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{{Short description|1814–1815 meetings to create a peace plan for Europe}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Vienna peace congress|the 2015 congress on Syria|Vienna peace talks for Syria}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
[[File: Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The national boundaries within Europe agreed upon by the Congress of Vienna]]
[[File:Berlin .Gendarmenmarkt .Deutscher Dom 010.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna]]
The '''Congress of Vienna'''{{Efn|{{Langx|fr|Congrès de Vienne}}, {{Langx|de|Wiener Kongress}}}} of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]].<ref name=":0" /> Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than the [[Ottoman Empire]]){{Efn|Although the [[Ottoman Empire]] was officially invited by [[Robert Liston (diplomat)|Robert Liston]] and [[Klemens von Metternich]] to actively participate in the Congress on topics such as the Russo–Turkish conflicts, Sultan [[Mahmud II]] did not send a delegation. Thus, the country was the only power in Europe to abstain from the Congress.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ozavci |first=Ozan |title=A Priceless Grace? The Congress of Vienna of 1815, the Ottoman Empire and Historicising the Eastern Question |url=https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/136/583/1450/6516692 |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=136 |issue=583 |pages=1459–1461 |doi=10.1093/ehr/ceab356|date=2022 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref>}} and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] statesman [[Klemens von Metternich]], and was held in [[Vienna]] from September 1814 to June 1815.

The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and the [[Napoleonic Wars]] through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could [[European balance of power|balance each other]] and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, [[conservative]] leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate [[Republicanism|republican]], [[Liberalism|liberal]], and [[revolution]]ary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the [[Constitution|constitutional order]] of the European [[ancien régime]].

At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Austrian Empire|Austria]], and [[Russian Empire|Russia]], partly due to the military strategy of its leader, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: [[Swedish Pomerania]], most of the [[Kingdom of Saxony]], and the western part of the former [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. Austria gained much of [[northern Italy]]. Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], which had been created just months before from the former Dutch Seven Provinces together with formerly Austrian territory, and was meant to serve as a buffer between the [[German Confederation]] and France.

The immediate background was [[First French Empire|Napoleonic France's]] defeat and [[treaty of Paris (1814)|surrender in May 1814]], which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the [[Hundred Days]] of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] on 18 June 1815.

Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements,<ref name="Olson-Shadle"/> and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century.

== The Congress format ==
[[File:Prince Metternich by Lawrence.jpeg|thumb|Architect of the Congress System, [[Klemens von Metternich|Prince von Metternich]], chancellor of the Austrian Empire from 1821 until the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire|Revolution in 1848]]. Painting by [[Thomas Lawrence|Lawrence]] (1815)]]
The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal [[plenary session]], but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister [[Klemens von Metternich]], assisted by [[Friedrich von Gentz]], and was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places, a cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the [[Congress of Paris]]) that settled the [[Crimean War]]. The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the [[Concert of Europe]], an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries, the balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which the Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five [[Great power|Great Powers]] – Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman [[Talleyrand]]. Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in the meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build up diplomatic networks.

== Preliminaries ==
The [[Treaty of Chaumont]] in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |first=Frederick B. |last=Artz |title=Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832 |date=1934 |ol=45710678M |page=110}}</ref>

Other partial settlements had already occurred at the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]] between France and the [[Sixth Coalition]], and the [[Treaty of Kiel]] that covered issues raised regarding [[Scandinavia]]. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in [[Vienna]] and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war".<ref>[[Treaty of Paris (1814)]] [[s:Treaty of Paris (1814)#ART.XXXII|Article XXXII]]</ref> The opening was scheduled for July 1814.{{Sfn|King|2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/vienna1814howcon00king/page/334 334]}}

