===== Agencies =====
The [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, [[risk management]] program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the [[National Cyber Security Division]].<ref>{{cite web|title=National Cyber Security Division |url=https://www.dhs.gov/xabout/structure/editorial_0839.shtm |publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=14 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611210347/https://www.dhs.gov/xabout/structure/editorial_0839.shtm |archive-date=11 June 2008  }}</ref><ref name="CSRDC-FAQ" /> The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System.<ref name="CSRDC-FAQ">{{cite web |title=FAQ: Cyber Security R&D Center |url=http://www.cyber.st.dhs.gov/faq.html |publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security S&T Directorate |access-date=14 June 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006042850/http://www.cyber.st.dhs.gov/faq.html |archive-date=6 October 2008  }}</ref> The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.<ref>AFP-JiJi, "U.S. boots up cybersecurity center", 31 October 2009.</ref>

The third priority of the FBI is to: "Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/quick-facts |title=Federal Bureau of Investigation – Priorities |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711053557/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/quick-facts |archive-date=11 July 2016  }}</ref> and they, along with the [[National White Collar Crime Center]] (NW3C), and the [[Bureau of Justice Assistance]] (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The [[Internet Crime Complaint Center]], also known as IC3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ic3.gov/default.aspx|title=Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) – Home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120021742/http://www.ic3.gov/default.aspx|archive-date=20 November 2011}}</ref>

In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as [[InfraGard]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infragard.net/ |title=Infragard, Official Site |work=Infragard |access-date=10 September 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909051004/http://www.infragard.net/ |archive-date=9 September 2010  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infragard.net/media/files/dir_med.mov |title=Robert S. Mueller, III – InfraGard Interview at the 2005 InfraGard Conference |work=Infragard (Official Site) – "Media Room" |access-date=9 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617004540/http://www.infragard.net/media/files/dir_med.mov |archive-date=17 June 2011 }}</ref>

The [[Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section]] (CCIPS) operates in the [[United States Department of Justice Criminal Division]]. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating [[computer crime]] and [[intellectual property]] crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of [[digital evidence]] in computers and [[Computer network|networks]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybercrime.gov/ |title=CCIPS |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823173821/http://www.cybercrime.gov/ |archive-date=23 August 2006  |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref> In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations "clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. § 1030)."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/criminal-ccips/page/file/983996/download|title=A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems|date=July 2017|publisher=Cybersecurity Unit, Computer Crime & Intellectual Property Section Criminal Division U.S. Department of Justice|access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref>

The [[USCYBERCOM|United States Cyber Command]], also known as USCYBERCOM, "has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners."<ref>{{cite web|title=Mission and Vision|url=https://www.cybercom.mil/About/Mission-and-Vision/|access-date=20 June 2020|website=www.cybercom.mil}}</ref> It has no role in the protection of civilian networks.<ref>{{cite speech |url=https://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1399 |title=Remarks at the Defense Information Technology Acquisition Summit|author=William J. Lynn, III |date=November 12, 2009|access-date=10 July 2010 |url-status=live <!-- technically unfit but effectively dead-->|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415113237/http://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1399 |location=Washington D.C. |archive-date=15 April 2010  }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Shachtman | first=Noah | title=Military's Cyber Commander Swears: "No Role" in Civilian Networks  | website=brookings.edu | date=2010-09-23 | url=http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106032102/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0923_military_internet_shachtman.aspx | archive-date=2010-11-06 }}</ref>

The U.S. [[Federal Communications Commission]]'s role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services.<ref>{{cite web |title=FCC Cybersecurity |url=http://www.fcc.gov/pshs/emergency-information/cybersecurity.html |publisher=FCC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527095750/http://www.fcc.gov/pshs/emergency-information/cybersecurity.html |archive-date=27 May 2010  |access-date=3 December 2014 }}</ref>

