View source for Constellation

{{short description|Group of stars on the celestial sphere}}
{{About|the star grouping}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
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| image1            = Orion constellation - Prodromus astronomiae 1690 (5590584).jpg
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Four views of the constellation [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]]: 
* Top left: Baroque drawing of Orion from [[Johannes Hevelius]]{{'}} star atlas [[Prodromus_Astronomiae#Firmamentum_Sobiescianum|''Firmamentum Sobiescianum'']], showing the stars as they would appear to an observer looking down upon the imaginary celestial sphere from the outside
* Top right: Illustration from the medieval Persian astronomical text [[Book of Fixed Stars]]
* Bottom left: Contemporary map of Orion from the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]]
* Bottom right: Photograph of the night sky with drawn lines
</div>
}}

A '''constellation''' is an area on the [[celestial sphere]] in which a group of visible [[star]]s forms [[Asterism (astronomy)|a perceived pattern]] or outline, typically representing an animal, mythological subject, or inanimate object.<ref name="oxforddic2">{{cite web |title=Definition of constellation |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/constellation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102014231/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/constellation |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 January 2013 |access-date=2 August 2016 |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]}}</ref>

The first constellations were likely defined in [[prehistory]]. People used them to relate stories of their beliefs, experiences, [[creation myth|creation]], and [[mythology]]. Different cultures and countries invented their own constellations, some of which lasted into the early 20th century before today's constellations were internationally recognized. The recognition of constellations has changed significantly over time. Many changed in size or shape. Some became popular, only to drop into obscurity. Some were limited to a single culture or nation. Naming constellations also helped astronomers and navigators identify stars more easily.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hannah |first1=Robert |chapter=The Stars in Ancient Greece |chapter-url=https://www.google.com.my/books/edition/Advancing_Cultural_Astronomy/nj8oEAAAQBAJ |editor-last1=Boutsikas |editor-first1=Efrosyni |editor-last2=McCluskey |editor-first2=Stephen C. |editor-last3=Steele |editor-first3=John |year=2021 |title=Advancing Cultural Astronomy: Studies In Honour of Clive Ruggles |location=Cham, Zug, Switzerland |publisher=Springer Nature |pages=212-217 |isbn=978-3-030-64606-6 }}</ref>

Twelve (or thirteen) ancient constellations belong to the [[zodiac]] (straddling the [[ecliptic]], which the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], and [[planet]]s all traverse). The origins of the zodiac remain historically uncertain; its [[astrology|astrological]] divisions became prominent {{circa|400 BC}} in [[Babylonian astronomy|Babylonian]] or [[Chaldea]]n astronomy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Britton |first=John P. |date=2010 |title=Studies in Babylonian lunar theory: part III. The introduction of the uniform zodiac |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=617–63 |jstor=41134332 |doi=10.1007/S00407-010-0064-Z |s2cid=122004678 |quote=[T]he zodiac was introduced between −408 and −397 and probably within a very few years of −400.}}</ref> Constellations appear in Western culture via [[Greece]] and are mentioned in the works of [[Hesiod]], [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] and [[Aratus]]. The traditional 48 constellations, consisting of the zodiac and 36 more (now 38, following the division of [[Argo Navis]] into three constellations) are listed by [[Ptolemy]], a Greco-Roman astronomer from [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], in his ''[[Almagest]]''. The formation of constellations was the subject of extensive [[mythology]], most notably in the ''[[Metamorphoses (Ovid)|Metamorphoses]]'' of the Latin poet [[Ovid]]. Constellations in the far [[southern celestial hemisphere|southern sky]] were added from the 15th century until the mid-18th century when European explorers began traveling to the [[Southern Hemisphere]]. Due to Roman and European transmission, each constellation has a [[Latin]] name.

In 1922, the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) formally accepted the modern list of [[IAU designated constellations|88&nbsp;constellations]], and in 1928 adopted official constellation boundaries that together cover the entire celestial sphere.<ref name="IAU1928">{{cite book |first=Eugène |last=Delporte |publisher=[[International Astronomical Union]] |title=Délimitation scientifique des constellations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3XvAAAAMAAJ |year=1930}}</ref>{{sfn |Ridpath |2018 |p=[http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/startales1d.html#delporte 4]}} Any given point in a [[celestial coordinate system]] lies in one of the modern constellations. Some [[stellar designation|astronomical naming systems]] include the constellation where a given celestial object is found to convey its approximate location in the sky. The [[Flamsteed designation]] of a star, for example, consists of a number and the genitive form of the constellation's name.

Other star patterns or groups called [[asterism (astronomy)|asterisms]] are not constellations under the formal definition, but are also used by observers to navigate the night sky. Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation. Examples of asterisms include the teapot within the constellation [[Sagittarius (constellation)|Sagittarius]], or the [[Big Dipper]] in the constellation of [[Ursa Major (constellation)|Ursa Major]].<ref name="DOCdb2018">{{cite web|url=http://www.docdb.net/show_object.php?id=saucepan|title=DOCdb Deep Sky Observer's Companion – the online database|access-date=21 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="SoftBisque2018">{{cite web|title=A Complete List of Asterisms|url=https://www.bisque.com/tom/asterisms/list.asp|access-date=21 September 2018|archive-date=29 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929040705/http://www.bisque.com/tom/asterisms/list.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Terminology==

The word ''constellation'' comes from the [[Late Latin]] term {{lang|la|cōnstellātiō}}, which can be translated as "set of stars"; it came into use in [[Middle English]] during the 14th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/constellation|title=constellation &#124; Origin and meaning of constellation by Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com}}</ref> The [[Ancient Greek]] word for constellation is [[wikt:ἄστρον|ἄστρον]] ({{Transliteration|grc|astron}}). These terms historically referred to any recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance was associated with mythological characters or creatures, earthbound animals, or objects.<ref name="oxforddic2"/> Over time, among European astronomers, the constellations became clearly defined and widely recognised. In the 20th century, the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) recognized [[IAU designated constellations|88&nbsp;constellations]].<ref name="oxforddicastro">{{cite journal |url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095633860 |title=Constellation |journal=Oxford Dictionary of Astronomy |access-date=26 July 2019}}</ref>