== Participants ==
[[File:Congress of Vienna.PNG|thumb | upright=1.8|
'''Delegates of the Congress of Vienna''' in a contemporary engraving by Jean Godefroy after the painting by Jean-Baptiste Isabey:
{{ordered list|item_style=margin-bottom:0
|{{Flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=Britain}}: [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]
|{{Flag|Kingdom of Portugal|1750|name=Portugal}}: [[Joaquim Lobo da Silveira|Joaquim Lobo Silveira, 7th Count of Oriola]]
|{{Flag|Kingdom of Portugal|1750|name=Portugal}}: [[António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo]]
|{{Flag|SWE|naval|name=Sweden}}: [[Carl Löwenhielm|Count Carl Löwenhielm]]
|{{Flag|Bourbon Restoration|name=France}}: {{ill|Louis Joseph Alexis, Comte de Noailles|fr|Louis Joseph Alexis de Noailles|vertical-align=sup}}
|{{Flag|Austrian Empire|name=Austria}}: [[Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich]]
|{{Flag|Bourbon Restoration|name=France}}: {{ill|Frédéric-Séraphin de La Tour du Pin Gouverne|fr|Frédéric-Séraphin de La Tour du Pin Gouvernet|vertical-align=sup}}
|{{Flag|Russian Empire|name=Russia}}: [[Karl Nesselrode|Count Karl Robert Nesselrode]]
|{{Flag|Kingdom of Portugal|1750|name=Portugal}}: [[Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Duke of Palmela|Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Count of Palmela]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=Britain}}: [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh]]
|{{Flag|Bourbon Restoration|name=France}}: [[Emmerich Joseph de Dalberg|Emmerich Joseph, Duke of Dalberg]]
|{{Flag|Austrian Empire|name=Austria}}: [[Baron Johann von Wessenberg-Ampringen|Baron Johann von Wessenberg]]
|{{Flag|Russian Empire|name=Russia}}: [[Andrey Razumovsky|Prince Andrey Kirillovich Razumovsky]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=Britain}}: [[Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry|Charles Stewart, 1st Baron Stewart]]
|{{Flag|ESP|1785|name=Spain}}: [[Pedro Gómez Labrador|Pedro Gómez Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=Britain}}: [[Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty|Richard Le Poer Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty]]
|{{Interlanguage link multi|Nikolaus von Wacken|de}} (Recorder)
|{{Flag|Austrian Empire|name=Austria}}: [[Friedrich von Gentz]] (Congress Secretary)
|{{Flag|Prussia|1803|name=Prussia}}: [[Wilhelm von Humboldt|Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=Britain}}: [[William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart]]
|{{Flag|Prussia|1803|name=Prussia}}: [[Karl August von Hardenberg|Prince Karl August von Hardenberg]]
|{{Flag|Bourbon Restoration|name=France}}: [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord]]
|{{Flag|Russian Empire|name=Russia}}: [[Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg|Count Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg]]}}
]]
The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rösch |first=Felix |date=2020-10-26 |title=Affect, practice, and change: Dancing world politics at the Congress of Vienna |journal=[[Cooperation and Conflict]] |volume=56 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=123–140 |doi=10.1177/0010836720954467 |issn=0010-8367 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== The four great powers and Bourbon France ===
Four great powers had previously formed the core of the [[Sixth Coalition]], a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the [[Treaty of Chaumont]] (March 1814), and negotiated the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]] with the [[Bourbon dynasty|Bourbons]] during [[Bourbon Restoration in France|their restoration]]:{{sfn|Nicolson|1946|pp=118–133}}
* [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] was represented by [[Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Prince von Metternich]], the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, [[Baron Johann von Wessenberg-Ampringen|Baron Johann von Wessenberg]]. The Austrians sought to maintain the balance of power, while protecting the interests of the Conservative nations and rebuilding Austria's position diplomatically in Germany and Italy. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis]] was kept closely informed.{{sfn|Kissinger|1957|pp=7–28}}
* The United Kingdom was represented first by its [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Viscount Castlereagh]]; then by the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. The United Kingdom wanted to prevent the return of France as a superpower (and stop Russia from attaining that status). It also sought to promote the balance of power by protecting the rights of smaller nations. In the last weeks it was headed by the [[Richard Le Poer Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty|Earl of Clancarty]], after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the [[Hundred Days]].{{sfn|Kissinger|1957|pp=9–36}}
* Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count [[Karl Robert Nesselrode]]. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations, with Russia as the pre-eminent land power. He succeeded in forming the [[Holy Alliance]] (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.{{Sfn|Nicolson|1946 | p=158}}
* Prussia was represented by Prince [[Karl August von Hardenberg]], the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. The Prussians wanted to strengthen their position in Germany, particularly by annexing all of Saxony and parts of the Ruhr. King [[Frederick William III of Prussia]] was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Walter M. |last=Simon |title=Prince Hardenberg |journal=Review of Politics |volume=18 |issue=1 |date=1956 |pages=88–99 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500023597 |jstor=1404942}}</ref>
* [[France]], the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, 1st Duke of Benevento]], as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary, [[Emmerich Joseph de Dalberg|Emmerich Joseph de Dalberg, 1st Duke of Dalberg]]. Talleyrand had already negotiated the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]] for [[Louis XVIII]]. He sought to ensure that France rejoined the group of Great Powers, and avoided being dismembered by the occupying powers. Louis XVIII, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Harold E. |last=Blinn |title=New Light on Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=1935 |pages=143–160 |doi=10.2307/3633726|jstor=3633726 }}</ref>

=== The lesser powers, parties to the Treaty of Paris, 1814 ===
These parties had not been part of the [[Treaty of Chaumont|Chaumont agreement]], but had joined the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]]:
* Spain – [[Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador|''Don'' Pedro Gómez de Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernard |first=J.F. |title=Talleyrand: A Biography |publisher=Putnam |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=0-399-11022-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/talleyrand00jack |page=371 |ref={{SfnRef|Bernard}}}}</ref>
* Portugal – Plenipotentiaries: [[Pedro de Sousa Holstein|Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela]]; [[António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo]]; [[Joaquim Lobo da Silveira, 7th Count of Oriola|Joaquim Lobo da Silveira]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, January 22, 1815 |volume=5 George IV |publisher=His Majesty's Statute and Law Printers |year=1824 |location=London |page=650 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6uq3K0ULQgC&pg=PA652 |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602232228/https://books.google.com/books?id=l6uq3K0ULQgC&pg=PA652 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Freksa |first=Frederick |translator-first=Harry |translator-last=Hansen |date=1919 |title=A peace congress of intrigue |publisher=The Century Co. |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NEoMAAAAYAAJ/page/n136 116] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NEoMAAAAYAAJ |quote=the congress of vienna. }}</ref>
* [[Sweden]] – Count [[Carl Löwenhielm]]{{Sfn|Bernard | page=381}}