The [[Food and Drug Administration]] has issued guidance for medical devices,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/AlertsandNotices/ucm356423.htm|title=Cybersecurity for Medical Devices and Hospital Networks: FDA Safety Communication|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]|access-date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528153847/https://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/safety/alertsandnotices/ucm356423.htm|archive-date=28 May 2016}}</ref> and the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/Research/Crash+Avoidance/Automotive+Cybersecurity|title=Automotive Cybersecurity – National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)|access-date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525195552/http://www.nhtsa.gov/Research/Crash+Avoidance/Automotive+Cybersecurity|archive-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the [[Government Accountability Office]],<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-370 |title=Air Traffic Control: FAA Needs a More Comprehensive Approach to Address Cybersecurity As Agency Transitions to NextGen |number=GAO-15-370 |access-date=23 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613150636/http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-370 |archive-date=13 June 2016  |date=14 April 2015 |publisher=U. S. Government Accountability Office}}</ref> and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the [[Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nextgov.com/cybersecurity/2016/03/faa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations/126449/|title=FAA Working on New Guidelines for Hack-Proof Planes|first=Aliya|last=Sternstein|date=4 March 2016|work=Nextgov|access-date=23 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519181332/http://www.nextgov.com/cybersecurity/2016/03/faa-has-started-shaping-cybersecurity-regulations/126449/|archive-date=19 May 2016}}</ref> Concerns have also been raised about the future [[Next Generation Air Transportation System]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/IN10296.pdf | title=Protecting Civil Aviation from Cyberattacks | date=18 June 2015 | access-date=4 November 2016 | first=Bart | last=Elias | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017100306/https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/IN10296.pdf | archive-date=17 October 2016 }}</ref>

The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.<ref>{{cite conference | last1=Anderson | first1=David | last2=Reimers | first2=Karl | conference=EDULEARN19 Proceedings | title=CYBER SECURITY EMPLOYMENT POLICY AND WORKPLACE DEMAND IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT | publisher=IATED | year=2019 | volume=1 | issn=2340-1117 | doi=10.21125/edulearn.2019.1914 | pages=7858–7866| isbn=978-84-09-12031-4 }}</ref>

===== Computer emergency readiness team =====
''[[Computer emergency response team]]'' is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together.
* [[US-CERT]]: part of the [[National Cyber Security Division]] of the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Verton, Dan |title=DHS launches national cyber alert system |url=http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,89488,00.html |date=28 January 2004 |work=Computerworld |publisher=IDG |access-date=15 June 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050831162039/http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,89488,00.html |archive-date=31 August 2005  }}</ref>
* [[CERT Coordination Center|CERT/CC]]: created by the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (DARPA) and run by the [[Software Engineering Institute]] (SEI).

===== U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity =====

In the context of [[Nuclear power in the United States|U.S. nuclear power plants]], the [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission|U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)]] outlines cybersecurity requirements under [[Nuclear safety and security#Title 10 CFR Part 73 (U.S. NRC)|10 CFR Part 73]], specifically in §73.54.<ref>Details can be found in [https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-10/section-73.54 10 CFR 73.54, Protection of digital computer and communication systems and networks].</ref>

===== NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants =====

The [[Nuclear Energy Institute]]'s NEI 08-09 document, ''Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors'',<ref>''[https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1011/ML101180437.pdf Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors]'' - Nuclear Energy Institute</ref>  outlines a comprehensive framework for [[cybersecurity]] in the [[nuclear power industry]]. Drafted with input from the [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission|U.S. NRC]], this guideline is instrumental in aiding [[licensee]]s to comply with the [[Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations|Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)]], which mandates robust protection of digital computers and equipment and communications systems at nuclear power plants against cyber threats.<ref>Refer to '''[https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1011/ML101180437.pdf NEI 08-09]''' for more details.</ref>

==Modern warfare==
{{Main|Cyberwarfare}}

There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' wrote in a 2015 article titled "The New Cyber Arms Race":

{{blockquote|In the future, wars will not just be fought by soldiers with guns or with planes that drop bombs. They will also be fought with the click of a mouse a half a world away that unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs that disrupt or destroy critical industries like utilities, transportation, communications, and energy. Such attacks could also disable military networks that control the movement of troops, the path of jet fighters, the command and control of warships.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Mark |title=The new cyber arms race |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2011/0307/The-new-cyber-arms-race |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=16 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416090310/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2011/0307/The-new-cyber-arms-race |archive-date=16 April 2015 |date=2011-03-07 }}</ref>}}