A constellation or star that never sets below the [[horizon]] when viewed from a particular [[latitude]] on Earth is termed [[circumpolar star|circumpolar]]. From the [[North Pole]] or [[South Pole]], all constellations south or north of the [[celestial equator]] are [[circumpolar constellation|circumpolar]]. Depending on the definition, equatorial constellations may include those that lie between declinations 45° north and 45° south,<ref name=harbord_goodwin1897/> or those that pass through the declination range of the [[ecliptic]] (or [[zodiac]]) ranging between [[Tropic of Cancer|23.5°&nbsp;north]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn|23.5°&nbsp;south]].<ref name="Norton14th" /><ref name=steele1884 />

Stars in constellations can appear near each other in the sky, but they usually lie at a variety of distances away from the Earth. Since each star has its own independent motion, all constellations will change slowly over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, familiar outlines will become unrecognizable.<ref name="marc">{{cite web|url=http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/review/dr-marc-space/constellations.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013075228/http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/review/dr-marc-space/constellations.html|archive-date=13 October 2011|title=Do Constellations Ever Break Apart or Change?|publisher=NASA|access-date=27 November 2014}}</ref> Astronomers can predict the past or future constellation outlines by measuring [[common proper motion]]s of individual stars<ref name="Koupelis2007">{{cite book |author=Koupelis |first1=Theo |url=https://archive.org/details/inquestofunivers00koup/page/369 |title=In Quest of the Universe |last2=Kuhn |first2=Karl F. |date=2007 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers |isbn=978-0-7637-4387-1 |page=369 |url-access=registration}}</ref> by accurate [[astrometry]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kovalevsky |first1=Jean |title=Fundamentals of Astrometry |last2=Seidelmann |first2=P. Kenneth |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64216-3}}</ref><ref name="c1">{{cite journal |last1=Soffel |first1=M |last2=Klioner |first2=S. A |last3=Petit |first3=G |last4=Wolf |first4=P |last5=Kopeikin |first5=S. M |last6=Bretagnon |first6=P |last7=Brumberg |first7=V. A |last8=Capitaine |first8=N |author-link8=Nicole Capitaine |last9=Damour |first9=T |last10=Fukushima |first10=T |last11=Guinot |first11=B |last12=Huang |first12=T.-Y |last13=Lindegren |first13=L |last14=Ma |first14=C |last15=Nordtvedt |first15=K |year=2003 |title=The IAU 2000 Resolutions for Astrometry, Celestial Mechanics, and Metrology in the Relativistic Framework: Explanatory Supplement |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=126 |issue=6 |pages=2687–706 |arxiv=astro-ph/0303376 |bibcode=2003AJ....126.2687S |doi=10.1086/378162 |s2cid=32887246 |last16=Ries |first16=J. C |last17=Seidelmann |first17=P. K |last18=Vokrouhlický |first18=D |last19=Will |first19=C. M |last20=Xu |first20=C}}</ref> and their [[radial velocity|radial velocities]] by [[astronomical spectroscopy]].<ref name="IAUInfBull91_c1">{{cite web|title=Resolution C1 on the Definition of a Spectroscopic "Barycentric Radial-Velocity Measure". Special Issue: Preliminary Program of the XXVth GA in Sydney, July 13–26, 2003 Information Bulletin n° 91. |page=50 |publisher=IAU Secretariat |date=July 2002 |url=https://www.iau.org/static/publications/IB91.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.iau.org/static/publications/IB91.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2017}}</ref>

The 88 constellations recognized by the IAU as well as those by cultures throughout history are imagined figures and shapes derived from the patterns of stars in the observable sky. Many officially recognized constellations are based on the imaginations of ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean mythologies.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://nautil.us/blog/forest-for-the-treeswhy-we-recognize-faces--constellations |title=Forest for the Trees – Why We Recognize Faces & Constellations|date=19 May 2014 |magazine=[[Nautilus Quarterly|Nautilus]] |access-date=3 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rey |first=H. A. |author-link=H. A. Rey |date=1954  |title=The Stars: A New Way to See Them |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing |isbn=978-0547132808}}</ref>{{page needed |date=September 2025}} Some of these stories seem to relate to the appearance of the constellations, e.g. the assassination of [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] by Scorpius, their constellations appearing at opposite times of year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-22 |title=Best Constellations Season-by-Season: Southern Hemisphere |url=https://starwalk.space/en/news/constellations-southern-hemisphere |access-date=2024-06-24 |website=Star Walk |language=en}}</ref>

== Observation ==
[[File:Simple Constellation Map.png|thumb|[[Star chart]] showing the constellations, [[Milky Way]], and [[ecliptic]]]]

Constellation positions change throughout the year due to [[night]] on Earth occurring at gradually different portions of [[Earth's orbit|its&nbsp;orbit]] around the Sun. As [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotates]] toward the east, the [[celestial sphere]] appears to rotate west, with stars circling counterclockwise around the northern [[pole star]] and clockwise around the southern pole star.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dyer |first=Alan |date=2016-08-19 |title=The Moving Stars of the Southern Hemisphere |url=https://amazingsky.net/2016/08/19/the-moving-stars-of-the-southern-hemisphere/ |access-date=2024-06-24 |website=The Amazing Sky |language=en}}</ref>

Because of Earth's 23.5° [[axial tilt]], the zodiac is distributed equally across hemispheres (along the ecliptic), approximating a [[great circle]]. Zodiacal constellations of the northern sky are [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]], [[Aries (constellation)|Aries]], [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]], [[Gemini (constellation)|Gemini]], [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]], and [[Leo (constellation)|Leo]]. In the southern sky are [[Virgo (constellation)|Virgo]], [[Libra (constellation)|Libra]], [[Scorpius]], [[Sagittarius (constellation)|Sagittarius]], [[Capricornus]], and [[Aquarius (constellation)|Aquarius]].<ref name=":0" />{{efn|[[Astrological sign]]s correspond to the period of a constellation's ''invisibility'' due to the Sun's transit.}} The zodiac appears directly overhead from latitudes of 23.5°&nbsp;north to 23.5°&nbsp;south, depending on the time of year. In summer, the ecliptic appears higher up in the daytime and lower at night, while in winter the reverse is true, for both hemispheres.