=== Other nations ===
[[File:Bilderrevolution0271.jpg|thumb|Negotiations at the Congress of Vienna]]
* [[Denmark]] – Count [[Niels Rosenkrantz]], foreign minister.{{Sfn|Zamoyski|2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/ritesofpeacefall00zamo/page/297 297] |loc="[...] the Danish plenipotentiary Count Rosenkrantz."}} King [[Frederick VI of Denmark|Frederick VI]] was also present in Vienna.
* [[Netherlands]] – [[Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty|Earl of Clancarty]], the British Ambassador at the Dutch court,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Couvée |first1=D.H. |first2=G. |last2=Pikkemaat |title=1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren |publisher=N. Samsom nv |year=1963 |location=Alphen aan den Rijn |pages=123–124}}</ref><ref>"[Castlereagh, during his stay in The Hague, in January 1813] induced the Dutch to leave their interests entirely in British hands" {{Harv|Nicolson|1946|p=65}}</ref> and Baron [[Hans Christoph Ernst von Gagern|Hans von Gagern]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicolson |first=Harold |year=1946 |title=The Congress of Vienna; a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822 |publisher=Constable & Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190437/page/n221 197] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190437 |quote=Baron von Gagern – one of the two plenipotentiaries for the Netherlands.}}</ref>
* [[Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland|Switzerland]] – Every [[Cantons of Switzerland|canton]] had its own delegation. [[Charles Pictet de Rochemont]] from [[Geneva]] played a prominent role.{{Sfn|Nicolson|1946 | p=195}}
* [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]] – Marquis {{Interlanguage link multi|Filippo Antonio Asinari di San Marzano|it}}.<ref>{{Cite book | last1=Ilari | first1=Virgilio | last2=Shamà | first2=Davide | title=Dizionario Biografico dell'Armata Sarda | date=2008 | publisher=Widerholdt Frères | isbn=978-88-902817-9-2 | page=36}}</ref>
* The [[Papal States]] – [[Ercole Consalvi|Ercole Cardinal Consalvi]], [[Cardinal Secretary of State|Secretary of State of His Holiness]]{{Sfn|Zamoyski|2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/ritesofpeacefall00zamo/page/257 257] |loc="The Pope's envoy to Vienna, Cardinal Consalvi [...]."}}
* The [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta|Order of St. John of Malta]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berlinghieri |first=Umberto Castagnino |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kEa02NuJekC |title=Congresso di Vienna e principio di legittimità: la questione del sovrano militare ordine di San Giovanni gerosolimitano, detto di Malta |date=2006 |publisher=Vita e Pensiero |isbn=978-88-343-1422-7 |language=it |access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408012357/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kEa02NuJekC |url-status=live}}</ref> – Fra' Antonio Miari, Fra' Daniello Berlinghieri and Fra' Augusto Viè de Cesarini<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassinis |first=Giovanni Battista |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8NfhV83Av4C&dq=%22miari%22+ordine+di+malta+%22congresso+di+vienna%22&pg=PA3 |title=Parere per l'ordine di San Giovanni di Gerusalemme intorno all'intelligenza ed agli effetti dei decreti del parlamento siciliano del 5 agosto 1848 e del dittatore Garibaldi del 17 e 19 maggio 1860 |date=1862 |publisher=tipogr. V. Vercellino |language=it |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408010456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p8NfhV83Av4C&dq=%22miari%22+ordine+di+malta+%22congresso+di+vienna%22&pg=PA3 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Innocenti |first1=Barbara |url=https://media.fupress.com/files/pdf/24/4348/15556 |title=In viaggio per il Congresso di Vienna: Lettere di Daniello Berlinghieri a Anna Martini con un percorso tra le fonti archivistiche in appendice |last2=Lombardi |first2=Marco |last3=Tourres |first3=Josianne |publisher=[[Firenze University Press]] |year=2020|location=Florence |access-date=14 November 2021 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107041216/https://media.fupress.com/files/pdf/24/4348/15556|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Republic of Genoa]] – Marquise [[Agostino Pareto]], Senator of the Republic.
* [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]] – {{Interlanguage link multi|Neri Corsini (1771–1845)|it| lt=Neri Corsini}}.{{Sfn|Bernard |page=409}}
* [[Kingdom of Sicily]] – [[Alvaro Ruffo della Scaletta]], [[Luigi de' Medici|Luigi de' Medici di Ottajano]], [[Antonio Maresca di Serracapriola]] and [[Fabrizio Ruffo di Castelcicala]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ruffo, Fabrizio, principe di Castelcicala in 'Dizionario Biografico' |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ruffo-fabrizio-principe-di-castelcicala_(Dizionario-Biografico) |access-date=2021-11-14 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114103425/https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ruffo-fabrizio-principe-di-castelcicala_(Dizionario-Biografico) |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Maresca, Nicola in 'Dizionario Biografico' |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/nicola-maresca_(Dizionario-Biografico) |access-date=2021-11-14 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114104433/https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/nicola-maresca_(Dizionario-Biografico) |url-status=live}}</ref>
* On German issues:
** [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]] – [[Maximilian von Montgelas|Maximilian Graf von Montgelas]]
** [[Kingdom of Württemberg|Württemberg]] – {{Interlanguage link multi|Georg Ernst Levin von Wintzingerode|de}}
** [[Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Hanover]], then in a personal union with the British crown – [[Ernst zu Münster|Graf Ernst zu Münster]]. (King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] had refused to recognize the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as [[Elector of Hanover]] to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the [[Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the [[Kingdom of Hanover]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}})
** [[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] – {{Interlanguage link multi|Leopold von Plessen (diplomat, born 1769)|de| 3=Leopold von Plessen (Diplomat, 1769) | lt=Leopold von Plessen}}<ref>Fritz Apian-Bennewitz: ''Leopold von Plessen und die Verfassungspolitik der deutschen Kleinstaaten auf dem Wiener Kongress 1814/15.'' Eutin: Ivens 1933; Hochschulschrift: Rostock, Univ., Diss., 1933</ref>

== Other stakeholders, entertaining side program ==
Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress.{{Sfn|King|2008 | p=2}} In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a [[copyright]] law and freedom of the press.{{Sfn|Zamoyski|2007|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ritesofpeacefall00zamo/page/258 258, 295]}} With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward.<ref>According to {{Harvnb|King|2008 |p={{Page needed|date=January 2020}} }}, it was Prince de Ligne, an attendee at the conference, who wryly quipped, ""Le congrès danse beaucoup, mais il ne marche pas."</ref> On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure the Congress's success.