This has led to new terms such as ''cyberwarfare'' and ''[[cyberterrorism]]''. The [[United States Cyber Command]] was created in 2009<ref>{{Cite news |author=Nakashima, Ellen |date=13 September 2016 |title=Obama to be urged to split cyberwar command from NSA |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/obama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa/2016/09/12/0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20161012083815/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/obama-to-be-urged-to-split-cyberwar-command-from-the-nsa/2016/09/12/0ad09a22-788f-11e6-ac8e-cf8e0dd91dc7_story.html |archive-date=12 October 2016 |access-date=15 June 2017 }}</ref> and many other countries [[Cyberwarfare#Cyber activities by nation|have similar forces]].

There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=1 March 2019|title=The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=49|pages=36–40|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018|issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019ERSS...49...36O |hdl=11250/2579292|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maness|first1=Ryan C.|last2=Valeriano|first2=Brandon|date=11 June 2018|title=How We Stopped Worrying about Cyber Doom and Started Collecting Data|journal=Politics and Governance|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=49–60|doi=10.17645/pag.v6i2.1368|issn=2183-2463|doi-access=free|hdl=10945/60589|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maness|first1=Ryan C.|last2=Valeriano|first2=Brandon|s2cid=146145942|date=25 March 2015|title=The Impact of Cyber Conflict on International Interactions|journal=Armed Forces & Society|language=en-US|volume=42|issue=2|pages=301–323|doi=10.1177/0095327x15572997|issn=0095-327X}}</ref>

==Careers==
Cybersecurity is a fast-growing field of [[Information technology|IT]] concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bullard|first=Brittany|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119271260|title=Style and Statistics: The Art of Retail Analytics|date= 2016|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-27031-7|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781119271260.ch8}}</ref> According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a "problematic shortage" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.networkworld.com/article/3045801/security/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html|title=Cybersecurity Skills Shortage Impact on Cloud Computing|last=Oltsik|first=Jon|website=Network World|access-date=23 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323042705/http://www.networkworld.com/article/3045801/security/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-impact-on-cloud-computing.html|archive-date=23 March 2016|date=18 March 2016}}</ref> Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail.<ref>{{cite web|last=Robinson|first=Terry|date=2018-05-30|title=Why is a Degree in Cyber Security one of the Best?|url=https://www.degreequery.com/why-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best/|access-date=2021-10-10|website=DegreeQuery.com|language=en-US|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010052542/https://www.degreequery.com/why-is-a-degree-in-cyber-security-one-of-the-best/}}</ref> However, the use of the term ''cybersecurity'' is more prevalent in government job descriptions.<ref>{{cite web |last=de Silva |first=Richard |title=Government vs. Commerce: The Cyber Security Industry and You (Part One) |url=http://www.defenceiq.com/defence-technology/articles/the-cyber-security-industry-and-you/ |publisher=Defence IQ |access-date=24 April 2014 |date=11 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424200253/http://www.defenceiq.com/defence-technology/articles/the-cyber-security-industry-and-you/ |archive-date=24 April 2014  }}</ref>

Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include:<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Computer Science |url=http://www.cs.gwu.edu/academics/graduate_programs/master/cybersecurity/cybersecurity-jobs |access-date=30 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603085633/http://www.cs.gwu.edu/academics/graduate_programs/master/cybersecurity/cybersecurity-jobs |archive-date=3 June 2013  }}</ref>

===Security analyst===
: Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions.

===Security engineer===
: Performs security monitoring, security and data/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other [[security engineering]] methodologies.

===Security architect===
: Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-08-01|title=About Cyber Security architect|url=https://www.cisa.gov/security-architect|access-date=2022-01-01|website=cisa.gov}}</ref>

===Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)===
: A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-08-01|title=How to become a Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)?|url=https://cybersecuritycareer.org/chief-information-security-officer-ciso/|access-date=2022-01-04|website=cybersecuritycareer.org}}</ref>

===Chief Security Officer (CSO)===
: A high-level management position responsible for the entire security division/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow.