Due to the [[Solar System]]'s 60° tilt, the [[galactic plane]] of the [[Milky Way]] is inclined 60° from the ecliptic,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sutter |first=Paul M. |date=2020-10-09 |title=The Solar System has a second plane where objects orbit the Sun |url=https://www.universetoday.com/148178/the-solar-system-has-a-second-plane-where-objects-orbit-the-sun/ |access-date=2024-07-05 |website=Universe Today |language=en-US}}</ref> between Taurus and Gemini (north) and Scorpius and Sagittarius (south and near which the [[Galactic Center]] can be found).<ref name=":0" /> The galaxy appears to pass through [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] (near the celestial equator) and northern constellations [[Cygnus (constellation)|Cygnus]], [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]], [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] (near [[Betelgeuse]]), as well as [[Monoceros]] (near the celestial equator), and southern constellations [[Puppis]], [[Vela (constellation)|Vela]], [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]], [[Crux]], [[Centaurus]], [[Triangulum Australe]], and [[Ara (constellation)|Ara]].<ref name=":0" />

===Northern hemisphere===
{{Main|Northern celestial hemisphere}}
[[Polaris]], being the North Star, is the approximate center of the northern celestial hemisphere. It is part of [[Ursa Minor]], constituting the end of the [[Little Dipper|Little Dipper's]] handle.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chartrand |first=Mark R. |url=https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyfi00char/page/134/mode/2up |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to the Night Sky |date=1991 |publisher=A.&nbsp;A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-679-73354-6 |location=New York |pages=134-162, 405-420}}</ref> 

From latitudes of around 35° north, in January, [[Ursa Major]] (containing the [[Big Dipper]]) appears to the northeast, while Cassiopeia is the northwest. To the west are Pisces (above the horizon) and Aries. To the southwest [[Cetus (constellation)|Cetus]] is near the horizon. Up high and to the south are Orion and Taurus. To the southeast above the horizon is [[Canis Major]]. Appearing above and to the east of Orion is [[Gemini (constellation)|Gemini]]: also in the east (and progressively closer to the horizon) are Cancer and Leo. In addition to Taurus, Perseus and Auriga appear overhead.<ref name=":0" />

From the same latitude, in July, Cassiopeia (low in the sky) and [[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]] appear to the northeast. Ursa Major is now in the northwest. [[Boötes]] is high up in the west. Virgo is to the west, with Libra southwest and Scorpius south. Sagittarius and Capricorn are southeast. Cygnus (containing the [[Northern Cross (asterism)|Northern Cross]]) is to the east. [[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]] is high in the sky along with [[Corona Borealis]].<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Pole01-eng.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Southern Cross in [[Crux]] and the 'Southern Pointers' of [[Centaurus]] can be used to find the southern pole star, [[Sigma Octantis]].]]

===Southern hemisphere===
{{Main|Southern celestial hemisphere}}

January constellations include [[Pictor]] and [[Reticulum]] (near [[Hydrus]] and Mensa, respectively).<ref>{{Cite web |title=January Constellations |url=https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellations-by-month/january-constellations/ |access-date=2024-06-24 |website=Constellation Guide}}</ref>

In July, Ara (adjacent to Triangulum Australe) and Scorpius can be seen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=July Constellations |url=https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellations-by-month/july-constellations/ |access-date=2024-06-24 |website=Constellation Guide}}</ref>

Constellations near the pole star include [[Chamaeleon]], [[Apus]] and Triangulum Australe (near Centaurus), [[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]], Hydrus, and [[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]].

[[Sigma Octantis]] is the closest star approximating a southern pole star, but is faint in the night sky. Thus, the pole can be triangulated using the constellation Crux as well as the stars [[Alpha Centauri|Alpha]] and [[Beta Centauri]] (about 30° counterclockwise from Crux) of the constellation Centaurus (arching over Crux).<ref name=":0" />

== History of the early constellations ==

=== Lascaux Caves, southern France ===
It has been suggested that the 17,000-year-old [[cave painting]]s in [[Lascaux]], southern France, depict star constellations such as Taurus, [[Orion's Belt]], and the [[Pleiades]]. However, this view is not generally accepted among scientists.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1997ascu.conf..217R |title=The Pleiades in the "Salle des Taureaux", grotte de Lascaux. Does a rock picture in the cave of Lascaux show the open star cluster of the Pleiades at the Magdalénien era (ca 15.300 BC?" |journal=Astronomy and Culture |page=217 |last1=Rappenglück |first1=M. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cunningham|first1=D.|title=The Oldest Maps of the World: Deciphering the Hand Paintings of Cueva de El Castillo Cave in Spain and Lascaux in France|date=2011|journal=Midnight Science|volume=4|page=3}}</ref>

=== Mesopotamia ===
Inscribed stones and [[Clay tablet|clay writing tablets]] from [[Mesopotamia]] (in modern [[Iraq]]) dating to 3000&nbsp;BC provide the earliest generally accepted evidence for humankind's identification of constellations.<ref name= Rogers>{{cite journal|bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R|title=Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions|journal=Journal of the British Astronomical Association|volume=108|page=9|last1=Rogers|first1=J. H|year=1998}}</ref> It seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a relatively short interval from around 1300 to 1000&nbsp;BC. Mesopotamian constellations appeared later in many of the classical Greek constellations.<ref name="Greek Constellations 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Schaefer|first1=Bradley E.|author-link=Bradley E. Schaefer|title=The Origin of the Greek Constellations|journal=Scientific American|date=2006|volume=295|issue=5|pages=96–101|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1106-96|pmid=17076089|bibcode = 2006SciAm.295e..96S }}</ref>

=== Ancient Near East ===
{{See also|Old Babylonian astronomy}}
[[File:Babylonian tablet recording Halley's comet.jpg|thumb|upright| Babylonian tablet recording [[Halley's Comet]] in 164&nbsp;BC]]

The oldest [[Babylonian star catalogues|Babylonian catalogues]] of stars and constellations date back to the beginning of the [[Middle Bronze Age]], most notably the ''Three Stars Each'' texts and the ''[[MUL.APIN]]'', an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000&nbsp;BC. However, the numerous [[Sumerian language|Sumerian names]] in these catalogues suggest that they built on older, but otherwise unattested, [[Sumer]]ian traditions of the [[Early Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://members.westnet.com.au/Gary-David-Thompson/page11-4.html |title=History of the Constellations and Star Names – D.4: Sumerian constellations and star names? |work=Gary D. Thompson |date=21 April 2015 |access-date=30 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907050519/http://members.westnet.com.au/Gary-David-Thompson/page11-4.html |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The classical Zodiac is a revision of [[Neo-Babylonian]] constellations from the 6th century BC. The Greeks adopted the Babylonian constellations in the 4th century BC. Twenty Ptolemaic constellations are from the Ancient Near East. Another ten have the same stars but different names.<ref name="Greek Constellations 2007" />