== Diplomatic tactics ==
=== Talleyrand (France) ===
[[File: Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord - Pierre-Paul Prud'hon.jpg|thumb | alt=oil painting of Tallyrand, the French ambassador|[[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Talleyrand]] proved an able negotiator for the defeated French.]]
[[File:Vicente López Portaña - Portrait of the Marquis of Labrador, Spanish Ambassador to the Congress of Vienna of 1815 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Marquis of Labrador, Spanish Ambassador to the Congress of Vienna – Painting by Vicente López Portaña]]

Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it,<ref>William, Sir Ward Adolphus (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cTxvfSPXz7sC&dq=Talleyrand+left+Committee+of+Eight&pg=RA1-PA13 ''The Period of Congresses''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322153903/http://books.google.com/books?id=cTxvfSPXz7sC&pg=RA1-PA13&dq=Talleyrand+left+Committee+of+Eight&hl=cs&ei=dwaaTIzfIovNjAf9upQ0&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=Talleyrand%20left%20Committee%20of%20Eight&f=false |date=22 March 2015 }}, BiblioLife, p. 13. {{ISBN|1-113-44924-1}}</ref> once again abandoning his allies.

The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Congress of Vienna {{!}} History of Western Civilization II |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-congress-of-vienna/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com}}</ref>

Congress Secretary [[Friedrich von Gentz]] reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget."<ref>{{Cite book |first=Susan Mary |last=Alsop |title=The Congress Dances |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper & Row]], Publishers |year=1984 |page=120}}</ref> The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain.<ref>Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia, Marqués de Villa-Urrutia, ''España en el Congreso de Viena según la correspondencia de D. Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marqués de Labrador''. Segunda Edición Corregida y Aumentada (Madrid: Francisco Beltrán, 1928), 13.</ref> Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna."<ref>Antonio Rodríguez-Moñino (ed.), ''Cartas Políticas'' (Badajoz: Imprenta Provincial, 1959), 14 (Letter IV, 10 July 1814). Labrador's letters are full of such pungent remarks, and include his opinions on bad diplomats, the state of the postal system, the weather, and his non-existent salary and coach and accompanying livery for the Congress.</ref> Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 ''afrancesados'' – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to [[Joseph Bonaparte]], nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.<ref>Villa-Urrutia, ''España en el Congreso de Viena'', 61–62. Joseph had left Madrid with a huge baggage train containing pieces of art, tapestries, and mirrors. The most rapacious of the French was Marshal [[Nicolas Soult]], who left Spain with entire collections, which disappeared to unknown, separate locations around the world. According to [[Juan Antonio Gaya Nuño]], at least "[the paintings] have come to spread the prestige of Spanish art around the whole word."</ref>

=== Polish-Saxon questions ===<!-- the redirect Polish-Saxon crisis redirects to this section heading-->
The most complex topic at the Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar had wanted to become king of Poland.<ref>{{Cite journal | first=W.H. |last=Zawadzki |title=Russia and the Re-Opening of the Polish Question, 1801–1814 |journal=[[International History Review]] |date=1985 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=19–44|doi=10.1080/07075332.1985.9640368 }}</ref> Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful - a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations [[Secret Treaty of Vienna|signed a treaty on 3 January 1815]], among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.<ref name="Nicolson">Nicolson, Sir Harold (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTC3IWC_py8C&q=Talleyrand+30+september ''The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812–1822''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322153534/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZTC3IWC_py8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=congress+of+vienna&hl=cs&ei=5deZTM7GGI7KjAfCpsAO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Talleyrand%2030%20september&f=false |date=22 March 2015 }} Grove Press; Rep. Ed. pp. 140–164. {{ISBN|0-8021-3744-X}}</ref>

When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic [[Duchy of Warsaw]] as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called [[Congress Poland]], with the tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. However, the majority of [[Greater Poland]] and [[Kuyavia]], as well as the [[Chełmno Land]], were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed [[Grand Duchy of Posen]] ([[Poznań]]), while [[Kraków]] became a [[Free City of Kraków|free city]] as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with [[Russian Partition|the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s]]. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new [[Province of Saxony]] from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of [[Lower Lusatia]] and some other areas instead became part of the [[Province of Brandenburg]], with Prussian [[Upper Lusatia]] becoming part of the [[Province of Silesia]] by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Frederick Augustus I]] as his [[Kingdom of Saxony]].{{Sfn|Webster|1913|pages=49–101}}

=== Subsidies ===
It can be learned from the diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand|Talleyrand]] from [[Louis XVIII]], while [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]] gave him £600, accompanied by "{{lang|fr|les plus folles promesses}}" ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries.

== Final agreement ==
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2022}}
<!--[[Final Act of the Congress of Vienna]] links here change this section change the redirct-->
[[File:Gains territoriaux de la France en 1814.svg|thumb|In red: territories left to France in 1814, but removed after the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] ]]
[[File:Italia 1815.png|thumb|Italian states after the Congress of Vienna with Austrian-annexed territories shown in yellow]]
The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the [[Battle of Waterloo]]).<ref>An Italian version of the Final Act was published in 1859: {{Cite book | language=it | title=Atto finale del Congresso di Vienna fra le cinque grandi potenze, Austria, Francia, Inghilterra, Prussia e Russia del 9 giugno 1815 | publisher=Sanvito | location=Milan | year=1859 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoQMAAAAYAAJ&q=Lunigiana | page= | ref={{SfnRef|Atto Finale|1859}}}}
</ref> Its provisions included:

* Most of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], except for the provinces that were part of Austria and Prussia, became part of an independent Kingdom of Poland. The King of Poland was Czar Alexander. This was supposed to be a largely ceremonial role as he was supposed to be tightly constrained by a constitution. Practically, though, Poland got swallowed up by Russian influence ([[Nicholas I of Russia|Czar Nicholas I]], who ruled Russia after Alexander said he did not feel bound by the constitution).<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGJHE6O7Mhk |title=The Congress of Vienna (Part 2) (1814 to 1815) |date=2022-04-02 |last=Historia Civilis |access-date=2025-03-07 |via=YouTube}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=May 2025}}
* In addition to their role in Poland, Russia retained Finland (which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and would hold until 1917, as the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]]).{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* Prussia received [[Province of Saxony|three-fifths of Saxony]], western parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (most of which became part of the newly formed [[Grand Duchy of Posen]]), [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), the [[Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine]] (merger of the former [[French departments]] of [[Rhin-et-Moselle]], [[Sarre (department)|Sarre]], and [[Roer (department)|Roer]]), and the [[Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg]] (itself a merger of the former [[Prussian Guelders]], the [[Principality of Moers]], and the [[Grand Duchy of Berg]]).{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* A [[German Confederation]] of 39 states, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, formed from the previous 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire. Only portions of the territories of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation (roughly the same portions that had been within the Holy Roman Empire).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Birnie |first1=a |title=An Economic History of Europe 1760-1930 |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=Hoboken |isbn=9781136591471 |page=72}}</ref>
* The Netherlands and the [[Southern Netherlands]] (approximately modern-day Belgium) became a united monarchy, the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]], with the [[House of Orange-Nassau]] providing the king (the [[Eight Articles of London]]).{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* To compensate for Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the [[Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]] were to form a [[personal union]] under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the [[German Confederation]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Couvée | first= D. H. | first2= G. |last2=Pikkemaat | title=1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren | publisher=N. Samsom | year=1963 | location=Alphen aan den Rijn | pages= 127–130}}</ref>
* [[Swedish Pomerania]], given to Denmark in January 1814 in return for the Kingdom of [[Norway]], was sold to Prussia.<ref>[https://grosstuchen.de/PrussianSwedish.html "Prussian payment for Swedish Pomerania"]. ''Grosstuchen''.</ref> [[France]] received back [[Guadeloupe]] from Sweden, with [[Guadeloupe Fund|yearly installments payable to the Swedish king]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* The neutrality of the 22 cantons of [[Switzerland in the Napoleonic era|Switzerland]] was [[Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland|guaranteed]] and a federal pact was recommended to them in strong terms. [[Biel/Bienne|Bienne]] and the [[Prince-Bishopric of Basel]] became part of the [[Canton of Bern]]. The Congress also suggested a number of compromises for resolving territorial disputes between cantons.{{Sfn|Bernard | page=415}}
* The former [[Electorate of Hanover]] was expanded to [[Kingdom of Hanover|a kingdom]]. It gave up the [[Duchy of Lauenburg]] to the Kingdom of Denmark, but gained former territories of the [[Bishop of Münster]] and formerly Prussian [[East Frisia]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* Most of the territorial gains of [[Bavaria]], [[Württemberg]], [[Baden]], [[Grand Duchy of Hesse|Hesse-Darmstadt]], and [[Duchy of Nassau|Nassau]] under the [[German mediatization|mediatizations of 1801–1806]] were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the [[Palatinate region|Rhenish Palatinate]] and of parts of the Napoleonic [[Duchy of Würzburg]] and [[Grand Duchy of Frankfurt]]. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received [[Rhenish Hesse]] with its capital at [[Mainz]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* Austria regained control of the [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]] and [[Salzburg]]; of the former [[Illyrian Provinces]]; of [[Tarnopol]] district (from Russia); and received [[Lombardy–Venetia]] in Italy and [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]] in [[Dalmatia]]. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden; the [[Southern Netherlands|Austrian Netherlands]] were also not recovered.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* [[Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Ferdinand III]] was restored as [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Grand Duke of Tuscany]].{{Sfn|Bernard | page=417}}
* Archduke [[Francis IV, Duke of Modena|Francis IV]] was acknowledged as the ruler of the [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio|Duchy of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola]].{{Sfn|Bernard | page=417}}
* [[Maria Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Massa|Maria Beatrice d'Este]] was restored as [[Duchy of Massa and Carrara|Duchess of Massa and Princess of Carrara]], and the Imperial fiefs in [[Lunigiana]], which were not re-established, were also bestowed upon her.{{Sfn |Atto Finale |1859 |p=59 |loc=Art. 98}}<ref>With an agreement dated 20 December 1815, however, the Duchess ceded the former Lunigiana fiefs to her son, the Duke of Modena.</ref>
* The [[Papal States]] under the rule of the [[Pope]] were restored to their former extent, with the exception of [[Avignon]] and the [[Comtat Venaissin]], which remained part of France.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}[[File:BritishEmpire1815.png|thumb|The [[British Empire]] at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815]]
* Britain retained control of the [[Cape Colony]] in southern Africa; [[Tobago]]; [[Ceylon]]; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the [[Dutch East Indies]] and [[Martinique]], reverted to their previous overlords.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* The [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|King of Sardinia]], re-established in [[Piedmont]], Nice, and [[Savoy]], gained control of [[Genoa]] (putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored [[Republic of Genoa]]).
* The [[Duchy of Parma|Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla]] were taken from the [[House of Bourbon-Parma]] and given to [[Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma|Marie Louise of Austria]] for her lifetime.{{Sfn|Bernard | page= 411}}
* The [[Duchy of Lucca]] was established temporarily as compensation for the House of Bourbon-Parma{{Sfn |Atto Finale |1859 |p=61 |loc=Art. 101}} (with reversionary rights to Parma after the death of [[Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma|Marie Louise]], which were attributed through a {{Interlanguage link multi|Treaty of Paris (1817)|it|3=Trattato di Parigi (1817)|lt=collateral treaty}} in 1817, also stipulating that, from the same date, the Duchy of Lucca would in turn be annexed by the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, as already provided in the Final Act).{{Sfn |Atto Finale |1859 |p=77 |loc=Articles 3 and 4 of the Treaty concluded in Paris on 10 June 1817 about the reversion of the Duchies of Parma, Piacenza e Guastalla }}
* The [[History of slavery|slave trade]] was condemned.{{Sfn |Atto Finale |1859 |pp=67–68 |loc=Art. 118, paragraph n. 15}}
* Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably [[Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine|the Rhine]] and the Danube.{{Sfn |Atto Finale |1859 |pp=64 ff |loc=Articles 108 et seq.}}

Representatives of Austria, France, [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], Prussia, Russia, [[Union between Sweden and Norway|Sweden-Norway]], and Britain signed the Final Act.