===Data Protection Officer (DPO)===
: A DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with data protection laws (such as [[GDPR]]), data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-data-protection/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr/accountability-and-governance/data-protection-officers/|title=Data Protection Officers |website= ico.org.uk|date=January 2021 }}</ref>

===Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence===
: Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments.
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Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Student Cybersecurity Resources|url=https://niccs.cisa.gov/formal-education/students-launch-your-cyber-career|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105234726/https://niccs.cisa.gov/formal-education/students-launch-your-cyber-career |archive-date=5 November 2020 |publisher=NICCS (US National Initiative for Cybercareers and Studies)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhs.gov/join-dhs-cybersecurity |title=Current Job Opportunities at DHS |publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=5 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502135412/http://www.dhs.gov/join-dhs-cybersecurity |archive-date=2 May 2013  }}</ref> Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhs.gov/cybersecurity-training-exercises |title=Cybersecurity Training & Exercises |publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=9 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107111146/http://www.dhs.gov/cybersecurity-training-exercises |archive-date=7 January 2015  |date=12 May 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Security Awareness Free Training and Webcasts |url=https://msisac.cisecurity.org/resources/videos/free-training.cfm |publisher=MS-ISAC (Multi-State Information Sharing & Analysis Center) |access-date=9 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106064140/http://msisac.cisecurity.org/resources/videos/free-training.cfm |archive-date=6 January 2015  }}</ref> A wide range of certified courses are also available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iase.disa.mil/iawip/Pages/iabaseline.aspx|title=DoD Approved 8570 Baseline Certifications|website=iase.disa.mil|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021073353/http://iase.disa.mil/iawip/Pages/iabaseline.aspx|archive-date=21 October 2016|access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the [[UK Cyber Security Forum|U.K Cyber Security Forum]], were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/386093/The_UK_Cyber_Security_Strategy_Report_on_Progress_and_Forward_Plans_-_De___.pdf |title=The UK Cyber Security Strategy: Report on Progress and Forward Plans December 2014 |publisher=United Kingdom Cabinet Office |access-date=20 August 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418230804/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/386093/The_UK_Cyber_Security_Strategy_Report_on_Progress_and_Forward_Plans_-_De___.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2018 }}</ref> in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/cyber-skills-for-a-vibrant-and-secure-uk|title=Cyber skills for a vibrant and secure UK|website=GOV.UK}}</ref> identified by the [[Government of the United Kingdom|U.K Government]].

In Singapore, the [[Cyber Security Agency (Singapore)|Cyber Security Agency]] has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the [[Infocomm Media Development Authority]] (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities.<ref>{{cite press release | title=Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework | website=Cyber Security Agency | date=2021-10-08 | url=https://www.csa.gov.sg/News/Press-Releases/singapore-operational-technology-cybersecurity-competency-framework | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016185633/https://www.csa.gov.sg/News/Press-Releases/singapore-operational-technology-cybersecurity-competency-framework | archive-date=16 October 2021 | access-date=23 October 2021 }}</ref>