Biblical scholar [[E. W. Bullinger]] interpreted some of the creatures mentioned in the books of [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] as the middle signs of the four-quarters of the Zodiac,<ref>{{cite book|author=E. William Bullinger|title=The Witness of the Stars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zxb1CQAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=eKitap Projesi|isbn=978-963-527-403-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Dennis James Kennedy|title=The Real Meaning of the Zodiac|date=June 1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLy-IAAACAAJ|publisher=Coral Ridge Ministries Media, Inc.|isbn=978-1-929626-14-4}}</ref> with the Lion as [[Leo (astrology)|Leo]], the Bull as [[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]], the Man representing [[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]], and the Eagle standing in for [[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]].<ref name="Allen1899">{{cite book|author=Richard H. Allen|title=Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWDsybJzz7IC|date=2013|publisher=Courier Corp.|isbn=((978-0-486-13766-7))}}</ref> The biblical [[Book of Job]] also makes reference to a number of constellations, including {{lang|he|עיש |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|‘Ayish}} "bier", {{lang|he| כסיל |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|chesil}} "fool" and {{lang|he| כימה |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|chimah}} "heap" (Job 9:9, 38:31–32), rendered as "Arcturus, Orion and Pleiades" by the [[KJV]], but ''‘Ayish'' "the bier" actually corresponding to Ursa Major.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001|title=H5906 - ʿayiš - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV)|website=Blue Letter Bible}}</ref> The term ''[[Mazzaroth]]'' {{lang|he|מַזָּרוֹת|rtl=yes}}, translated as ''a garland of crowns'', is a ''[[hapax legomenon]]'' in Job 38:32, and it might refer to the zodiacal constellations.

=== Classical antiquity ===
{{See also||Egyptian astronomy|Ancient Greek astronomy}}
[[File:Astronomical Ceiling, Tomb of Senenmut MET DT207429.jpg|upright|thumb|Egyptian star chart and decanal clock, from the ceiling of [[Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb|Senenmut's tomb]], {{Circa|1473 BC}}]]

There is only limited information on ancient Greek constellations, with some fragmentary evidence being found in the ''[[Works and Days]]'' of the Greek poet [[Hesiod]], who mentioned the "heavenly bodies".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Stars and Constellations in Homer and Hesiod |journal=The Annual of the British School at Athens |volume=46 |pages=86–101 |date=1951|doi=10.1017/S0068245400018359 |last1=Lorimer |first1=H. L. |s2cid=192976174 }}</ref> Greek astronomy essentially adopted the older Babylonian system in the [[Hellenistic era]],{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} first introduced to Greece by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] in the 4th century BC. The original work of Eudoxus is lost, but it survives as a versification by [[Aratus]], dating to the 3rd century BC. The most complete existing works dealing with the mythical origins of the constellations are by the Hellenistic writer termed [[pseudo-Eratosthenes]] and an early Roman writer styled pseudo-[[De astronomia|Hyginus]]. The basis of Western astronomy as taught during [[Late Antiquity]] and until the [[Early Modern period]] is the ''[[Almagest]]'' by [[Ptolemy]], written in the 2nd century.

In the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]], [[Egyptian astronomy|native Egyptian]] tradition of anthropomorphic figures represented the planets, stars, and various constellations.<ref name="Marshall Clagett 1995, p. 111">{{cite book|author=Marshall Clagett|title=Ancient Egyptian Science: Calendars, clocks, and astronomy|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8c10QYoGa4UC|year=1989|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-0-87169-214-6}}</ref> Some of these were combined with Greek and Babylonian astronomical systems culminating in the [[Dendera zodiac|Zodiac of Dendera]], the oldest known depiction of the zodiac showing all the now familiar constellations, along with some original Egyptian constellations, [[decans]], and [[planets]].<ref name="Rogers" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Denderah|title=Zodiac of Dendera, epitome. (Exhib., Leic. square)|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xznqw5EkOCMC |year=1825}}</ref> It remains unclear when this occurred, but most were placed during the Roman period between 2nd to 4th centuries AD. Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' remained the standard definition of constellations in the medieval period both in Europe and in [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic astronomy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/startales1b.html#ptolemy |title=Star Tales – Ptolemy |author=Ian Ridpath |access-date=3 November 2025}}</ref>

=== Ancient China ===
{{further|Chinese constellations|Chinese astronomy}}
[[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|thumb|right|[[Chinese star map]] with a cylindrical projection ([[Su Song]])]]

[[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]] had a long tradition of observing celestial phenomena.<ref>{{cite book|last =Needham|first = Joseph|volume = 3|page = 171|series=Science and Civilisation in China|title = Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 1959|isbn =978-0521058018|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC&pg=PA171}}</ref> Nonspecific [[Chinese star names]], later categorized in the [[Twenty-Eight Mansions]], have been found on [[oracle bones]] from [[Anyang]], dating back to the middle [[Shang dynasty]]. [[Chinese constellations]] are among the most significant observations of the Chinese sky, dating back to the [[5th century BCE]]. The Chinese system developed independently from the Greco-Roman system, although there may have been earlier mutual influence, suggested by parallels to ancient [[Babylonian astronomy]].<ref name=sun>{{cite book|author1=Xiaochun Sun|author2=Jacob Kistemaker|title=The Chinese Sky During the Han: Constellating Stars and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87lvBoFi8A0C |year=1997|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10737-3}}</ref>

Three schools of classical [[Chinese astronomy]] in the [[Han period]] are attributed to astronomers of the earlier [[Warring States period]]. The constellations of the three schools were conflated into a single system by [[Chen Zhuo]], an astronomer of the 3rd century, the [[Three Kingdoms]] period. Chen Zhuo's work has been lost, but information on his system of constellations survives in [[Tang dynasty]] records, notably by [[Gautama Siddha]] in his ''Nine Seizers Canon'' ({{zh|c=九執曆|p=Jiǔzhí-lì}}), an [[Indians in China|Indo-Chinese]] resident of [[Chang'an]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mak |first1=Bill M. |title=Plurilingualism in Traditional Eurasian Scholarship |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-52725-6 |page=352 |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004527256_031 |language=en |chapter=An 8th-Century CE Indian Astronomical Treatise in Chinese: The Nine Seizers Canon by Qutan Xida |doi=10.1163/9789004527256_031 }}</ref> The oldest extant Chinese star chart dates to that period and was preserved as part of the [[Dunhuang manuscripts]]. Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the [[Song dynasty]], and during the [[Yuan dynasty]] and the subsequent Ming dynasty became increasingly influenced by other eastern and western astronomers of the medieval era: see ''[[Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era]]''.<ref name=sun/> As maps were prepared during this period on more scientific lines, they were considered as more reliable.<ref name="Selin2008">{{cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine Elise|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA2022|date= 2008|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|page=2022}}</ref>