Spain did not sign because of:

* Austria's aggressive grab of influence in northern Italy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Royle |first=Dan |date=2022-03-04 |title=Winning the War and Losing the Peace: Spain and the Congress of Vienna |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07075332.2021.1951326 |journal=The International History Review |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=357–372 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2021.1951326 |issn=0707-5332}}</ref>
* The overall lack of involvement by the non-great power nations.<ref name=":1" />
* Relatively low reparation payments from France (100 million [[franc]]s for each of the great powers, but only 5 million for Spain, who suffered the most from Napoleon due to fierce fighting in the [[Peninsular War|Peninsula War]]).<ref name=":1" />

Spain ended up signing the treaty in 1817.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Royle |first1=Dan |title=Winning the War and Losing the Peace: Spain and the Congress of Vienna |journal=The International History Review |date=4 March 2022 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=357–372 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2021.1951326 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07075332.2021.1951326#abstract |access-date=9 November 2025}}</ref> Subsequently, [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV]], the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the [[Kingdom of Naples]] after [[Joachim Murat]], the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the [[Hundred Days]] and started the 1815 [[Neapolitan War]] by attacking Austria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibler |first1=Douglas (Doug) M. (Morrow) |title=International Military Alliances, 1648-2008 |date=2008 |publisher=CQ Press |location=Washington DC |isbn=9781604266849 |page=116 |edition=1st}}</ref>

== Other changes ==
<!-- This section is linked from [[Il Canto degli Italiani]] -->
[[File:Alexander I of Russia by G.Dawe (1826, Peterhof).jpg|thumb|220px|[[Alexander I of Russia]] considered himself a guarantor of European security]] The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]], were the enlargement of Russia (which gained most of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia, and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (four of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose [[German Confederation]] under the leadership of Austria.{{Citation needed | date=January 2020 | reason=For all the facts in the paragraph}}

Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the [[Treaty of Kiel]], Norway had been ceded by the king of [[Denmark-Norway]] to the king of [[Sweden]]. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the [[Kingdom of Norway (1814)|Kingdom of Norway]] on [[Norway in 1814|17 May 1814]] and the subsequent personal [[Union between Sweden and Norway|Union]] with [[Sweden]]. Austria gained [[Lombardy–Venetia]] in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], the [[Duchy of Modena]], and the [[Duchy of Parma]]).<ref name="Stearns-Langer">{{Cite book | last1=Stearns | first1=Peter N. | last2=Langer | first2=William Leonard | year=2001 | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&dq=Murat+support+of+Napoleon+restoration++Ferdinand+IV+to+the+throne&pg=PA440 440] | title=The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | edition=6th | isbn=0-395-65237-5}}</ref>

The [[Papal States]] were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of [[Genoa]]. In southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, [[Joachim Murat]], was originally allowed to retain his [[Kingdom of Naples]], but his support of Napoleon in the [[Hundred Days]] led to the restoration of the Bourbon [[Ferdinand IV of Naples|Ferdinand IV]] to the throne.{{Sfn|Stearns|Langer|2001 | p=440}}

[[File:Jan Adam Kruseman William II King of the Netherlands 1840.jpg|thumb|[[William II of the Netherlands|William II, King of the Netherlands]]. Painting by Jan Adam Kruseman, 1840]]

A large [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] was formed for the [[Prince of Orange]], including both the old [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a [[constitutional monarch]]. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Hanover|Hanover]] (which gained [[East Frisia]] from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]] (which gained the [[Palatinate region|Rhenish Palatinate]] and territories in [[Franconia]]). The [[Duchy of Lauenburg]] was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed [[Swedish Pomerania]]. [[Switzerland]] was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.{{Citation needed | date=January 2020 | reason=For all the facts in the paragraph}}

During the wars, [[Portugal]] had lost its town of [[Olivenza]] to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal was historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in [[s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/General Treaty#ART.CV|Article CV]] of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of&nbsp;... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the [[Treaty of Badajoz (1801)|Treaty of Badajoz of 1801]]". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved.{{Sfn|Hammond|1966 | p={{Page needed | date=January 2020}} }}

The United Kingdom received parts of the [[West Indies]] at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of [[Ceylon]] and the [[Cape Colony]] as well as [[Malta]] and [[Heligoland]]. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) [[s:Treaty of Paris (1814)#ART.VIII|Article VIII]] France ceded to Britain the islands of "[[Tobago]] and [[Saint Lucia]], and of the [[Isle de France (Mauritius)|Isle of France]] and its dependencies, especially [[Rodrigues]] and Les [[Seychelles]]",<ref>[[Treaty of Paris (1814)]] [[s:Treaty of Paris (1814)#ART.VIII|Article VIII]]</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | title=Seychelles – History | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=27 September 2016 | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Seychelles | access-date=1 January 2020 | archive-date=8 June 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608235754/https://www.britannica.com/place/Seychelles | url-status=live }}</ref> and under the [[s:Treaty between Great Britain and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands|Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands]] (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Peace of Paris (1815)]], Britain obtained a protectorate over the [[United States of the Ionian Islands]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Hammond | first=Richard James | year=1966 | title=Portugal and Africa, 1815–1910: a study in uneconomic imperialism | publisher=Stanford University Press | page=2 | isbn=0-8047-0296-9}}</ref>