==Terminology==
The following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below:
* Access [[authorization]] restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of [[authentication]] systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive [[login]] screen, or individual services, such as a [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as [[passwords]], [[identification card]]s, [[smart card]]s, and [[biometric]] systems.
* [[Anti-virus software]] consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate [[computer viruses]] and other malicious software ([[malware]]).
* [[Application software|Applications]] are [[executable|executable code]], so general corporate practice is to [[Superuser|restrict or block users the power]] to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access [[open source software|to the computer code]] used to create the application), and to reduce the [[attack surface]] by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with [[least privilege]], with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released [[security patch]]es or updates for them.
** For example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy.  In [[Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and other [[Unix]]-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using [[chroot]] or other means of [[Sandbox (computer security)|restricting the application to its own 'sandbox']].  For example. Linux provides [[Linux namespaces|namespaces]], and [[Cgroups]] to further restrict the access of an application to system resources.
** Generalized security frameworks such as [[SELinux]] or [[AppArmor]] help administrators control access.
** Java and other languages which compile to [[Java byte code]] and run in the [[Java virtual machine]] can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level.
** Some software can be run in [[OS-level virtualization|software containers]] which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries.
* [[Authentication]] techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.
* [[Automated theorem proving]] and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.
* [[Backup]]s are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist.
* [[Capability-based security|Capability]] and [[access control list]] techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. [[#Capabilities vs. ACLs|Capabilities vs. ACLs]] discusses their use.
* [[Chain of trust]] techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.
* [[Confidentiality]] is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person.<ref>{{cite web |title=Confidentiality |url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/confidentiality |access-date=31 October 2011}}</ref>
* [[Cryptography|Cryptographic]] techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified.
*[[Cyber attribution]],  is an [[legal attribution|attribution]] of [[cybercrime]], i.e., finding who perpetrated a [[cyberattack]].
* [[Cyberwarfare]] is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems.
* [[Data integrity]] is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data Integrity |url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/data-integrity.html |access-date=31 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106055944/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/data-integrity.html |archive-date=6 November 2011  }}</ref>
[[File:Encryption - decryption.svg|thumb|300px|[[Cryptography|Cryptographic]] techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it, so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message; ideally, eavesdroppers cannot.]]
* [[Encryption]] is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. [[Cryptography|Cryptographically]] secure [[cipher]]s are designed to make any practical attempt of [[cryptanalysis|breaking]] them infeasible. [[symmetric-key algorithm|Symmetric-key]] ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using [[shared key]]s, and [[public-key encryption]] using [[digital certificate]]s can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance.
* [[Endpoint security]] software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Endpoint Security |date=10 November 2010 |url=http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/endpoint_security.html |access-date=15 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316021605/http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/endpoint_security.html |archive-date=16 March 2014  }}</ref>
* [[Firewall (networking)|Firewalls]] serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed [[Logfile|logging]], and may include [[Intrusion detection system|intrusion detection]] and [[Intrusion detection system#Intrusion prevention|intrusion prevention]] features. They are near-universal between company [[local area networks]] and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if [[network segmentation]] is configured.
* A [[Security hacker|hacker]] is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network.
* [[Honeypot (computing)|Honey pots]] are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques.
* [[Intrusion-detection system]]s are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations.
* A [[microkernel]] is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level – and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged [[user space]].
* [[Ping (networking utility)|Pinging]]. The standard [[ping (networking utility)|ping application]] can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a [[port scan]] to detect which services are exposed.
* A [[port scan]] is used to probe an IP address for [[Port (computer networking)|open ports]] to identify accessible network services and applications.
* A [[key logger]] is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard.
* [[Social engineering (security)|Social engineering]] is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security.
* [[Logic bomb]]s is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event.
* A [[unikernel]] is a computer program that runs on a minimalistic operating system where a single application is allowed to run (as opposed to a general purpose operating system where many applications can run at the same time). This approach to minimizing the attack surface is adopted mostly in [[Cloud computing|cloud]] environments where software is deployed in [[virtual machine]]s.
* [[Zero trust security]] means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network.

==History==
Since the [[Internet]]'s arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to [[wikt:academia|academia]] until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization of organized attacks such as [[distributed denial of service]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of the Cybersecurity Profession |url=https://www.isaca.org/resources/news-and-trends/industry-news/2022/a-brief-history-of-the-cybersecurity-profession |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=ISACA}}</ref> This led to the formalization of cybersecurity as a professional discipline.<ref>{{Cite web |title=One step ahead in computing security |url=https://www.rit.edu/news/one-step-ahead-computing-security |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=RIT |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Security and Privacy in Computer Systems|April 1967 session]] organized by [[Willis Ware]] at the [[Spring Joint Computer Conference]], and the later publication of the [[Ware Report]], were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security.<ref name="MAHC.2016.48">{{Cite journal |last1=Misa |first1=Thomas J. |year=2016 |title=Computer Security Discourse at RAND, SDC, and NSA (1958-1970) |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1109/MAHC.2016.48 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=12–25 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2016.48 |bibcode=2016IAHC...38d..12M |s2cid=17609542|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns.<ref name="MAHC.2016.48" />