A well-known map from the Song period is the [[Chinese star maps|Suzhou Astronomical Chart]], which was prepared with carvings of stars on the [[planisphere]] of the Chinese sky on a stone plate; it is done accurately based on observations, and it shows the [[SN 1054|1054 supernova]] in Taurus.<ref name="Selin2008"/>

Influenced by European astronomy during the late [[Ming dynasty]], charts depicted more stars but retained the traditional constellations. Newly observed stars were incorporated as supplementary to old constellations in the southern sky, which did not depict the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers. Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming dynasty by [[Xu Guangqi]] and [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]], the German Jesuit and were recorded in [[Chongzhen calendar|Chongzhen Lishu]] (Calendrical Treatise of [[Chongzhen Emperor|Chongzhen period]], 1628).{{clarify|date=September 2018}} Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of Western star charts; with this improvement, the Chinese sky was integrated with world astronomy.<ref name="Selin2008"/><ref>{{cite book | last=Sun | first =Xiaochun | editor=Helaine Selin | editor-link=Helaine Selin | title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures | date=1997 | pages=910 | publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers | isbn=978-0-7923-4066-9}}</ref>

==Early modern astronomy==
Historically, the origins of the constellations of the northern and southern skies are distinctly different. Most northern constellations date to antiquity, with names based mostly on Classical Greek legends.<ref name="Norton14th">{{cite book |last=Norton |first=Arthur P. |title=Norton's Star Atlas |title-link=Norton's Star Atlas |year=1959 |page=1}}</ref> Evidence of these constellations has survived in the form of [[star charts]], whose oldest representation appears on the statue known as the [[Farnese Atlas]], based perhaps on the star catalogue of the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]].<ref name="Bradley2005">{{cite journal
|last=Schaefer | first=Bradley E.
|title=The epoch of the constellations on the Farnese Atlas and their origin in Hipparchus's lost catalogue
|journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy
|volume=36/2 | issue=123 | pages=167–19
|date=May 2005 | bibcode=2005JHA....36..167S |doi=10.1177/002182860503600202 | s2cid=15431718
|url=http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/JHAFarneseProofs.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/JHAFarneseProofs.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> Southern constellations are more modern inventions, sometimes as substitutes for ancient constellations (e.g. [[Argo Navis]]). Some southern constellations had long names that were shortened to more usable forms; e.g. Musca Australis became simply Musca.<ref name="Norton14th" />

Some of the early constellations were never universally adopted. Stars were often grouped into constellations differently by different observers, and the arbitrary constellation boundaries often led to confusion as to which constellation a celestial object belonged. Before astronomers delineated precise boundaries (starting in the 19th century), constellations generally appeared as ill-defined regions of the sky.<ref name="Norton2nd">{{cite book |last=Norton |first=Arthur P. |title=Norton's Star Atlas |title-link=Norton's Star Atlas |year=1919 |page=1}}</ref> Today they now follow officially accepted designated lines of [[right ascension]] and [[declination]] based on those defined by [[Benjamin Apthorp Gould|Benjamin Gould]] in [[Equinox (celestial coordinates)|Equinox]] B1875.0 in his star catalogue ''Uranometria Argentina''.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.optcorp.com/edu/articleDetailEDU.aspx?aid=2195
|title=Astronomical Epoch
|access-date=16 July 2010
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724193348/http://www.optcorp.com/edu/articleDetailEDU.aspx?aid=2195
|archive-date=24 July 2011 }}</ref>

The 1603 star atlas "[[Uranometria]]" of [[Johann Bayer]] assigned stars to individual constellations and formalized the division by assigning a series of Greek and Latin letters to the stars within each constellation. These are known today as [[Bayer designation]]s.<ref name="Swerdlow1986">{{cite journal |last=Swerdlow |first=N. M. |date=August 1986 |title=A Star Catalogue Used by Johannes Bayer |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=189–97 |bibcode=1986JHA....17..189S |doi=10.1177/002182868601700304 |s2cid=118829690}}</ref> Subsequent star atlases led to the development of today's accepted modern constellations.

===Origin of the southern constellations===
{{See also|Uranometria|Harmonia Macrocosmica|Former constellations}}
[[Image:Southern Celestial Map of Mestre João Faras.gif|thumb|right|Sketch of the southern celestial sky by Portuguese astronomer [[João Faras]] (1 May 1500)]]
[[File:Planisphæri cœleste.jpg|thumb|A [[celestial chart|celestial map]] from the [[Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography]], by the Dutch cartographer [[Frederik de Wit]]]]

The southern sky, below about −65° [[declination]], was only partially catalogued by ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese, and Persian astronomers of the north. The knowledge that northern and southern star patterns differed goes back to Classical writers, who describe, for example, the [[Exploration of Africa|African circumnavigation]] expedition commissioned by Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II in c.&nbsp;600&nbsp;BC and those of [[Hanno the Navigator]] in c.&nbsp;500&nbsp;BC.

The history of southern constellations is not straightforward. Different groupings and different names were proposed by various observers, some reflecting national traditions or designed to promote various sponsors. Southern constellations were important from the 14th to 16th centuries, when sailors used the stars for [[celestial navigation]]. Italian explorers who recorded new southern constellations include [[Andrea Corsali]], [[Antonio Pigafetta]], and [[Amerigo Vespucci]].<ref name="Allen1899" />