== Later criticism and praise ==
[[File:Bodleian Libraries, Twelfth night or,- What you will now performing at the Theatre Royal Europe, with new scenery decorationscc.jpg|thumb|''[[Twelfth Night (print)|Twelfth Night]]'' by [[George Cruikshank]] A contemporary caricature of the leading figures at the congress.]]
The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th-century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling [[reactionary|reaction]] on the Continent.<ref name="Olson-Shadle">{{Cite book |last1=Olson |first1=James Stuart |last2=Shadle |first2=Robert |date=1991 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&dq=congress+of+vienna+criticised+by+historians&pg=PA149 149] |title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-26257-8}}</ref> It was an integral part in what became known as the [[Conservative Order]], in which democracy and civil rights associated with the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s were de-emphasized.<ref name="Olson-Shadle"/>

In the 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is  [[Henry Kissinger]], whose 1954 [[doctoral dissertation]], ''[[A World Restored]],'' is a study of the Congress. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that the diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution."<ref name=Jarrett>{{Cite book |first=Mark |last=Jarrett |title=The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon |date=2013 |pages=353, xiv, 187}}</ref> Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "[[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]]" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory, and that the Congress of Vienna instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium.{{Sfn|Schroeder|1992|pp=683–706}} The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the [[Concert of Europe]], which was an attempt to forge a peaceful [[balance of power in international relations|balance of power]] in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the [[League of Nations]] in 1919 and the [[United Nations]] in 1945.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ragsdale |first1=Hugh |last2=Ponomarev |first2=V. N. |date=1993 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bwvllKkPQtYC&dq=Paris+peace+1918+British+Foreign+Office+history+of+the+Congress+of+Vienna&pg=PA413 413] |title=Imperial Russian Foreign Policy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=1st |isbn=0-5214-4229-X}}</ref> Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: [[Lombardy–Venetia]], [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio|Modena]], [[Kingdom of Two Sicilies|Naples–Sicily]], [[Duchy of Parma|Parma]], [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Piedmont–Sardinia]], [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]], and the [[Papal States]] under the control of different powers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Benedict |first=Bertram |date=2008 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BtU6LWt60rQC&dq=italy+under+control+congress+of+vienna&pg=PA7 7] |title=A History of the Great War |publisher=BiblioLife |volume=I |isbn=978-0-5544-1246-7}}</ref> [[Poland]] remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], remaining under Russian control.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Willner |first1=Mark |last2= Hero |first2=George |last3=Weiner |first3=Jerry Global |date=2006 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P98aXmGsFxcC&dq=congress+of+Vienna+led+to+future+disputes&pg=PA520 520] |title=History Volume I: The Ancient World to the Age of Revolution |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |isbn=0-7641-5811-2}}</ref> Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent [[Revolutions of 1848|some 30 years later]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after the break-up of the Soviet Union.<ref name="FP-CoV">{{cite journal |last1=Gutbrod |first1=Hans |title=When Great-Power Politics Isn't Great Enough |journal=Foreign Policy |date=November 25, 2020 |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/25/when-great-power-politics-isnt-great-enough/ |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref><ref name="NationalInterest">{{cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=Ramon |title=Congress of Vienna Redux: How the OSCE Can Foster Peace in Ukraine |journal=National Interest |date=4 June 2022 |url=https://bens.org/congress-of-vienna-redux-how-the-osce-can-foster-peace-in-ukraine/ |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Diplomatic timeline for 1815]]
* [[Precedence among European monarchies]]
* [[Concert of Europe]]
* [[European balance of power]]
* [[Battle of Waterloo]]
* [[International relations (1814–1919)]]
* [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]]
* [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)]]
* [[Ghent government in exile]]
* [[Treaty of Florence (1844)]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{Cite book |last=King |first=David |author-link=David King (historian) |title=Vienna, 1814: How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna |publisher=Harmony Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-307-33716-0 |ol=10353114M |oclc=144548388}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kissinger |first=Henry A. |title=A World Restored; Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812–22 |date=1957 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |publication-place=Boston |author-link=Henry Kissinger |isbn=978-1-62654-978-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Schroeder |first=Paul W. |date=1992 |title=Did the Vienna Settlement Rest on a Balance of Power? |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=683–706 |doi=10.2307/2164774 |jstor=2164774 |author-link=Paul W. Schroeder}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Webster |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Webster (historian) |date=1913 |title=England and the Polish-Saxon problem at the Congress of Vienna |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=49–101 |doi=10.1017/S0080440100014468 |jstor=3678416 |s2cid=153829065}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zamoyski |first=Adam |ol=7281494M |title=Rites of Peace; the Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna |date=2007 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-0607-7518-6 |author-link=Adam Zamoyski}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Chapman |first=Tim |title=The Congress of Vienna 1814–1815 |date=1998 |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dakin |first=Douglas |title=Europe's Balance of Power 1815–1848 |date=1979 |publisher=[[Macmillan (publisher)|Macmillan]] |editor-last=Sked |editor-first=Alan |publication-place=London |pages=14–33 |chapter=The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 and its Antecedents |author-link=Douglas Dakin}}
* Ferraro, Guglielmo. ''The Reconstruction of Europe; Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815'' (1941) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176462 online]
* Forrest, Alan. "The Hundred Days, the Congress of Vienna and the Atlantic Slave Trade". in ''Napoleon's Hundred Days and the Politics of Legitimacy'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp.&nbsp;163–181.
* Gabriëls, Jos. "Cutting the cake: the Congress of Vienna in British, French and German political caricature". ''European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire'' 24.1 (2017): 131–157. illustrated
* Gulick, E. V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813–15" in C. W. Crawley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol 9, 1793–1830'' (1965) pp.&nbsp;639–667.
* {{Cite book |last=Jarrett |first=Mark |title=The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon |date=2013 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-78076-116-9 |publication-place=London}} [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=42429 online review]
* {{Cite journal |last=Kissinger |first=Henry A. |author-link=Henry Kissinger |date=1956 |title=The Congress of Vienna: A Reappraisal |journal=World Politics |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=264–280 |doi=10.2307/2008974 |jstor=2008974|s2cid=153666035 }}
* Kohler, Max James. "Jewish Rights at the Congresses of Vienna (1814–1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)" ''Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society,'' No. 26 (1918), pp.&nbsp;33–125 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/43059304 online]
* Kraehe, Enno E. ''Metternich's German Policy. Vol. 2: The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815'' (1984)
* Kwan, Jonathan. "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815: diplomacy, political culture and sociability". ''Historical Journal'' 60.4 (2020) [https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/preview/868187/The%20Congress%20of%20Vienna%20-%20Review%20Article.pdf online].
* Lane, Fernanda Bretones, Guilherme de Paula Costa Santos, and Alain El Youssef. "The Congress of Vienna and the making of second slavery". ''Journal of global slavery'' 4.2 (2019): 162–195.
* Langhorne, Richard. "Reflections on the Significance of the Congress of Vienna". ''Review of International Studies'' 12.4 (1986): 313–324.
* {{Cite book |last=Lockhart |first=J. G. |title=The Peacemakers 1814–1815 |date=1932 |publisher=Duckworth}}
* Nicolson, Harold. ''The Congress of Vienna: a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822'' (1946) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190437 online].
* {{Cite book |last1=Oaks |first1=Augustus |title=The Great European Treaties of the Nineteenth Century |last2=R. B. Mowat |date=1918 |publisher=Clarendon Press |publication-place=Oxford}} ("Chapter II The restoration of Europe")
* Peterson, Genevieve. "II. Political inequality at the Congress of Vienna". ''Political Science Quarterly'' 60.4 (1945): 532–554. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2144669 online]
* Schenk, Joep. "National interest versus common interest: The Netherlands and the liberalization of Rhine navigation at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)". in ''Shaping the International Relations of the Netherlands, 1815–2000'' (Routledge, 2018) pp.&nbsp;13–31.
* {{Cite book |last=Schroeder |first=Paul W. |title=The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 |date=1994 |pages=517–582 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-1982-0654-5 |author-link=Paul W. Schroeder}}
* Sluga, Glenda. "'Who Hold the Balance of the World?' Bankers at the Congress of Vienna, and in International History". ''American Historical Review'' 122.5 (2017): 1403–1430.
* Vick, Brian. ''The Congress of Vienna. Power and Politics after Napoleon''. [[Harvard University Press]], 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-674-72971-1}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Charles |title=The Cambridge history of British foreign policy, 1783–1919 |date=1922 |isbn=978-1-108-04015-0 |editor-last=Ward |editor-first=A.W. |volume=1 |pages=392–521 |chapter=IV. The pacification of Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Charles Webster (historian) |editor-last2=Gooch |editor-first2=G. P. |editor-link2=G. P. Gooch}}
** also published as {{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Charles |title=The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 |date=1919 |author-link=Charles Webster (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Charles |url=https://www.questia.com/library/7932503/the-foreign-policy-of-castlereagh-1812-1815-britain |title=The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812–1815, Britain and the Reconstruction of Europe |date=1931 |author-link=Charles Webster (historian) |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=24 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724084231/https://www.questia.com/library/7932503/the-foreign-policy-of-castlereagh-1812-1815-britain }}