A 1977 [[NIST]] publication<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. J.|last1=Neumann|first2=N.|last2=Statland|first3=R. D.|last3=Webb |date=1977 |title=Post-processing audit tools and techniques |url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010044638/http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nbsspecialpublication500-19.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-10 |access-date=2020-06-19 |website=nist.gov |publisher=US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards |pages=11–3–11–4 |language=en-US}}</ref> introduced the ''CIA triad'' of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Irwin |first1=Luke |date=5 April 2018 |title=How NIST can protect the CIA triad, including the often overlooked 'I' – integrity |url=https://blog.itgovernanceusa.com/blog/how-nist-can-protect-the-cia-triad-including-the-often-overlooked-i-integrity |access-date=16 January 2021 |website=www.itgovernanceusa.com}}</ref> While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Perrin |first=Chad |date=30 June 2008 |title=The CIA Triad |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/security/the-cia-triad/488 |access-date=31 May 2012 |website=techrepublic.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-27A/SP800-27-RevA.pdf |title=Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security |last1=Stoneburner |first1=G. |last2=Hayden |first2=C. |publisher=csrc.nist.gov |doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.800-27rA |last3=Feringa |first3=A. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041012074937/http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-27A/SP800-27-RevA.pdf |archive-date=2004-10-12 |url-status=live |year=2004}} ''Note: this document has been superseded by later versions.''</ref>

However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet  were still in the early stages of development, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like [[IBM]] started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yost |first=Jeffrey R. |date=April 2015 |title=The Origin and Early History of the Computer Security Software Products Industry |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=46–58 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2015.21 |bibcode=2015IAHC...37b..46Y |issn=1934-1547 |s2cid=18929482}}</ref>

One of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the [[computer worm]] [[Creeper and Reaper|Creeper]] written by Bob Thomas at [[BBN Technologies|BBN]], which propagated through the [[ARPANET]] in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-19 |title=A Brief History of Computer Viruses & What the Future Holds |url=https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/threats/a-brief-history-of-computer-viruses-and-what-the-future-holds |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=www.kaspersky.com |language=en}}</ref> The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, [[Creeper and Reaper|Reaper]], was created by [[Ray Tomlinson]] in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper.<ref>{{cite web
 | last = Tomlinson
 | first = Ray
 | title = Interview with Ray Tomlinson on Creeper/Reaper
 | website = OSNews
 | url = https://www.osnews.com/story/29157/interview-with-ray-tomlinson-on-creeperreaper/
 | access-date = 25 September 2025
}}</ref>

Between September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=First incident of cyber-espionage |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/612868-first-incident-of-cyber-espionage |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=Guinness World Records}}</ref> The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by [[Markus Hess]], who was arrested on 29 June 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990.

In 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the [[Morris worm]], was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention.<ref>{{Cite web |last=FBI News |date=2018-11-02 |title=The Morris Worm - 30 Years Since First Major Attack on the Internet |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/morris-worm-30-years-since-first-major-attack-on-internet-110218 |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=fbi.gov}}</ref>

[[Netscape]] started developing the protocol [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]], shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Boncella |first=Robert J |title=The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume 2 |date=April 2004 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-68996-6 |editor-last=Bidgoli |editor-first=Hossein |edition=2nd |page=262}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=1993: Mosaic Launches and the Web is Set Free |url=https://webdevelopmenthistory.com/1993-mosaic-launches-and-the-web-is-set-free/ |website=Web Development History|date=8 December 2021 }}</ref> Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities.<ref name=":0" /> However, in 1995, Netscape launched Version 2.0.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webdesignmuseum.org/web-design-history/netscape-navigator-2-0-1995|title=Web Design Museum - Netscape Navigator 2.0|date=10 March 2023 |access-date= 4 December 2023}}</ref>