Many of the 88 IAU-recognized constellations in this region first appeared on celestial globes developed in the late 16th century by [[Petrus Plancius]], based mainly on observations of the Dutch navigators [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hogg |first=Helen Sawyer |author-link=Helen Sawyer Hogg |date=1951 |title=Out of Old Books (Pieter Dircksz Keijser, Delineator of the Southern Constellations) |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada |volume=45 |page=215 |bibcode=1951JRASC..45..215S}}</ref> and [[Frederick de Houtman]].<ref>Knobel, E. B. (1917). ''On Frederick de Houtman's Catalogue of Southern Stars, and the Origin of the Southern Constellations''. (''[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]'', Vol. 77, pp.&nbsp; 414–32)</ref><ref>[[Elly Dekker|Dekker, Elly]] (1987). ''Early Explorations of the Southern Celestial Sky''. (''Annals of Science'' 44, pp.&nbsp; 439–70)</ref><ref>[[Elly Dekker|Dekker, Elly]] (1987). ''On the Dispersal of Knowledge of the Southern Celestial Sky''. (''Der Globusfreund'', 35–37, pp.&nbsp; 211–30)</ref><ref>Verbunt, Frank; van Gent, Robert H. (2011). ''Early Star Catalogues of the Southern Sky: De Houtman, Kepler (Second and Third Classes), and Halley''. (''Astronomy & Astrophysics'' 530)</ref> These became widely known through [[Johann Bayer]]'s [[star atlas]] ''[[Uranometria]]'' of 1603.<ref>{{cite web|work = Star Tales
|url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/bayer-southern.html
|title=Johann Bayer's southern star chart
|author=Ian Ridpath}}</ref> [[:Category:Constellations listed by Lacaille|Fourteen]] more were created in 1763 by the French astronomer [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]], who also split the ancient constellation Argo Navis into three; these new figures appeared in his star catalogue, published in 1756.<ref>{{cite web |work = Star Tales
|url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/lacaille.html
|title=Lacaille's southern planisphere of 1756
|author=Ian Ridpath}}</ref>

Several modern proposals have not survived. The French astronomers [[Pierre Lemonnier (physicist)|Pierre Lemonnier]] and [[Joseph Lalande]], for example, proposed constellations that were once popular but have since been dropped. The northern constellation [[Quadrans Muralis]] survived into the 19th century (when its name was attached to the [[Quadrantid]] meteor shower), but is now divided between [[Boötes]] and [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]].

===88 modern constellations===
{{Main|IAU designated constellations}}

A list of 88 constellations was produced for the IAU in 1922.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Star Tales: The final 88 |first=Ian |last=Ridpath |year=2018|url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/startales1d.html#delporte}}</ref> It is roughly based on the traditional Greek constellations listed by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'' in the 2nd century and [[Aratus]]' work ''Phenomena'', with early modern modifications and additions (most importantly introducing constellations covering the parts of the southern sky unknown to Ptolemy) by Petrus Plancius (1592, 1597/98 and 1613), [[Johannes Hevelius]] (1690) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1763),<ref name="iau-const">{{cite web |title=The Constellations |url=https://iauarchive.eso.org/public/themes/constellations/ |publisher=IAU – [[International Astronomical Union]] |access-date=29 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/constellations1.html |title=Constellation names, abbreviations and sizes |author=Ian Ridpath |access-date= 30 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/almagest.html |title=Star Tales – The Almagest |author=Ian Ridpath |access-date=30 August 2015}}</ref> who introduced fourteen new constellations.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/startales1d.html#lacaille |title=Nicolas Louis de Lacaille at the Cape|author=Ian Ridpath |access-date=4 July 2022}}</ref> Lacaille studied the stars of the southern hemisphere from 1751 until 1752 from the [[Cape of Good Hope]], when he was said to have observed more than 10,000 stars using a [[refracting telescope]] with an aperture of {{convert |0.5|in|mm}}.

In 1922, [[Henry Norris Russell]] produced a list of 88 constellations with three-letter abbreviations for them.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/iaulist1.html| title = The original names and abbreviations for constellations from 1922| access-date = 31 January 2010}}</ref> However, these constellations did not have clear borders between them. In 1928, the IAU formally accepted the 88 modern constellations, with contiguous boundaries<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/boundaries.html| title = Constellation boundaries. | access-date = 24 May 2011}}</ref> along vertical and horizontal lines of [[right ascension]] and [[declination]] developed by [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugene Delporte]] that, together, cover the entire celestial sphere;{{sfn |Ridpath |2018 |p=[http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/startales1d.html#delporte 4]}}<ref name="Lachièze-ReyLuminet2001">{{cite book |last1=Lachièze-Rey |first1=Marc |last2=Luminet |first2=Jean-Pierre |year=2001 |title=Celestial Treasury: From the Music of the Spheres to the Conquest of Space |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZFXiNn62ZEC&pg=PA80 |location=Paris, France |publisher=Cambridge University Press, Bibliothèque Nationale de France |page=80 |isbn=978-0-521-80040-2}}</ref> this list was finally published in 1930.<ref name="IAU1928"/> Where possible, these modern constellations usually share the names of their Graeco-Roman predecessors, such as Orion, Leo, or Scorpius. The aim of this system is area-mapping, i.e. the division of the celestial sphere into contiguous fields.<ref name="iau-const" /> Out of the 88 modern constellations, 36 lie predominantly in the northern sky, and the other 52 predominantly in the southern.

{{wide image|constellations,_equirectangular_plot.svg|500px|{{center|Equirectangular plot of the 88 [[IAU designated constellations]], those of the zodiac outlined}} }}

The boundaries developed by Delporte used data that originated back to epoch [[epoch (astronomy)#Besselian years|B1875.0]], which was when [[Benjamin A. Gould]] first made his proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere,<ref>{{cite web|work = Star Tales
|url= http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/gould.html
|title=Benjamin Apthorp Gould and the ''Uranometria Argentina''
|author=Ian Ridpath}}</ref> a suggestion on which Delporte based his work. The consequence of this early date is that because of the [[precession (astronomy)|precession]] of the [[equinox]]es, the borders on a modern star map, such as epoch [[J2000]], are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal.<ref>A.C. Davenhall & S.K. Leggett, [http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/ftp/cats/VI/49/constell.pdf "A Catalogue of Constellation Boundary Data"], (Centre de Donneés astronomiques de Strasbourg, February 1990).</ref> This effect will increase over the years and centuries to come.

===Symbols===
{{main|Astronomical symbol#Zodiac and other constellations}}
The constellations have no official symbols, though those of the ecliptic may take the signs of the zodiac.<ref>For example, in the ''Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris for the year 1833'' (Board of Admiralty, London)</ref> Symbols for the other modern constellations, as well as older ones that still occur in modern nomenclature, have occasionally been published.<ref>Peter Grego (2012) ''The Star Book: Stargazing Throughout the Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere''. F+W Media.</ref><ref name=constellations>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2024/24235-constellation-symbols.pdf |title=Preliminary presentation of constellation symbols |last=Miller |first=Kirk |date=18 October 2024 |website=unicode.org |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |access-date=22 October 2024 |quote=}}</ref>

== Dark cloud constellations ==
{{further|Great Rift (astronomy)|Molecular cloud#List of molecular cloud complexes}}

[[File:Milkyway360-hemispheres-32k m14-g1 Clouds.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|The Milky Way as seen from Earth, with prominent dark features labeled in white, as well as prominent [[star cloud]]s labeled in black. Below center left are the Large and Small [[Magellanic Clouds]]. The star-like objects are [[globular cluster]]s of the Milky Way.]]