=== Primary sources ===
* {{Cite book |title=British diplomacy, 1813–1815: Select Documents Dealing with the Reconstruction of Europe |date=1921}}
* {{Cite book |last=Spiel |first=Hilde |url=https://archive.org/details/lish00spie |title=The Congress of Vienna; an Eyewitness Account |date=1968 |publisher=[[Chilton Book Co.]] |publication-place=Philadelphia |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |title=Metternich's Europe |date=1968 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan UK]] |isbn=978-0-8027-2014-6 |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=Mack |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ExmvCwAAQBAJ&q=%27%27Metternich%27s+Europe%2C+1813-48%27%27&pg=PA352 352]}}
* {{Cite book |title=Supplementary despatches and memoranda of the Duke of Wellington, K. G |date=1862 |editor=Duke of Wellington |location=London |publisher=John Murray |volume=9: South of France, Embassy to Paris and Congress of Vienna – April 1814 to March 1815 |quote=Some letters of the Prince Regent, the Emperor Alexander, Louis XVIII., Murat King of Naples, the Earl of Liverpool, Viscount Castlereagh, Earl Bathurst, and other distinguished persons, are given for the elucidation of diplomatic and public transactions in which the Duke of Wellington was engaged [as British Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna]. |url=https://archive.org/details/supplementaryde08wellgoog/page/n7/mode/1up}}

=== Other languages ===
* {{Cite book |last=Ghervas |first=Stella |title=Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance |date=2008 |publisher=Honoré Champion |isbn=978-2-7453-1669-1 |publication-place=Paris}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Congress of Vienna}}
{{Wikisource|Declaration at the Congress of Vienna}}
{{Wikisource|Final Act of the Congress of Vienna}}
{{Wikisource|Treaty of Vienna (Seventh Coalition)}}
* [http://www.the-map-as-history.com/maps/1_history-europe-XIX-congress-vienna.php Animated map Europe and nations, 1815–1914]
* [[s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna|Final Act of the Congress of Vienna]]
* [http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/congress_vienna_1815.htm Map of Europe in 1815]
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=subject%3A%22Congress%20of%20Vienna%20(1814-1815)%22 Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)] Search Results at [[Internet Archive]]

{{Napoleonic wars}}
{{Coord|48.2085|16.3638|source:wikidata|display=title}}
{{Authority control}}

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