The [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) is responsible for the [[protection]] of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence.<ref>{{cite news |author=Nakashima |first=Ellen |date=26 January 2008 |title=Bush Order Expands Network Monitoring: Intelligence Agencies to Track Intrusions |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/25/AR2008012503261_pf.html |access-date=8 February 2021}}</ref> The agency analyzes commonly used software and system configurations to find security flaws, which it can use for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States.<ref name="perlroth">{{cite news |first=Nicole |last=Perlroth |date=7 February 2021 |title=How the U.S. Lost to Hackers |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/06/technology/cyber-hackers-usa.html |url-access=limited |access-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/06/technology/cyber-hackers-usa.html |archive-date=2021-12-28}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

NSA contractors created and sold ''click-and-shoot'' attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Perlroth |first1=Nicole |last2=Sanger |first2=David |last3=Shane |first3=Scott |date=May 6, 2019 |title=How Chinese Spies Got the N.S.A.'s Hacking Tools, and Used Them for Attacks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/us/politics/china-hacking-cyber.html |access-date=October 18, 2024 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and Russia and North Korea have used it.<ref>{{cite magazine
 | last = Greenberg
 | first = Andy
 | title = The Strange Journey of an NSA Zero-Day—Into Multiple Enemies' Hands
 | magazine = WIRED
 | url = https://www.wired.com/story/nsa-zero-day-symantec-buckeye-china/
 | date = May 7, 2019
 | access-date = September 25, 2025
}}</ref> NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in [[cyberwarfare]].<ref>{{cite news
 | last1 = Schectman
 | first1 = Joel
 | last2 = Bing
 | first2 = Christopher
 | title = Ex-U.S. intel operatives admit hacking American networks for UAE
 | work = Reuters
 | url = https://www.reuters.com/world/us/american-hacker-mercenaries-face-us-charges-work-uae-2021-09-14/
 | date = 2021-09-14
 | access-date = 2025-09-25
}}</ref> In 2007, the United States and [[Israel]] began exploiting security flaws in the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States.<ref name="perlroth" />

==Notable scholars==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* [[Ross J. Anderson]]
* [[Annie Anton]]
* [[Adam Back]]
* [[Daniel J. Bernstein]]
* [[Matt Blaze]]
* [[Stefan Brands]]
* [[Josh Brunty]]
* [[L. Jean Camp]]
* [[Lorrie Cranor]]
* [[Dorothy E. Denning]]
* [[Peter J. Denning]]
* [[Cynthia Dwork]]
* [[Chuck Easttom]]
* [[Deborah Estrin]]
* [[Joan Feigenbaum]]
* [[Ian Goldberg]]
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]]
* [[Lawrence A. Gordon]]
* [[Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)|Peter Gutmann]]
* [[Paul Carl Kocher|Paul Kocher]]
* [[Monica S. Lam]]
* [[Butler Lampson]]
* [[Brian LaMacchia]]
* [[Susan Landau]]
* [[Carl Landwehr]]
* [[Kevin Mitnick]]
* [[Peter G. Neumann]]
* [[Susan Nycum]]
* [[Paul C. van Oorschot]]
* [[Fred Piper]]
* [[Ron Ross]]
* [[Tony Sager]]
* [[Roger R. Schell]]
* [[Bruce Schneier]]
* [[Dawn Song]]
* [[Gene Spafford]]
* [[Salvatore J. Stolfo]]
* [[Willis Ware]]
* [[Moti Yung]]
}}