The Great Rift, a series of dark patches in the Milky Way, is most visible in the southern sky.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rao|first1=Joe|title=A Great Week to See the Milky Way|date=11 September 2009|url=http://www.space.com/7270-great-week-milky.html|publisher=Space|access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref> Some cultures have discerned shapes in these patches. Members of the [[Inca]] civilization identified various dark areas or [[dark nebula]]e in the Milky Way as animals and associated their appearance with the seasonal rains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronomy.pomona.edu/archeo/andes/inca.nightsky.html|title=Night sky|website=Astronomy.pomona.edu|access-date=12 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216041003/http://www.astronomy.pomona.edu/archeo/andes/inca.nightsky.html|archive-date=16 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dearborn |first1=D.S.P. |last2=White |first2=R.E. |title=The 'Torreon' of Machu Picchu as an Observatory |journal=Archaeoastronomy |volume=14 |date=1983 |issue= 5|page=S37 |bibcode=1983JHAS...14...37D }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Krupp |first1=Edwin |title=Echoes of the Ancient Skies |date=1994 |publisher=Dover Publications, Inc. |location=Mineola |isbn=978-0486428826 |pages=47–51}}</ref> [[Australian Aboriginal astronomy]] also describes dark cloud constellations, the most famous being the "emu in the sky" whose head is formed by the [[Coalsack]], a dark nebula, instead of the stars.<ref name="Bordeleau2013">{{cite book|last=Bordeleau|first=André G. |title=Flags of the Night Sky: When Astronomy Meets National Pride|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4614-0929-8|pages=124–}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Emu public.jpg|The ''[[Emu]] in the sky'' – a constellation defined by dark clouds rather than by stars. The head of the emu is the Coalsack with Crux directly above. Scorpius is to the left.
File:Coricancha museum marker graphically explaining the Inca astronomical system.jpg|Inca dark cloud constellations in the Mayu (Celestial River), or the Milky Way; Crux is above Yutu, while the eyes of the Llama are [[Alpha Centauri|Alpha]] and [[Beta Centauri]].
</gallery>

===List of dark cloud constellations===
[[File:Celestial map, signs of the Zodiac and lunar mansions..JPG|thumb|Ottoman period cosmographical map, with spheres of the planets, signs of the Zodiac and lunar mansions (''[[Zubdat al-Tawarikh]]'')]]
* [[Great Rift (astronomy)]]
** [[Cygnus (constellation)#Dark cloud constellation|Cygnus Rift]]
** [[Serpens–Aquila Rift]]
** [[Dark Horse (astronomy)]]
** [[Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex]]
** [[Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy#Emu_in_the_sky|Emu in the sky]]

==See also==
* [[Celestial cartography]]
* [[Constellation family]]
* [[Former constellations]]
* [[Lists of stars by constellation]]
* [[:Category:Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius|Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius]]
* [[:Category:Constellations listed by Lacaille|Constellations listed by Lacaille]]
* [[:Category:Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius|Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius]]
* [[:Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy|Constellations listed by Ptolemy]]

== References ==
'''Footnotes'''
{{notelist}}

'''Citations'''
<references>
<ref name=steele1884>
{{Citation
 | first1=Joel Dorman
 | last1=Steele
 | title=The story of the stars: New descriptive astronomy
 | series=Science series | publisher=American Book Company
 | date=1884 | page=220
 | url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001987867
}}</ref>

<ref name=harbord_goodwin1897>
{{Cite book
 | first1=John Bradley
 | last1=Harbord | first2=H. B. | last2=Goodwin
 | title=Glossary of navigation: a vade mecum for practical navigators
 | url=https://archive.org/stream/glossarynavigat00goodgoog#page/n176/mode/1up
 | edition=3rd
 | publisher=Griffin
 | location=Portsmouth
 | date=1897
 | page=142
}}</ref>
</references> <!-- end of refs -->