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* {{Annotated link |Attack tree}}
* {{Annotated link |Bicycle attack}}
* {{Annotated link |CAPTCHA}}
* {{Annotated link |Center for Internet Security}}
* {{Annotated link |Cloud computing security}}
* {{Annotated link |Comparison of antivirus software}}
* {{Annotated link |Content Disarm & Reconstruction}}
* {{Annotated link |Content Security Policy}}
* {{Annotated link |Countermeasure (computer)}}
* {{Annotated link |Cyber insurance}}
* {{Annotated link |Cyber self-defense}}
* {{Annotated link |Cyberbiosecurity}}
* {{Annotated link |Cybersecurity information technology list}}
* {{Annotated link |Dancing pigs}}
* {{Annotated link |Data security}}
* {{Annotated link |Defense strategy (computing)}}
* {{Annotated link |Fault tolerance}}
* {{Annotated link |Hardware security}}
* {{Annotated link |Human–computer interaction (security)}}
* {{Annotated link |Identity management}}
* {{Annotated link |Identity-based security}}
* {{Annotated link |Information security awareness}}
* {{Annotated link |Internet privacy}}
* {{Annotated link |Internet safety}}
* {{Annotated link |Internet security}}
* {{Annotated link |IT risk}}
* {{Annotated link |IT security standards}}
* {{Annotated link |Cyber kill chain}}
* {{Annotated link |List of computer security certifications}}
* {{Annotated link |List of cyber warfare forces}}
* {{Annotated link |Open security}}
* {{Annotated link |Outline of computer security}}
* {{Annotated link |OWASP}}
* {{Annotated link |Physical information security}}
* {{Annotated link |Privacy software}}
* {{Annotated link |Security engineering}}
* {{Annotated link |Security through obscurity}}
* {{Annotated link |Software-defined perimeter}}
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{cite journal | last=Branch | first=Jordan | title=What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity | journal=International Organization | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=75 | issue=1 | date=2020-09-24 | issn=0020-8183 | doi=10.1017/s002081832000051x | pages=39–70| s2cid=224886794 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Costigan |first1=Sean |first2=Michael |last2=Hennessy |url=https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2016_10/20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310031437/http://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2016_10/20161025_1610-cybersecurity-curriculum.pdf |archive-date=2017-03-10 |url-status=live |title=Cybersecurity: A Generic Reference Curriculum|publisher=NATO |year=2016 |isbn=978-92-845-0196-0 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Fuller | first=Christopher J | title=The Roots of the United States' Cyber (In)Security | journal=Diplomatic History | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=43 | issue=1 | date=2018-06-11 | issn=0145-2096 | doi=10.1093/dh/dhy038 | pages=157–185 |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/407741/3/Fuller_Roots_of_Cyber_Insecurity_clean_images.doc |format=DOC}}
* {{cite web | last=Bob<!-- Sic --> | first=Yonah Jeremy | title=Ex-IDF cyber intel. official reveals secrets behind cyber offense | website= The Jerusalem Post | date=2021-08-21 | url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/ex-idf-cyber-intel-official-how-to-carry-out-a-cyber-offense-attack-677173 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kim |first=Peter |title=The Hacker Playbook: Practical Guide To Penetration Testing |publisher=[[CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform]] |location=Seattle |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4949-3263-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Lee |first=Newton |author-link=Newton Lee |title=Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-3-319-17243-9 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite journal | last1=Montagnani | first1=Maria Lillà | last2=Cavallo | first2=Mirta Antonella | title=Cybersecurity and Liability in a Big Data World | journal=Market and Competition Law Review | publisher=Elsevier BV | year=2018 | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=71–98 | issn=1556-5068 | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3220475 | ssrn=3220475 | s2cid=216704215 | url=https://revistas.ucp.pt/index.php/mclawreview/article/view/325 }}
* {{cite journal | last1=Shariati | first1=Marzieh | last2=Bahmani | first2=Faezeh | last3=Shams | first3=Fereidoon | title=Enterprise information security, a review of architectures and frameworks from interoperability perspective | journal=Procedia Computer Science | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=3 | year=2011 | issn=1877-0509 | doi=10.1016/j.procs.2010.12.089 | pages=537–543| doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Singer |first1=P. W. |first2=Allan |last2=Friedman |title=Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-991811-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wu |first1=Chwan-Hwa (John) |first2=J. David |last2=Irwin |title=Introduction to Computer Networks and Cybersecurity |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4665-7213-3 }}
* Cybersecurity Best Practices | Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency CISA. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2024, from https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cybersecurity-best-practices
* Sztyber-Betley, A., Syfert, M., Kościelny, J. M., & Górecka, Z. (2023). Controller Cyber-Attack Detection and Isolation †: Sensors (14248220). Sensors (14248220), 23(5), 2778. {{doi|10.3390/s23052778|doi-access=free}}

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