== Further reading ==
=== Mythology, lore, history, and archaeoastronomy ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Richard Hinckley Allen|Allen, Richard Hinckley]]. (1899) ''Star-Names And Their Meanings'', G. E. Stechert, New York, hardcover; reprint 1963 as ''Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning'', Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, NY, {{ISBN|978-0-486-21079-7}} softcover.
* [[William Tyler Olcott|Olcott, William Tyler]]. (1911); ''Star Lore of All Ages'', [[G. P. Putnam's Sons]], New York, hardcover; reprint 2004 as ''Star Lore: Myths, Legends, and Facts'', Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, NY, {{ISBN|978-0-486-43581-7}} softcover.
* Kelley, David H. and Milone, Eugene F. (2004) ''Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy'', Springer, {{ISBN|978-0-387-95310-6}} hardcover.
* [[Ian Ridpath|Ridpath, Ian]]. (2018) ''Star Tales'' 2nd ed., Lutterworth Press, {{ISBN|978-0-718-89478-8}} softcover.
* Staal, Julius D. W. (1988) ''The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars'', McDonald & Woodward Publishing Co., {{ISBN|0-939923-10-6}} hardcover, {{ISBN|0-939923-04-1}} softcover.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = John H. | year = 1998 | title = Origins of the Ancient Constellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions | journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume = 108 | pages = 9–28 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = John H. | year = 1998 | title = Origins of the Ancient Constellations: II. The Mediterranean Traditions | journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume = 108 | pages = 79–89 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108...79R}}
{{refend}}
=== Atlases and celestial maps ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Antonin Becvar|Becvar, Antonin]]. ''Atlas Coeli''. Published as ''Atlas of the Heavens'', Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, with coordinate grid transparency overlay.
* Becvar, Antonin. (1962) ''Atlas Borealis 1950.0'', Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czechoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler. 2nd Edition 1972 and 1978 reprint, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czechoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, {{ISBN|0-933346-01-8}} oversize folio softcover spiral-bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler.
* [[National Geographic Society]]. (1957, 1970, 2001, 2007) ''The Heavens'' (1970), Cartographic Division of the National Geographic Society (NGS), Washington, DC, two-sided large map chart depicting the constellations of the heavens; as a special supplement to the August 1970 issue of ''[[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic]]''. Forerunner map as ''A Map of The Heavens'', as a special supplement to the December 1957 issue. Current version 2001 (Tirion), with 2007 reprint.
* Norton, Arthur Philip. (1910) ''[[Norton's Star Atlas]]'', 20th Edition 2003 as ''Norton's Star Atlas and Reference Handbook'', edited by [[Ian Ridpath|Ridpath, Ian]], Pi Press, {{ISBN|978-0-13-145164-3}}, hardcover.
* Sinnott, Roger W. and Perryman, Michael A.C. (1997) ''[[Millennium Star Atlas]]'', Epoch 2000.0, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA, and European Space Agency (ESA), ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands. Subtitle: "An All-Sky Atlas Comprising One Million Stars to Visual Magnitude Eleven from the Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues and Ten Thousand Nonstellar Objects". 3 volumes, hardcover, {{ISBN|0-933346-84-0}}. Vol. 1, 0–8 Hours (Right Ascension), {{ISBN|0-933346-81-6}} hardcover; Vol. 2, 8–16 Hours, {{ISBN|0-933346-82-4}} hardcover; Vol. 3, 16–24 Hours, {{ISBN|0-933346-83-2}} hardcover. Softcover version available. Supplemental separate purchasable coordinate grid transparent overlays.
* [[Wil Tirion|Tirion, Wil]]; et al. (1987) ''Uranometria 2000.0'', Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, VA, 3 volumes, hardcover. Vol. 1 (1987): "The Northern Hemisphere to −6°", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and George Lovi, {{ISBN|0-943396-14-X}} hardcover, printed boards. Vol. 2 (1988): "The Southern Hemisphere to +6°", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport and George Lovi, {{ISBN|0-943396-15-8}} hardcover, printed boards. Vol. 3 (1993) as a separate added work: ''The Deep Sky Field Guide to Uranometria 2000.0'', by Murray Cragin, James Lucyk, and Barry Rappaport, {{ISBN|0-943396-38-7}} hardcover, printed boards. 2nd Edition 2001 as collective set of 3 volumes – Vol. 1: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas'', by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, {{ISBN|978-0-943396-71-2}} hardcover, printed boards; Vol. 2: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas'', by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, {{ISBN|978-0-943396-72-9}} hardcover, printed boards; Vol. 3: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Field Guide'' by Murray Cragin and Emil Bonanno, {{ISBN|978-0-943396-73-6}}, hardcover, printed boards.
* [[Wil Tirion|Tirion, Wil]] and Sinnott, Roger W. (1998) ''Sky Atlas 2000.0'', various editions. 2nd Deluxe Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
{{refend}}
=== Catalogs ===
{{refbegin}}
* Becvar, Antonin. (1959) ''Atlas Coeli II Katalog 1950.0'', Praha, 1960 Prague. Published 1964 as ''Atlas of the Heavens – II Catalogue 1950.0'', Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, MA
* Hirshfeld, Alan and Sinnott, Roger W. (1982) ''Sky Catalogue 2000.0'', Cambridge University Press and Sky Publishing Corporation, 1st Edition, 2 volumes. {{LCCN|81017975}} both vols., and {{LCCN|83240310}} vol. 1. "Volume 1: Stars to Magnitude 8.0", {{ISBN|0-521-24710-1}} (Cambridge) and {{ISBN|0-933346-35-2}} hardcover, {{ISBN|0-933346-34-4}} softcover. Vol. 2 (1985) – "Volume 2: Double Stars, Variable Stars, and Nonstellar Objects", {{ISBN|0-521-25818-9}} (Cambridge) hardcover, {{ISBN|0-521-27721-3}} (Cambridge) softcover. 2nd Edition (1991) with additional third author François Ochsenbein, 2 volumes, {{LCCN|91026764}}. Vol. 1: {{ISBN|0-521-41743-0}} (Cambridge) hardcover; {{ISBN|0-521-42736-3}} (Cambridge) softcover . Vol. 2 (1999): {{ISBN|0-521-27721-3}} (Cambridge) softcover and 0-933346-38-7 softcover – reprint of 1985 edition.
* [[Yale University Observatory]]. (1908, et al.) ''[[Bright Star Catalogue|Catalogue of Bright Stars]]'', New Haven, CN. Referred to commonly as "Bright Star Catalogue". Various editions with various authors historically, the longest term revising author as [[Dorrit Hoffleit|(Ellen) Dorrit Hoffleit]]. 1st Edition 1908. 2nd Edition 1940 by Frank Schlesinger and [[Louise F. Jenkins]]. 3rd Edition (1964), 4th Edition, 5th Edition (1991), and 6th Edition (pending posthumous) by Hoffleit.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links
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* [https://iauarchive.eso.org/public/themes/constellations/ IAU: The Constellations], including high quality maps.
* [http://www.atlascoelestis.com Atlascoelestis], di Felice Stoppa.
* [http://celestia.sourceforge.net Celestia] free 3D realtime space-simulation (OpenGL)
* [http://stellarium.org/ Stellarium] realtime sky rendering program (OpenGL)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050410212059/http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?VI%2F49 Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center Files on official IAU constellation boundaries]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130830160349/http://members.westnet.com.au/Gary-David-Thompson/ Studies of Occidental Constellations and Star Names to the Classical Period: An Annotated Bibliography]
* [http://www.ianridpath.com/constellations1.html Table of IAU Constellations]
* [http://www.theoi.com/Text/HyginusAstronomica.html Online Text: Hyginus, Astronomica translated by Mary Grant] Greco-Roman constellation myths
* [http://www.neave.com/planetarium/ Neave Planetarium] Adobe Flash interactive web browser planetarium and stardome with realistic movement of stars and the planets.
* Audio – Cain/Gay (2009) [http://www.astronomycast.com/2009/10/ep-157-constellations/ Astronomy Cast] Constellations
* [https://solariapublications.com/2015/04/13/the-greek-star-map/ The Greek Star-Map] short essay by Gavin White
* [https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0272270 Bucur D. The network signature of constellation line figures]. PLOS ONE 17(7): e0272270 (2022). A comparative analysis on the structure of constellation line figures across sky cultures.

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{{Zodiac}}
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[[Category:Constellations| ]]
[[Category:Sky regions|Constellations]]
[[Category:Celestial cartography]]
[[Category:History of astronomy|Constellations]]
[[Category:Concepts in astronomy]]